1.
Orthodox Judaism
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Orthodox Judaism includes movements such as Modern Orthodox Judaism and Ultra-Orthodox or Haredi Judaism. As of 2001, Orthodox Jews and Jews affiliated with an Orthodox synagogue accounted for approximately 50% of British Jews,26. 5% of Israeli Jews, among those affiliated to a synagogue body, Orthodox Jews represent 70% of British Jewry, and 27% of American Jewry. Orthodoxy is not one single movement or school of thought, there is no single rabbinical body to which all rabbis are expected to belong, or any one organization representing member congregations. In the 20th century, a segment of the Orthodox population disagreed with Modern Orthodoxy, such rabbis viewed innovations and modifications within Jewish law and customs with extreme care and caution. This form of Judaism may be referred to as Haredi Judaism or Ultra-Orthodox Judaism, several local Jewish papers, including New Yorks Jewish Week and Philadelphias Jewish Exponent have also dropped use of the term. According to Rabbi David Bar-Hayim, the term Orthodox Judaism was coined as a response to the rise of Reform Judaism in early 19th century Germany, some researchers attempted to argue that the importance of daily practice and punctilious adherence to Jewish Law relegated theoretical issues to an ancillary status. Others dismissed this view entirely, citing the many debates in ancient rabbinic sources which castigated various heresies without any reference to observance, however, while lacking a uniform doctrine, Orthodox Judaism is basically united in affirming several core beliefs, disavowal of which is considered major blasphemy. As in other aspects, Orthodox positions reflect the mainstream of traditional Rabbinic Judaism through the ages, attempts to codify these were undertaken by several medieval authorities, including Saadia Gaon and Joseph Albo. Yet the 13 Fundamentals expounded by Maimonides in his Commentary on the Mishnah, but in recent centuries the 13 Principles became standard, and are considered binding and cardinal by Orthodox authorities in a virtually universal manner. More specific doctrines refer to the times of Godly salvation and afterlife – in Judaism, Olam haBa and these include belief in divine reward for those who observe the Lords commandments and likewise, punishment meted unto the transgressors. Maimonides reserved one article for this tenet, oft mentioned in sources, stating merely that God rewards. This issue has been subject to debate and interpretation. Nahmanides offered a comprehensive system, with divine remuneration for better or worse both in this world, via natural means, and in a celestial heaven and hell. One of the most important teachings concerning afterlife in Judaism is the Resurrection of the Dead, the Talmud listed deniers of this faith as heretics who shall have no part in the World to Come. Maimoindes specified it apart as a separate article and this particular notion is closely linked with Reward and Punishment. They will live ordinary, corporeal life but will not die, then all mankind shall be resuscitated and be given each his just due. The eternal reward shall be preserved for their soul, as beforehand, preceding the miraculous events linked with afterlife is the Advent of the Messiah, also independently listed among Maimonides Thirteen as a tenet of faith. Orthodox Judaism maintains the historical understanding of Jewish identity, a Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition
2.
Jerusalem
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Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the City of David was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent, today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger, Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old Citys boundaries. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, the sobriquet of holy city was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Septuagint which Christians adopted as their own authority, was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesuss crucifixion there, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. As a result, despite having an area of only 0, outside the Old City stands the Garden Tomb. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into Jerusalem, one of Israels Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the countrys undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister and President, the international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israels capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies. Jerusalem is also home to some non-governmental Israeli institutions of importance, such as the Hebrew University. In 2011, Jerusalem had a population of 801,000, of which Jews comprised 497,000, Muslims 281,000, a city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem. Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba, the name Jerusalem is variously etymologized to mean foundation of the god Shalem, the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city. The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua, according to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yireh and the town Shalem. The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states, I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, or as other scholars suggest, the mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem
3.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
4.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
5.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
6.
College
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College is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university. In ancient Rome a collegium was a club or society, a group of living together under a common set of rules. Aside from the educational context - nowadays the most common use of college - there are various other meanings also derived from the original Latin term. In the United States, college can be a synonym for university, in Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the sixth form college as the English name for a lycée. In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called colleges or have college as part of their title, in Australia the term college is applied to any private or independent primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school. Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The Kings School, there has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as colleges. In the state of Victoria, some high schools are referred to as secondary colleges. Interestingly, the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School, in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, college is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones. In New South Wales, some schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as secondary colleges. In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled state college, in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, college refers to the final two years of high school, and the institutions which provide this. In this context, college is an independent of the other years of high school. Here, the expression is a version of matriculation college. This is because these schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects. Some private secondary schools choose to use the college in their names nevertheless. Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the school system. In New Zealand the word normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17
7.
Givat Mordechai
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Givat Mordechai, is a Jewish neighborhood in southwest-central Jerusalem, Israel, midway between the neighborhoods of Nayot and Malcha. The neighborhood was named after an American philanthropist, Maxwell Abbell of Chicago, Givat Mordechai was established in 1955 by members of Hapoel Hamizrachi, the forerunner of the National Religious Party, known in Hebrew as Mafdal. Most of the streets are named after leaders of Hapoel Hamizrachi, shahal Street, for example, is a Hebrew acronym for the religious Zionist leader Rabbi Shmuel Chaim Landau. The population is largely modern Orthodox, with some secular Jews, there are many synagogues and educational institutions in Givat Mordechai. The main campus of the Jerusalem College of Technology is located there, the Jerusalem Fire Brigade is headquartered in Givat Mordechai. Ezra Orions outdoor sculpture Stairway is located at the entrance to Givat Mordechai in the Elsie Bernadette Garden and it is widely known as Sulam Yaakov, or Jacobs Ladder, referencing the story in Book of Genesis. The steps face down so as to discourage the unwise from climbing it, Givat Mordechai abuts the Pri-Har valley, a large expanse of open fields that is home to a herd of deer and other wildlife. Plans to build residential towers here triggered an outcry from environmentalists and local residents, instead, the area is slated to become a park and a nature reserve. Rabbi Yehuda Amital, head of Yeshivat Har Etzion Zevulun Orlev, Israeli MK and former minister A view of Givat Mordechai in winter Givat Mordechai Fire Station
8.
