1.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
2.
Politics of Israel
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The politics of Israel is dominated by Zionist parties. They traditionally fall into three camps, the first two being the largest, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism and Religious Zionism, there are also several non-Zionist Orthodox religious parties, non-Zionist left-wing groups, as well as non-Zionist and anti-Zionist Israeli Arab parties. Golda Meir, Prime Minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974, once joked that in Israel, the prevalent balance between the largest parties means that the smaller parties can have strong influence disproportionate to their size. Due to their ability to act as tie breakers, they use this status to block legislation or promote their own agenda. From the founding of Israel in 1948 until the election of May 1977, from 1967 to 1970, a national unity government included all of Israels parties except for the two factions of the Communist Party of Israel. After the 1977 election, the Revisionist Zionist Likud bloc came to power, forming a coalition with the National Religious Party, Agudat Israel, Netanyahu subsequently formed a predominantly right-wing coalition government publicly committed to pursuing the Oslo Accords, but with an emphasis on security first and reciprocity. His coalition included the Likud party, allied with the Tzomet and Gesher parties in a single list, the latter was the first significant party formed expressly to represent the interests of Israels new Russian immigrants. The Gesher party withdrew from the coalition in January 1998 upon the resignation of its leader, David Levy, barak was forced to call for early elections, the only prime ministerial elections not held alongside Knesset elections. On 17 February 2001, elections resulted in a new national unity government, led by Ariel Sharon of the Likud. This government fell when Labor pulled out, and new elections were held 28 January 2003, based on the election results, Sharon was able to form a right-wing government consisting of the Likud, Shinui, the National Religious Party and the National Union. The coalition focused on improving Israeli security through fighting against terror, Sharons attempt to add the Haredi United Torah Judaism to the coalition drove Shinui out, and forced Sharon to bring the Labor Party back into his coalition. Since not all Likud Knesset members supported Sharons disengagement plan, he lacked a clear majority in the Knesset. Apparently calculating that his popularity was greater than that of the party, Sharon pulled out of the Likud on 21 November 2005. He was joined only days later by Shimon Peres, who pulled out of the Labor party to join Sharon in a bid for a new government. This represented a cataclysmic realignment in Israeli politics, with the former right, on 4 January 2006 Prime Minister Sharon suffered a massive stroke and went into a coma, and subsequently died in 2014. Designated Acting Prime Minister Ehud Olmert took power, becoming interim Prime Minister 100 days after Sharons incapacitation and he did not become full Prime Minister due to elections being held in March and a new government being formed. Following the March 2006 elections, which left Kadima as the largest party in the Knesset and he included Labour, Shas and Gil in a 67-seat coalition. In November 2006, Yisrael Beiteinu also joined the government, faced with internal opposition due to mounting corruption charges, Olmert announced that he would not seek reelection in the next elections held in February 2009
3.
Constitution of Israel
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The State of Israel has an unwritten constitution. The Israeli Supreme Court President Aharon Barak ruled that the Basic Laws should be considered the constitution. Opponents of this approach include Baraks colleague, Judge of the Supreme Court Mishael Cheshin, according to Israels proclamation of independence of May 14,1948, a constituent assembly should have prepared a constitution by October 1,1948. Another factor was the opposition of David Ben-Gurion himself, various bodies in Israel have called for the enactment of a formal constitution as a single document, and have submitted ideas and drafts for consideration. The Constitution from the Knesset website Constitution on the Jewish Virtual Library
4.