Givat Shaul
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Givat Shaul (Hebrew, גבעת שאול, lit. is a neighborhood in western Jerusalem, Israel. The neighborhood is located at the entrance to the city, east of the neighborhood of Har Nof. Givat Shaul stands 820 meters above sea level, Givat Shaul was established in 1906 on land purchased from the Arab villages of Deir Yassin and Lifta by a society headed by Rabbi Nissim Elyashar, Arieh Leib and Moshe Kopel Kantrovitz. Difficulties in registering the land delayed construction until 1919, the first residents were needy families who were given small plots to grow fresh produce that was marketed in Jerusalem. These families, mainly Yemenite Jews, were joined by others from Meah Shearim, the Ashkenazim built the first public building, Beit Knesset HaPerushim. In 1912, an embroidery and sewing workshop was opened with the help of a Jewish philanthropist, in 1927, the Diskin Orphanage moved to Givat Shaul from the Old City. This building, designed by an architect named Tabachnik, was home to 500 orphan boys. According to a census conducted in 1931 by the British Mandate authorities, Givat Shaul had a population of 966 inhabitants, a long, dirt track separated Givat Shaul from a cluster of Arab villages, including Deir Yassin, with whom the Jews maintained good relations. In late 1946, the Haganah straightened and paved the track in order to use it as a landing strip. During the Battle for Jerusalem in 1948, the Haganah flew in supplies, armaments, food, after the war, this road became known as Kanfei Nesharim Street. In return, patrols from Givat Shaul guaranteed safe passage to Deir Yassin residents, in vehicles or on foot, over time, Deir Yassin became a halfway site for Arab forces moving from Ein Karem and Malha to al-Qastal and Kolonia, which overlooked the Jerusalem-Tel Aviv highway. On 9 April 1948, Deir Yassin was attacked by Irgun and Lehi forces, the population that had not fled was expelled. The majority of patients were Holocaust survivors, after 1948, the Givat Shaul industrial zone expanded with factories and warehouses. Angels Bakery moved to its present location here in 1958, the Angel brothers and co-CEOs Avraham, Ovadia, and Danny, commissioned a Texas company to construct a 750-foot pipeline to convey flour directly from the mill to the silo to the bakery. Today this pipeline brings 120 tons of flour to the bakery daily, the invention, initially opposed by the Jerusalem municipality for being above-ground, won the Kaplan Prize for distinction in productivity and efficiency. The bakerys landmark factory store opened in 1984, Bermans Bakery, founded in 1875 by Mrs. Kreshe Berman as a cottage industry in the Old City, moved to its present location down the road from Angels in 1965. A new street, Beit Hadfus Street, was constructed to reach the new bakery and this new street was named Street of the Printing Press for the many printing establishments also located here. These include two large book publishing houses, Keter Publishing House and Feldheim Publishers, which established its Israel branch in the 1960s, Old City Press has operated here since 1969
9.
Ramat Gan
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Ramat Gan is a city in the Tel Aviv District of Israel, located east of Tel Aviv. It is home to one of the major diamond exchanges. Ramat Gan was established in 1921 as a moshava, a farming settlement. The mayor of Ramat Gan is Yisrael Zinger, Ramat Gan was established by the Ir Ganim association in 1921 as a satellite town of Tel Aviv. The first plots of land were purchased between 1914–1918, the settlement was initially a moshava, a Zionist agricultural colony that grew wheat, barley and watermelons. The name of the settlement was changed to Ramat Gan in 1923, the settlement continued to operate as a moshava until 1933, although it achieved local council status in 1926. At this time it had 450 residents, in the 1940s, Ramat Gan became a battleground in the countrys language war, A Yiddish language printing press in Ramat Gan was blown up by Hebrew-language extremists. Over the years, the economy shifted from agriculture to commerce, by 1946, the population had grown to 12,000. In 1950, Ramat Gan was recognized as a city, in 1955, it had a population of 55,000. The first mayor was Avraham Krinitzi who remained in office for 43 years, in 1961, the municipal area of Ramat Gan expanded eastward, to encompass the area that includes the Sheba Medical Center in Tel Hashomer and Bar Ilan University. In 1968, the worlds largest diamond exchange opened in Ramat Gan, the Sheba Medical Center and the Israel Diamond Exchange are located in Ramat Gan. Ramat Gan is located in the Gush Dan metropolitan area east of Tel Aviv and it is bounded in the north by the Yarkon River and in the east by Bnei Brak. Ramat Gan experiences an average of 500 mm of rainfall per year and is located and it is built on limestone hills. Ramat Gan parks include The National Park which covers some 1,900 dunams, 25% of Ramat Gan is covered by public parkland. According to the 1931 census Ramat Gan had 975 inhabitants, in 253 houses, as of 2006, Ramat Gan had 129,700 residents, on an area of 12,000 dunams. The population was growing at a rate of 1. 0% per annum with 90% of this growth coming through natural increase, the population density of the city is 9,822.6 per square kilometer, one of the highest in Israel. In terms of the origin of Ramat Gans residents,42,900 originate from Europe and America,10,200 from Africa,29,200 from Asia, and 40,600 from Israel. 86,200 of the residents of Ramat Gan were born in Israel, according to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, as of 2001, Ramat Gans socioeconomic ranking stood at 8 out of 10
10.
Bachelor's degree
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A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
11.
Torah study
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Torah study is the study of the Torah, Hebrew Bible, Talmud, responsa, rabbinic literature and similar works, all of which are Judaisms religious texts. According to Rabbinic beliefs the study is ideally done for the purpose of the mitzvah of Torah study itself and this practice is present to an extent in all religious branches of Judaism and is considered of paramount importance among religious Jews. Torah study has evolved over the generations, as lifestyles changed, in rabbinic literature, the highest ideal of all Jewish men is Torah study, women being exempt from Torah study. This literature teaches an eagerness for such study and a thirst for knowledge that expands beyond the text of the Tanakh to the entire Oral Torah and this paragraph was incorporated in the daily prayer service. According to R. Meir, when one studies Torah for its own sake the creation of the world is worthwhile for him alone. As the child must satisfy its hunger day by day, so must the grown man busy himself with the Torah each hour, Torah study is of more value than the offering of daily sacrifice. A single day devoted to the Torah outweighs 1,000 sacrifices, the fable of the Fish and the Fox, in which the latter seeks to entice the former to dry land, declares Israel can live only in the Law as fish can live only in the ocean. Whoever learns Torah at night is granted grace during the day, God weeps over one who might have occupied himself with Torah study but neglected to do so. The study must be unselfish, one should study the Torah with self-denial, even at the sacrifice of ones life, all, even lepers and the ritually unclean, are required to study the Torah. It is the duty of everyone to read the weekly portion twice. According to R. Meir, a Gentile who studies the Torah is as great as the High Priest, an even stronger statement is found in the Mishnah where it discusses the social hierarchy of ancient Israel. The High Priest was close to the top of the pyramid. However, the learned bastard takes precedence over the ignorant high priest, according to R. Yehudah, God Himself studies the Torah for the first three hours of every day. Torah study is counted amongst the 613 mitzvot, finding its source in the verse, And you shall teach it to your children, the importance of study is attested to in another Talmudic discussion about which is preferred, study or action. The answer there, a compromise, is study that leads to action. In some traditional circles, most notably the Orthodox and Haredi, women do not study Torah, but gain merit for facilitating Torah study for the men. In some communities, men forgo other occupations and study Torah full-time, Haredi Israelis often choose to devote many years to Torah study, often studying at a Kollel. National Religious Israelis often choose to time after high school to Torah study, either during their army service at a Hesder yeshiva
12.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
13.
High tech
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High technology, often abbreviated to high tech is technology that is at the cutting edge, the most advanced technology available. As of the onset of the 21st century, products considered high tech are often those that incorporate advanced computer electronics, the opposite of high tech is low technology, referring to simple, often traditional or mechanical technology, for example, a calculator is a low-tech calculating device. Perhaps the first occurrence of the phrase is in a 1958 The New York Times story advocating atomic energy for Europe, western Europe, with its dense population and its high technology. By 1969, Robert Metz was using it in a financial column, Metz used the term frequently thereafter, a few months later he was using it with a hyphen, saying that a fund holds computer peripheral. Business equipment, and high-technology stocks, and in a 1971 article in its first occurrence in the abbreviated form high tech, because the high-tech sector of the economy develops or uses the most advanced technology known, it is often seen as having the most potential for future growth. This perception has led to investment in high-tech sectors of the economy. High tech is often viewed as high risk, but offering the opportunity for high profits, like Big Science, high technology is an international phenomenon, spanning continents, epitomized by the worldwide communication of the Internet. There are several high technology definitions that can be found, moreover, there are many problems with identifying high technology. There are large diversity of definitions that are used, here is a short overview of a number of different techniques to define high technology. OECD has two different approaches, sector and product, the sector approach classifies industries according their technology intensity, product approach according to finished products. The OECD does not only take the manufacturing but also the rate of technology into account. The OECDs classification is as follows, Furthermore, OECD’s product-based classification supports the technology intensity approach and it can be concluded that companies in a high-tech industry do not necessarily produce high-tech products and vice versa. When speaking of a society in a non-literal way, it is usually in reference to an overall society based in high-tech. However, this is something generally unattainable by the definition comprising its scarcity among every technology available, one website, belonging to Carver Networks, owned by entrepreneur and founder Kimberly Carver, adopted the term as a legal name in June 2012. An organizations department dealing with the latest technology in their projects, may also be considered a high-tech microsociety within the organizations, students and faculty related with ENAEE or ABET accredited programs might be considered high-tech society members, regarding other traditional degrees. In industry, companies working in the edge may be considered high-tech societies along with its main competitors. Low technology Intermediate technology - sometimes used to technology between low and high technology Industrial design List of emerging technologies
14.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
15.