Basic Laws of Israel
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The Basic Laws of Israel are the constitutional laws of the State of Israel. These laws deal with the formation and role of the institutions of the state. They also protect rights, although some of these rights were earlier protected at common law by the Supreme Court of Israel. The Basic Laws are intended to be chapters of the future Israeli constitution. The Basic Laws do not cover all constitutional issues, and there is no deadline set for the completion of the process of merging them into one comprehensive constitution. There is no clear rule determining the precedence of Basic Rules over regular legislation, Israels declaration of independence stated that a formal constitution will be formulated and adopted no later than 1 October 1948. The deadline stated in the declaration of independence proved unrealistic in light of the war between the new state and its Arab neighbors, general elections were arranged on 25 January 1949, in order to elect the Constituent Assembly which would approve the new states constitution. The Constituent Assembly convened on February 1949 and it held several discussions about the constitution without reaching an agreement. For a number of reasons, Israels first prime-minister, David Ben-Gurion, because the Constituent Assembly did not prepare a constitution for Israel, the Knesset is the heir of the Assembly for the purpose of fulfilling this function. In 1950, the first Knesset came to what was called the Harari Decision, rather than draft a full constitution immediately, they would postpone the work, charging the Knessets Constitution, Law, and Justice Committee with drafting the document piecemeal. Each chapter would be called a Basic Law, and when all had written they would be compiled into a complete constitution. In 1992, Aharon Barak, President of the Supreme Court, declared a constitutional revolution, the Basic Laws are various pieces of legislation from the Knesset that outline the nations political structure. Between 1958 and 1988 the Knesset passed nine Basic Laws, all of which pertained to the institutions of state, in 1992, it passed the first two Basic Laws that related to human rights and the basis of the Supreme Courts recently declared powers of judicial review. These are Basic Law, Human Dignity and Liberty and these were passed by votes of 32–21 and 23–0, respectively. Israeli nationality law Land and Property laws in Israel Law of Israel Law of Return Moshe Koppel Cohen, Asher, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Secular-Religious Impasse. Jacobsohn, Gary J. Apple of Gold, Constitutionalism in Israel, mazie, Steven V. Israels Higher Law, Religion and Liberal Democracy in the Jewish State. The Existing Basic Laws, Full Texts, the Knesset website, official translations - NOTE, The 1968 Basic Law, the Government translation is missing provisions, probably amendments added later on. As opposed to the 1968 and 2001 basic Law, the Government translations, the 1992 Basic Law, the 2001 Law, which is in effect, present all provision in the translation, however, there are some lines missing
5.
Law of Return
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The Law of Return is Israeli legislation, passed on 5 July 1950, which gives Jews the right to live in Israel and to gain Israeli citizenship. The Law of Return 5710-1950 was enacted by the Knesset, Israels Parliament, the Law declares the right of Jews to come to Israel, Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh. Follow-up legislation on matters was contained in the Nationality Law of 1952. The Law of Return was modified in 1970 to extend the right of return to non-Jews with a Jewish grandparent, the law since 1970 applies to those born Jews, those with Jewish ancestry and converts to Judaism. In the Law of Return, the State of Israel put into practice the Zionist movements credo which called for the establishment of Israel as a Jewish state and those who immigrate to Israel under the Law of Return are immediately entitled to gain citizenship in Israel. However, differences of opinion have arisen as to whether a person who claims citizenship under the Law of Return should be registered as Jewish for census purposes. According to the definition, a person is Jewish if his or her mother is Jewish. Orthodox Jews do not recognize conversions performed by Reform or Conservative Judaism, however, the Law provides that any Jew regardless of affiliation may migrate to Israel and claim citizenship. Originally, the Law of Return was restricted to Jews only, a Jew can be excluded from Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return if he or she is considered to be dangerous to the welfare of the State of Israel. Jews who have a past that involves a crime, such as murder. This clause has been used to exclude applicants a handful of times since Israels establishment, the 1970 amendment was induced by the debate on Who is a Jew. Until then the law did not refer to the question, there are several explanations for the decision to be so inclusive. One is that as the Nuremberg Laws did not use a definition in its definition of Who is a Jew. Another explanation is the 1968 wave of immigration from Poland, following a campaign by the government. These immigrants were very assimilated and had many family members. The Israeli Rabbinate is a purely Orthodox body that is far more strict in defining who is a Jew and this creates a situation in which thousands of immigrants who are eligible for citizenship under the Law of Returns criteria, are ineligible for Jewish marriage by the Israeli Rabbinate. As of 2008,2,734,245 Jews have immigrated to Israel since 1950, hundreds of thousands of non-Jews have received Israeli citizenship, as the law confers citizenship to all offspring of a Jew and their spouses. The Supreme Court of Israel ruled in 1989 that Messianic Judaism constituted another religion, the argument was made by the applicants that they had never been Jews according to halakha, and were not therefore excluded by the conversion clause
6.