Management
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Management is the administration of an organization, whether it be a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. The term management may also refer to the people who manage an organization, management is also an academic discipline, a social science whose objective is to study social organization and organizational leadership. Individuals who aim at becoming management researchers or professors may complete the Doctor of Business Administration or the PhD in business administration or management, in larger organizations, there are generally three levels of managers, which are typically organized in a hierarchical, pyramid structure. Senior managers provide direction to the managers who report to them. Middle managers, examples of which would include branch managers, regional managers and section managers, middle managers communicate the strategic goals of senior management to the front-line managers. Lower managers, such as supervisors and front-line team leaders, oversee the work of regular employees, in smaller organizations, the roles of managers have much wider scopes. A manager can perform several roles or even all of the commonly observed in a large organization. There are many smaller organizations than larger ones. Views on the definition and scope of management include, According to Henri Fayol, to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate, fredmund Malik defines it as the transformation of resources into utility. Management included as one of the factors of production - along with machines, materials, peter Drucker saw the basic task of management as twofold, marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing, peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge. Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and this implies effective communication, an enterprise environment implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism, not the herding of animals, management does not need to be seen from enterprise point of view alone, because management is an essential function to improve ones life and relationships. Management is therefore everywhere and it has a range of application. Based on this, management must have humans, communication, plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans and this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow, one habit of thought regards management as equivalent to business administration and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as business schools
16.
Life sciences
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While biology remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and interdisciplinary fields. Some life sciences focus on a type of life. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants, other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological advances involving living things, another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind – neuroscience. The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and they have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. There is considerable overlap between many of the topics of study in the life sciences, biology – burst and eclectic field, composed of many branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and research, consolidating it into a single. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, hematology – study of blood and blood-forming organs. Toxicology - study of the effects of chemicals on living organisms Zoology – study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, medicine – applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention. Some of its branches are, Anesthesiology – branch of medicine that deals with life support, cardiology – branch of medicine that deals with disorders of the heart and the blood vessels. Critical care medicine – focuses on support and the intensive care of the seriously ill. Dermatology – branch of medicine that deals with the skin, its structure, functions, emergency medicine – focuses on care provided in the emergency department. Endocrinology – branch of medicine that deals with disorders of the endocrine system, gastroenterology – branch of medicine that deals with the study and care of the digestive system. General Practice is a branch of medicine that specializes in primary care, geriatrics – branch of medicine that deals with the general health and well-being of the elderly. Gynecology – branch of medicine that deals with the health of the reproductive systems. Hematology – branch of medicine that deals with the blood and the circulatory system, hepatology – branch of medicine that deals with the liver, gallbladder and the biliary system
17.
Profession
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The term is a truncation of the term liberal profession, which is, in turn, an Anglicization of the French term profession libérale. Medieval and early modern tradition recognized only four professions, divinity, medicine, the military officer, just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, others may decline. Disciplines formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated with them, originally, any regulation of the professions was self-regulation through bodies such as the College of Physicians or the Inns of Court. With the growing role of government, statutory bodies have taken on this role. It may be resisted as limiting the freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional judgement they consider best. An example was in 2008, when the British government proposed wide statutory regulation of psychologists, besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice. This requirement is set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs, professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work. This usually means the freedom to exercise their professional judgement, however, it also has other meanings. Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests, one major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations, the obvious implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of an owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job. But because professional business entities are locked out of the stock market. Professions enjoy a social status, regard and esteem conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the social function of their work. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as professional expertise, training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications without which entry to the profession is barred. Updating skills through continuing education is required through training and this power is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests
18.
Yeshiva
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Yeshiva is a Jewish institution that focuses on the study of traditional religious texts, primarily the Talmud and Torah study. Study is usually done through daily shiurim and in pairs called ḥavrutas. Ḥavruta-style learning is one of the features of the yeshiva. In the United States and Israel, the different levels of education have different names. In Israel, elementary-school students are enrolled in a Talmud Torah or cheder, post-bar mitzvah-age students learn in a yeshiva ketana, a kollel is a yeshiva for married men. It is common for a kollel to pay a stipend to its students. Students of Lithuanian and Hasidic yeshiva gedolas usually learn in yeshiva until they get married, historically, yeshivas were attended by males only. Today, all non-Orthodox and a few Modern Orthodox yeshivas are open to females, although there are separate schools for Orthodox women and girls, yeshivas for women do not follow the same structure or curriculum as the traditional yeshiva for boys and men. Alternate spellings and names include yeshivah (/jəˈʃiːvɑː/, Hebrew, ישיבה, sitting, metivta and mesivta, Beth midrash, Talmudical Academy, Rabbinical Academy, the word yeshiva, lit. sitting, is applied to the activity of learning in class, and hence to a learning session. The Mishnah tractate Megillah mentions the law that a town can only be called a city if it supports ten men to make up the required quorum for communal prayers. Likewise, every beth din was attended by a number of pupils up to three times the size of the court and these might be indications of the historicity of the classical yeshiva. As indicated by the Talmud, adults generally took off two months a year, Elul and Adar, the preceding the pilgrimage festivals of Sukkot and Pesach. The rest of the year they worked, the Geonic period takes its name from Gaon, the title bestowed on the heads of the three yeshivas in existence from the third to the thirteenth century. The Geonim acted as the principals of their individual yeshivot, and as spiritual leaders, the yeshiva conducted all official business in the name of its Gaon, and all correspondence to or from the yeshiva was addressed directly to the Gaon. Throughout the Geonic Period there were three yeshivot, there was however, no requirement for this, and each community could choose to associate with any of the yeshivot. The yeshiva served as the highest educational institution for the Rabbis of this period, in addition to this, the yeshiva wielded immense power as the principal body for interpreting Jewish law. In this regard, the community saw the Gaon of a yeshiva as the highest judge on all matters of Jewish law, each yeshiva ruled differently on matters of ritual and law, the other yeshivot accepted these divisions, and all three ranked as equally orthodox. The yeshiva also served as an authority, in conjunction with local communities
19.
Haredi Judaism
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Haredi Judaism is a broad spectrum of groups within Orthodox Judaism, all characterized by a rejection of modern secular culture. Its members are referred to as strictly Orthodox or ultra-Orthodox in English. The term ultra-Orthodox, however, is considered pejorative by some of its adherents, Haredim regard themselves as the most religiously authentic group of Jews, although this claim is contested by other streams. However, there are many Haredi communities in which getting a degree or establishing a business is encouraged. Haredi communities are found in Israel, North America. Their estimated global population currently numbers 1. 3–1.5 million, and, due to an absence of interfaith marriage. Their numbers have also boosted by a substantial number of secular Jews adopting a Haredi lifestyle as part of the Baal teshuva movement. The term most commonly used by outsiders, including most American news organizations, is ultra-Orthodox Judaism, Hillel Halkin suggests the origins of the term may date to the 1950s, a period in which Haredi survivors of the Holocaust first began arriving in America. Haredi is a Modern Hebrew adjective derived from the Biblical verb hared which appears in the Book of Isaiah and is translated as trembles at the word of God. The word connotes an awe-inspired fear and anxiety to perform the will of God and is used to describe staunchly Orthodox Jews, others, however, dispute the characterization of the term as pejorative. Ari L. Goldman, a professor at Columbia University, notes that the term simply serves a purpose to distinguish a specific part of the Orthodox community. Sometimes the community has been characterized as Traditional Orthodox, in contradistinction to the Modern Orthodox, Haredi Jews also use other terms to refer to themselves. Common Yiddish words include Yidn or erlekhe Yidn, Ben Torah, frum, according to its adherents, the forebears of the contemporary Haredim were the traditionalists of Eastern Europe who fought against modernization. Indeed, adherents see its beliefs as part of a tradition dating from the revelation at Sinai. However, most historians of Orthodoxy consider Haredi Judaism, in its modern incarnation, for centuries, before Jewish emancipation, European Jews were forced to live in ghettos where Jewish culture and religious observance were preserved. Change began in the wake of the Age of Enlightenment when some European liberals sought to include the Jewish population in the emerging empires, the influence of the Haskalah movement was also evidence. Supporters of the Haskalah held that Judaism must change in keeping with the changes around them. Other Jews insisted on strict adherence to halakha and his approach was to accept the tools of modern scholarship and apply them in defence of Orthodoxy
20.
Electronic engineering
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The discipline typically also designs passive electrical components, usually based on printed circuit boards. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is one of the most important, Electronics is a subfield within the wider electrical engineering academic subject. An academic degree with a major in engineering can be acquired from some universities. The term electrical engineer is used in the academic world to include electronic engineers. The term power engineering is used as a descriptor in that industry, Electronic engineering as a profession sprang from technological improvements in the telegraph industry in the late 19th century and the radio and the telephone industries in the early 20th century. People were attracted to radio by the fascination it inspired, first in receiving. Many who went into broadcasting in the 1920s were only amateurs in the period before World War I, in the interwar years, the subject was known as radio engineering and it was only in the late 1950s that the term electronic engineering started to emerge. The tuner circuit, which allows the user of a radio to filter out all, in designing an integrated circuit, electronics engineers first construct circuit schematics that specify the electrical components and describe the interconnections between them. When completed, VLSI engineers convert the schematics into actual layouts, the conversion from schematics to layouts can be done by software but very often requires human fine-tuning to decrease space and power consumption. Once the layout is complete, it can be sent to a plant for manufacturing. Today, printed circuit boards are found in most electronic devices including televisions, computers, signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification and filtering of signals for audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression, error checking, telecommunications engineering deals with the transmission of information across a channel such as a co-axial cable, optical fiber or free space. Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a wave in order to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission. Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation, the choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer. Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the transmitters and receivers needed for such systems and these two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a transceiver. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signals information will be corrupted by noise, control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airplanes to the cruise control present in many modern cars
21.
Applied physics
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Applied physics is physics which is intended for a particular technological or practical use. It is usually considered as a bridge or a connection between physics and engineering and this approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists can also be interested in the use of physics for scientific research, for instance, the field of accelerator physics can contribute to research in theoretical physics by working with engineers enabling design and construction of high-energy colliders
22.
Biomedical engineering
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Biomedical engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes. Biomedical engineering has recently emerged as its own study, compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields. Biomedical engineering has existed for centuries,1895, Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovered that a cathode-ray tube could make a sheet of paper coated with barium platinocyanide glow, even when the tube and the paper were in separate rooms. Roentgen decided the tube must be emitting some kind of penetrating rays,1791, Luigi Galvani invented the frog galvanoscope. 1851, Hermann von Helmholtz invented the ophthalmoscope,1881, Samuel von Basch invented the blood pressure meter. 1895, Conrad Roentgen discovered the X-ray using gas discharged tubes,1896, Henry Becquerel discovered X-rays were emitted from uranium ore. 1901, Roentgen received the Nobel Prize for discovery of X-rays,1903, Willem Einthoven invented the electrocardiogram. 1921, First formal training in engineering was started at Oswalt Institute for Physics in Medicine, Frankfurt. 1927, Invention of the Drinker respirator,1929, Hans Berger invents the electroencephalogram. 1930, X-rays were being used to visualize most organ systems using radio-opaque materials, refrigeration, mid 1930s – early 1940s, Antibiotics, sulfanilamide and pencillin reduced cross-infection in hospitals. 1943, The International Bio-Physical Society was formed,1948, The first conference of Engineering in Medicine & Biology was held in the United States. 1950s – early 1960s, Nuclear medicine,1969, Case Western Reserve created a MD/PhD program 1970, computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. 1980, Gamma camera, positron emission tomography and SPECT,1997, First Indigenous endovascular coronary stent was developed by the Care Foundation. Biomedical engineering has provided advances in technology to improve human health. As per the statistics of the National Academy of Engineering, about 32000 biomedical engineers are working in various areas of health care technology. Bioinformatics is a field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of candidate genes and nucleotides
23.