President of Israel
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The President of the State of Israel is the head of state of Israel. The position is largely a figurehead role, with executive power effectively being exercised by the prime minister. The current president is Reuven Rivlin, who took office on 24 July 2014, presidents are elected by the Knesset for a seven-year term and are limited to a single term. The president is elected by an majority in the Knesset. If no candidate has received a majority of votes by the first round of voting. When electing the president, Knesset members vote by secret ballot, the president is elected to a term of seven years, and cannot be re-elected. Until 2000, the president was elected for a five-year term, any Israeli citizen who is a resident of the State is eligible to run for president. The office falls vacant upon completion of a term, resignation, presidential tenure is not keyed to that of the Knesset in order to assure continuity in government and the nonpartisan character of the office. There is no vice president in the Israeli governmental system, if the president is temporarily incapacitated or leaves office, the speaker of the Knesset becomes acting president. The first presidential election took place on 16 February 1949, the second took place in 1951, as at the time presidential terms were linked to the length of the Knesset term. Another election took place the year after Weizmanns death. Since then, elections have been held in 1957,1962,1963,1968,1973,1978,1983,1988,1993,1998,2000,2007 and 2014, six elections have taken place with no opposition candidate, although a vote was still held. The Basic Law, The Government also includes sections on the powers of the president with reference to the government, the president signs every law and international or bilateral treaties approved by the Knesset. Presidential powers are usually exercised based on the recommendation of appropriate government ministers, the presidents most important role, in practice, is to help lead the process of forming a government. The president awards the Israel Prize on Yom Haatzmaut and the Wolf Prize, the president also serves as the main speaker at the opening ceremonies of the half-yearly Knesset conference, as well as at the annual official ceremonies for Yom Hazikaron and Yom HaShoah. Most Israeli presidents were involved in politics or Zionist activities before taking office. The first Israeli presidents were born in the former Russian Empire, the first native-born president, as well as the first with a Sephardi background, was Yitzhak Navon. The first president with a Western European background was Chaim Herzog, the first president with a Mizrahi background was Moshe Katsav, who was born in Iran
7.
Reuven Rivlin
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Reuven Ruvi Rivlin is an Israeli politician and lawyer who has been President of Israel since 2014. He is a member of the Likud party, Rivlin was Minister of Communications from 2001 to 2003 and subsequently served as Speaker of the Knesset from 2003 to 2006 and again from 2009 to 2013. On 10 June 2014, he was elected President of Israel, Rivlin argues for a Greater Israel that would embrace all people and give the Palestinians of the West Bank and Gaza full Israeli citizenship. He is also a supporter of minority rights, particularly for Arab citizens of Israel. He supports the one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the Rivlin family has lived in Jerusalem since 1809. Rivlin attended Gymnasia Rehavia high school and served in the Intelligence Corps of the Israel Defense Forces, during the Six Day War, he fought with the Jerusalem Brigade and accompanied the Paratroopers Brigade as an intelligence officer. After military service he studied law at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and he is married to Nechama Rivlin, and has four children. Rivlin has been a vegetarian since the late 1960s, Rivlin has been a supporter of the Beitar Jerusalem football club since the age of seven, when he attended his first game. He was first elected to the 12th Knesset in 1988, and he lost his seat in the 1992 elections, but returned to the Knesset following the 1996 elections. Reelected in 1999, he was appointed Minister of Communications in March 2001, serving until February 2003, Rivlin was reelected in 2006 and 2009. He ran in the 2007 election for President as the Likud candidate and he withdrew after the first round of voting when it became clear that Kadima MK Shimon Peres had sufficiently broad support to inevitably win in a run-off. On 30 March 2009, the Knesset elected Rivlin as Speaker with a majority of 90 votes out of 120, for his first official visit as Knesset Speaker, he chose the Arab-Israeli town of Umm el-Fahm, just south of the Galilee. He was accompanied by MKs Uri Orbach and Afu Agbariyah, a resident of the city, Rivlin was elected as the 10th President of Israel on 10 June 2014, receiving the support of 63 MKs in a runoff vote against MK Meir Sheetrit. Rivlin was sworn in on 24 July 2014, succeeding Shimon Peres, upon his election as President, he immediately ceased being a member of the Israeli Parliament. On March 25,2015 Rivlin, in his role as President, “One who is afraid of votes in a ballot box will eventually see stones thrown in the streets, ” said Rivlin. Although considered a nationalist and hawkish on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, Rivlin is a supporter of minority rights, as speaker of the Knesset, Rivlin made his first official visit to the Arab-Israeli city of Umm el-Fahm, often portrayed as a locus of anti-state and pro-Palestine sentiment and agitation. In June 2010, Rivlin ignored calls to remove Balad MK Haneen Zoabi for joining the Gaza flotilla, Rivlins actions in defending the parliamentary rights of Zoabi were criticized by some but others praised his courage in defending Israeli democracy. The same year, a group of rabbis on government payroll called on Jewish Israelis to not rent apartments to non-Jews, Rivlin protested this declaration, saying, In my opinion, their statement shames the Jewish people
8.