Software engineering
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Software engineering is the application of engineering to the development of software in a systematic method. Practitioners quickly realized that this design was not flexible and came up with the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture, thus the division between hardware and software began with abstraction being used to deal with the complexity of computing. Programming languages started to appear in the early 1950s and this was another major step in abstraction. Major languages such as Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL were released in the late 1950s to deal with scientific, algorithmic, the conference was attended by international experts on software who agreed on defining best practices for software grounded in the application of engineering. The result of the conference is a report that defines how software should be developed, the original report is publicly available. Engineering already addresses all issues, hence the same principles used in engineering can be applied to software. The widespread lack of best practices for software at the time was perceived as a software crisis, barry W. Boehm documented several key advances to the field in his 1981 book, Software Engineering Economics. These include his Constructive Cost Model, which relates software development effort for a program, in man-years T, T = k ∗ The book analyzes sixty-three software projects and concludes the cost of fixing errors escalates as the project moves toward field use. The book also asserts that the key driver of software cost is the capability of the development team. Watts Humphrey founded the SEI Software Process Program, aimed at understanding and managing the software engineering process and his 1989 book, Managing the Software Process, asserts that the Software Development Process can and should be controlled, measured, and improved. Modern, generally accepted best-practices for software engineering have been collected by the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC7 subcommittee, Software engineering can be divided into 15 sub-disciplines. They are, Software requirements, The elicitation, analysis, specification, Software design, The process of defining the architecture, components, interfaces, and other characteristics of a system or component. It is also defined as the result of that process, Software construction, The detailed creation of working, meaningful software through a combination of coding, verification, unit testing, integration testing, and debugging. Software testing, An empirical, technical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, Software maintenance, The totality of activities required to provide cost-effective support to software. Software development process, The definition, implementation, assessment, measurement, management, change, many software engineers enter the profession by obtaining a university degree or training at a vocational school. One standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE, in addition to university education, many companies sponsor internships for students wishing to pursue careers in information technology. These internships can introduce the student to interesting real-world tasks that typical software engineers encounter every day, similar experience can be gained through military service in software engineering. Legal requirements for the licensing or certification of professional software engineers vary around the World, in Canada, there is a legal requirement to have P. Eng when one wants to use the title engineer or practice software engineering
24.
Telecommunications engineering
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Telecommunications engineering, or telecoms engineering, is an engineering discipline centered on electrical and computer engineering which seeks to support and enhance telecommunication systems. The work ranges from basic design to strategic mass developments. Telecommunication engineering also overlaps heavily with broadcast engineering, telecommunication is a diverse field of engineering connected to electronic, civil and systems engineering. Ultimately, telecom engineers are responsible for providing high-speed data transmission services, today, telecommunication is widespread and devices that assist the process, such as the television, radio and telephone, are common in many parts of the world. There are also many networks that connect these devices, including networks, public switched telephone network, radio networks. Computer communication across the Internet is one of examples of telecommunication. Telecommunication plays a role in the part of world economy. Samuel Morse independently developed a version of the telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837. Soon after he was joined by Alfred Vail who developed the register — a telegraph terminal that integrated a logging device for recording messages to paper tape. This was demonstrated successfully over three miles on 6 January 1838 and eventually over forty miles between Washington, D. C. and Baltimore on 24 May 1844, the patented invention proved lucrative and by 1851 telegraph lines in the United States spanned over 20,000 miles. The first successful transatlantic cable was completed on 27 July 1866. Earlier transatlantic cables installed in 1857 and 1858 only operated for a few days or weeks before they failed, the international use of the telegraph has sometimes been dubbed the Victorian Internet. The first commercial services were set up in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of the Atlantic in the cities of New Haven and London. Alexander Graham Bell held the patent for the telephone that was needed for such services in both countries. The technology grew quickly from this point, with inter-city lines being built, despite this, transatlantic voice communication remained impossible for customers until January 7,1927 when a connection was established using radio. However no cable connection existed until TAT-1 was inaugurated on September 25,1956 providing 36 telephone circuits, in 1880, Bell and co-inventor Charles Sumner Tainter conducted the worlds first wireless telephone call via modulated lightbeams projected by photophones. The scientific principles of their invention would not be utilized for several decades, over several years starting in 1894 the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi built the first complete, commercially successful wireless telegraphy system based on airborne electromagnetic waves. In December 1901, he would go on to established wireless communication between Britain and Newfoundland, earning him the Nobel Prize in physics in 1909, in 1900 Reginald Fessenden was able to wirelessly transmit a human voice
25.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
26.
Bioinformatics
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Bioinformatics /ˌbaɪ. oʊˌɪnfərˈmætɪks/ is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, Bioinformatics has been used for in silico analyses of biological queries using mathematical and statistical techniques. Common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of genes and nucleotides. Often, such identification is made with the aim of understanding the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties. In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to understand the principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences. Bioinformatics has become an important part of areas of biology. In experimental molecular biology, bioinformatics techniques such as image and signal processing allow extraction of useful results from large amounts of raw data, in the field of genetics and genomics, it aids in sequencing and annotating genomes and their observed mutations. It plays a role in the mining of biological literature. It also plays a role in the analysis of gene and protein expression and regulation, Bioinformatics tools aid in the comparison of genetic and genomic data and more generally in the understanding of evolutionary aspects of molecular biology. At a more level, it helps analyze and catalogue the biological pathways. In structural biology, it aids in the simulation and modeling of DNA, RNA, historically, the term bioinformatics did not mean what it means today. Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper coined it in 1970 to refer to the study of processes in biotic systems. This definition placed bioinformatics as a parallel to biophysics or biochemistry. Computers became essential in molecular biology when protein sequences became available after Frederick Sanger determined the sequence of insulin in the early 1950s, comparing multiple sequences manually turned out to be impractical. A pioneer in the field was Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, who has been hailed by David Lipman, director of the National Center for Biotechnology Information, Dayhoff compiled one of the first protein sequence databases, initially published as books and pioneered methods of sequence alignment and molecular evolution. To study how normal cellular activities are altered in different disease states, therefore, the field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various types of data. This includes nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, the actual process of analyzing and interpreting data is referred to as computational biology. For example, there are methods to locate a gene within a sequence, to predict protein structure and/or function, the primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes
27.
Industrial engineering
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Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems or organizations. Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, man-hours, machine time, energy, according to the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, they figure out how to do things better, they engineer processes and systems that improve quality and productivity. Some engineering universities and educational agencies around the world have changed the term industrial to broader terms such as production or systems, the various topics concerning industrial engineers include, Process engineering, design, operation, control, and optimization of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Systems engineering, a field of engineering that focuses on how to design. Safety engineering, a discipline which assures that engineered systems provide acceptable levels of safety. Value engineering, a method to improve the value of goods or products. Quality engineering, a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products, Project management, is the process and activity of planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling resources, procedures and protocols to achieve specific goals in scientific or daily problems. It includes the movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, ergonomics, the practice of designing products, systems or processes to take proper account of the interaction between them and the people that use them. Logistics, the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to some requirements. Many of the tools and principles of engineering can be applied to the configuration of work activities within a project. The application of engineering and operations management concepts and techniques to the execution of projects has been thus referred to as Project Production Management. Traditionally, an aspect of industrial engineering was planning the layouts of factories and designing assembly lines. And now, in manufacturing systems, industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy. There is a consensus among a historian that the roots of the Industrial Engineering Profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The concept of the system had its genesis in the factories created by these innovations. Eli Whitney and Simeon North proved the feasibility of the notion of Interchangeable parts in the manufacture of muskets, under this system, individual parts were mass-produced to tolerances to enable their use in any finished product. The result was a significant reduction in the need for skill from specialized workers, frederick Taylor is generally credited as being the father of the Industrial Engineering discipline. He earned a degree in engineering from Stevens University
28.
Marketing
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Marketing is the study and management of exchange relationships. Marketing is used to create the customer, to keep the customer, with the customer as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that Marketing is one of the premier components of Business Management - the other being Innovation. Other services and management activities such as Operations, Human Resources, Accounting, Law, the term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. The Chartered Institute of Marketing defines marketing as the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably, a similar concept is the value-based marketing which states the role of marketing to contribute to increasing shareholder value. Marketing practice tended to be seen as an industry in the past. The overall process starts with marketing research and goes through market segmentation, business planning and execution, ending with pre and it is also related to many of the creative arts. The marketing literature is also adept at re-inventing itself and its vocabulary according to the times, the term marketing concept pertains to the fundamental premise of modern marketing. This concept proposes that in order to satisfy its organizational objectives, Marketing and marketing concepts are directly related. An orientation, in the context, relates to a perception or attitude a firm holds towards its product or service. There exist several common orientations, A firm employing a product orientation is chiefly concerned with the quality of its own product, a firm would also assume that as long as its product was of a high standard, people would buy and consume the product. A firm using a sales orientation focuses primarily on the selling/promotion of a particular product, consequently, this entails simply selling an already existing product, and using promotion techniques to attain the highest sales possible. Such an orientation may suit scenarios in which a firm holds dead stock, or otherwise sells a product that is in high demand, a firm focusing on a production orientation specializes in producing as much as possible of a given product or service. Thus, this signifies a firm exploiting economies of scale, until the minimum efficient scale is reached, a production orientation may be deployed when a high demand for a product or service exists, coupled with a good certainty that consumer tastes do not rapidly alter. The marketing orientation is perhaps the most common used in contemporary marketing. It involves a firm essentially basing its marketing plans around the marketing concept, the marketing orientation often has three prime facets, which are, A firm in the market economy can survive by producing goods that persons are willing and able to buy. Consequently, ascertaining consumer demand is vital for a firms future viability, in this sense, a firms marketing department is often seen as of prime importance within the functional level of an organization. Information from a marketing department would be used to guide the actions of other departments within the firm. As an example, a department could ascertain that consumers desired a new type of product