Yuli-Yoel Edelstein
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Yuli-Yoel Edelstein is an Israeli politician. One of the most prominent refuseniks in the Soviet Union, he has been Speaker of the Knesset since 2013, Yuli Edelstein was born in Chernivtsi in the Soviet Union to a Jewish family. His mother, Anita Edelstein was Jewish, while his father, Yuri Edelstein, is the son of a Jewish father, both converted to Christianity, and Yuri is now a Russian Orthodox priest in Karabanovo of Kostroma Oblast named Father Georgy. While his parents taught at universities in the countryside, Edelstein was raised by his maternal grandparents and his grandfather had taught himself Hebrew at the age of 70 and used to listen to the Voice of Israel on a shortwave radio. When Edelsteins grandfather died, Yuli began to study Hebrew and read books such as Exodus by Leon Uris, in 1977, during his second year of university, Edelstein applied for an exit visa to immigrate to Israel. Turned down, he began to associate with a group of Hebrew teachers who held classes in their apartments. In 1979, he was expelled from the university and suffered harassment by the KGB, during this time, he found odd jobs as a street cleaner, security guard, and more. In 1984, he and other Hebrew teachers were arrested on fabricated charges, Edelstein himself being charged with possession of drugs and he was then sent to Siberian gulags and did hard labor, first in Buryatia and then in Novosibirsk. He broke several bones after falling from a construction tower and he was due to be transferred back to Buryatia, but his wife, Tanya, threatened to go on hunger strike if he was returned there. Edelstein was released in May 1987, on the eve of Israeli Independence Day and he did his national service in the Israel Defense Forces, attaining the rank of Corporal. Initially a member of the National Religious Party and a vice-president of Zionist Forum and he was elected to the Knesset in 1996, and was appointed Minister of Immigrant Absorption in Benjamin Netanyahus Likud-led government. He was re-elected in 1999, and was appointed Deputy Immigrant Absorption Minister by Ariel Sharon in 2001 and he retained his seat in the 2003 elections, shortly after which Yisrael BaAliyah merged into Likud. Although Edelstein lost his seat in the 2006 elections, in which Likud was reduced to 12 seats and he retained his seat in the 2009 elections after being placed twelfth on the partys list, and was appointed Minister of Information and Diaspora in the Netanyahu government. Following the 2013 elections, he became Speaker of the Knesset, in December 2014, in an interview with The Jerusalem Post, Edelstein warned world leaders against creating a Palestinian state that he thought would go to war with Israel. In the same interview, Edelstein stated that he believes in Israeli-Palestinian coexistence, in 2014, he was one of several Members of the Knesset who submitted complaints against Arab-Israeli Haneen Zoabi for supporting Hamas, which led to her six-month suspension. “I have been in the Knesset for almost 19 years, ” Edelstein said, “I remember Arab MKs joining me at the March of the Living and proposing social-oriented legislation with me. I believe in coexistence and fighting against those who harm it and I think that Zoabi’s words, People hear her and think all Arabs must hate us and want to kill us. That is unhealthy, and we have to put an end to it. ”He was married to Tatiana, or Tanya Edelstein and they met in the Soviet Union when she attended a Hebrew class he was teaching
9.
Israeli system of government
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The Israeli system of government is based on parliamentary democracy. The Prime Minister of Israel is the head of government and leader of a multi-party system, executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the Knesset, the Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system of the State of Israel and its principles are set out in 11 Basic Laws. Israel does not have a written constitution, the President of the State is the de jure head of state of Israel. The position is largely an apolitical and ceremonial role, and is not considered a part of any Government Branch, the President also has several important functions in government. The President is the government official with the power to pardon or commute prisoners. The President appoints the Governor of the Bank of Israel, the President of Magen David Adom, the President also ceremonially appoints judges to their posts after their selection. The Prime Minister is the most powerful figure in the country. The cabinet is composed of ministers, most of whom are the heads of government departments, cabinet ministers are appointed by the Prime Minister, who must appoint members based on the distribution of votes to political parties. The cabinets composition must also be approved by the Knesset, the Prime Minister may dismiss cabinet members, but any replacements must be approved by the Knesset. Most ministers are members of the Knesset, though only the Prime Minister is required to be one, the cabinet meets weekly on Sundays, and there may be additional meetings if circumstances require it. Each cabinet meeting is chaired by the Prime Minister, a select group of ministers led by the Prime Minister forms the security cabinet, responsible for outlining and implementing a foreign and defense policy. This forum is designed to coordinate diplomatic negotiations, and to make quick and effective decisions in times of crisis, the Israeli government has 28 ministries, each of them responsible for a sector of public administration. Many Ministries are located in the Kiryat Ben Gurion Government complex in the area of Givat Ram in Jerusalem, each ministry is led by a minister, who is also a member of the cabinet and is usually a member of the Knesset. The Office of the Prime Minister coordinates the actions of the work of all government ministries, the State Comptroller, which supervises and reviews the policies and operations of the government, is elected by the Knesset in secret ballot. The Knesset is Israels unicameral legislature and is seated in Jerusalem and its 120 members are elected to 4-year terms through party-list proportional representation, as mandated by the 1958 Basic Law, The Knesset. Knesset seats are allocated among parties using the DHondt method of party list proportional representation, Parties select candidates using a closed list
10.