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Nursing
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Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, Nurses practice in many specialisms with differing levels of prescriber authority. Many nurses provide care within the scope of physicians. However, nurses are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings depending on training level, Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of an interdisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners and dietitians. Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals, Nursing historians face the challenge of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity was nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places describes skilled care and observation of patients by male attendants, who may have been early nurses. Hence, any one desirous of acquiring a knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it. Before the foundation of modern nursing, members of religious orders such as nuns, examples exist in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions amongst others. Phoebe, mentioned in Romans 16 has been described in sources as the first visiting nurse. These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing, the religious roots of modern nursing remain in evidence today in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the sister to refer to a senior nurse. During the Reformation of the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents and those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church, were removed from their positions, the nursing profession suffered a major setback for approximately 200 years. Florence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing during the Crimean War and her Notes on Nursing became popular. Agnes Jones, who established a training regime at the Brownlow Hill infirmary, Liverpool. In turn, the modern movement began in Germany in 1836. Within a half century, there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe, formal use of nurses in the modern military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War, the Egyptian Campaign, hospital-based training came to the fore in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience
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Education in Israel
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Education in Israel refers to the comprehensive education system of Israel. The education system consists of three tiers, primary education, middle school and high school, compulsory education takes place from kindergarten through to 12th grade. The school year begins on September 1, ending for elementary school pupils on 30 June, Israeli culture views higher education as the key to higher mobility and socioeconomic status in Israeli society. The emphasis of education within Israeli society goes to the gulf within the Jewish diaspora from the Renaissance, israel’s populace is well educated and Israeli society highly values education. In 2012, the country ranked second among OECD countries for the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 46 percent compared with the OECD average of 32 percent. It ranks fifth among OECD countries for the expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP. The Israeli education system has been praised for various reasons, including its high quality and its role in spurring Israels economic development. Israeli schools are divided into four different tracks, state-secular, state-religious, independent religious, there are also private schools which reflect the philosophies of specific groups of parents, or that are based on the curriculum of a foreign country. The majority of Israeli children attend state schools, state-religious schools, catering to youngsters from the Orthodox sector, offer intensive Jewish studies programs, and emphasize tradition and observance. The Chinuch Atzmai schools focus almost entirely on Torah study and offer little in terms of secular subjects. Schools in the Arab sector teach in Arabic, and offer a curriculum that emphasizes Arab history, religion, the Haredims lack of mainstream education, and consequent low participation in the workforce, are regarded by many in Israel as a social problem. Israels Ministry of Education’s statistics from 2014 show that only about 22 percent of Haredi students take matriculation exams, about 8 percent of Haredi students pass the exam. things have to change. Today, this school receives support from the state. Two more integrated schools were opened in Jerusalem and Galilee in 1997 by Hand in Hand, as of 2010, there were five integrated schools in Israel, including that of Neve Shalom. High schools in Israel prepare students for the Israeli matriculation exams and these are exams covering various academic disciplines, which are studied in units of one to five on an ascending scale of difficulty. Students with a mark on the mandatory matriculation subjects, who have been tested on at least 21 units. In 2006/7,74. 4% of Israeli 12th graders took the exams while only 46. 3% were eligible for a matriculation certificate. In the Arab and Druze sectors, the figures were 35. 6% and 43. 7% respectively, a Bagrut certificate and Bagrut scores often determine acceptance into elite military units, admission to academic institutions, and job prospects
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Science and technology in Israel
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Science and technology in Israel is one of the countrys most developed sectors. Israel ranks fifth among the most innovative countries in the Bloomberg Innovation Index, Israel ranks thirteenth in the world in scientific activity as measured by the number of scientific publications per million citizens. It also has one of the highest per capita rates of patents filed, in 2009, Israels percentage of the total number of scientific articles published worldwide was almost 10 times higher than its percentage of the worlds population. The high technology industry has been due to Israels disproportionately high number of engineers. Israel has the highest number of scientists and technicians per capita in the world with 140 scientists, in comparison, the same is 85 per 10,000 in the United States and 83 per 10,000 in Japan. Israel is home to players in the high tech industry and has one of the worlds most technologically literate populations. In 1998, Tel Aviv was named by Newsweek as one of the ten most technologically influential cities in the world. Since 2000, Israel has been a member of EUREKA, the research and development funding and coordination organization. In 2010, the journalist David Kaufman, wrote that the tech area of Yokneam. Googles Chairman Eric Schmidt complimented the country during a visit there, return to the homeland was perceived as contingent on a return to the soil. To establish the villages that formed the core of Zionist ideology and produce self-supporting Jewish farmers. On a field trip to Mount Hermon in 1906, the agronomist Aaron Aaronsohn discovered Triticum dicoccoides, or emmer wheat, in 1909, he founded an agricultural research station in Atlit where he built up an extensive library and collected geological and botanical samples. The Agricultural Station, founded in Rehovot in 1921, engaged in soil research and this station, which became the Agricultural Research Organization, is now Israel’s major institution of agricultural research and development. In 1912, the first cornerstone of the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology was laid at a ceremony in Haifa which was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire. The Technion would become a unique university worldwide in its claim to precede, as Jews were often barred from Technical education in Europe, the Technion claims to have brought the skills needed to build a modern state. The station manufactured vaccines against typhus and cholera, and developed methods of pest control to eliminate field mice, the Pasteur Institute affiliated with the station developed a rabies vaccine. Departments for microbiology, biochemistry, bacteriology, and hygiene were opened at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in 1936, Jewish workers in the center of the country donated two-days pay toward the establishment of the Hospital of Judea and Sharon, later renamed Beilinson Hospital. In 1938, Beilinson established the countrys first blood bank, the Rothschild-Hadassah University Hospital on Mount Scopus opened in 1939 and was the first teaching hospital and medical center in the country
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