Prime Minister of Israel
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The Prime Minister of Israel is the head of the Israeli government and the most powerful figure in Israeli politics. Although the President of Israel is the head of state, his powers are largely ceremonial. The official residence of the minister, Beit Rosh Hamemshala is in Jerusalem. The current prime minister is Benjamin Netanyahu of Likud, the person to hold the position. Following an election, the president nominates a member of the Knesset to become prime minister after asking party leaders whom they support for the position, the nominee then presents a government platform and must receive a vote of confidence in order to become prime minister. In practice, the minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the governing coalition. Between 1996 and 2001, the minister was directly elected. The office of prime minister came into existence on 14 May 1948, the date of the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, david Ben-Gurion, leader of Mapai and head of the Jewish Agency became Israels first prime minister. The position became permanent on 8 March 1949, when the first government was formed, Ben-Gurion retained his role until late 1953, when he resigned in order to settle in the Kibbutz of Sde Boker. He was replaced by Moshe Sharett, however, Ben-Gurion returned in a little under two years to reclaim his position. He resigned for a time in 1963, breaking away from Mapai to form Rafi. Levi Eshkol took over as head of Mapai and prime minister and he became the first prime minister to head the country under the banner of two parties when Mapai formed the Alignment with Ahdut HaAvoda in 1965. In 1968 he also became the party leader to command an absolute majority in the Knesset, after Mapam and Rafi merged into the Alignment. On 26 February 1969, Eshkol became the first prime minister to die in office, however, Allons stint lasted less than a month, as the party persuaded Golda Meir to return to political life and become prime minister in March 1969. Meir was Israels first woman minister, and the third in the world. Meir resigned in 1974 after the Agranat Commission published its findings on the Yom Kippur War, Yitzhak Rabin took over, though he also resigned towards the end of the eighth Knessets term following a series of scandals. Rabins wife, Leah, was found to have had an overseas bank account. Menachem Begin became the first right-wing prime minister when his Likud won the 1977 elections and he resigned in 1983 for health reasons, passing the reins of power to Yitzhak Shamir
11.
Benjamin Netanyahu
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Benjamin Bibi Netanyahu is the current Prime Minister of Israel. Netanyahu also currently serves as a member of the Knesset and Chairman of the Likud party, born in Tel Aviv to secular Jewish parents, Netanyahu is the first Israeli prime minister born in Israel after the establishment of the state. Netanyahu joined the Israel Defense Forces shortly after the Six-Day War in 1967, Netanyahu took part in many missions, including Operation Inferno, Operation Gift and Operation Isotope, during which he was shot in the shoulder. Netanyahu achieved the rank of captain before being discharged, after graduating from MIT with Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees, Netanyahu was recruited as an economic consultant for the Boston Consulting Group. Netanyahu returned to Israel in 1978 to found the Yonatan Netanyahu Anti-Terror Institute, named after his brother Yonatan Netanyahu, Netanyahu served as the Israeli ambassador to the United Nations from 1984 to 1988. Netanyahu became the leader of Likud in 1993, Netanyahu won the 1996 elections, becoming Israels youngest ever Prime Minister, serving his first term from June 1996 to July 1999. Netanyahu moved from the arena to the private sector after being defeated in the 1999 election for prime minister by Ehud Barak. As Minister of Finance, Netanyahu engaged in a reform of the Israeli economy. Netanyahu retook the Likud leadership in December 2005, after Sharon left to form a new party, in December 2006, Netanyahu became the official Leader of the Opposition in the Knesset and Chairman of Likud. Following the 2009 parliamentary election, in which Likud placed second and right-wing parties won a majority, after the victory in the 2013 elections, he became the second person to be elected to the position of Prime Minister for a third term, after Israels founder David Ben-Gurion. In March 2015, Netanyahu was elected to his term as prime minister. Netanyahu has been elected Prime Minister of Israel four times, matching David Ben-Gurions record, Netanyahu is the only prime minister in Israels history to have been elected three times in a row. Netanyahu was born in 1949 in Tel Aviv, Israel, to an Israeli mother, Tzila Segal and a Warsaw-born father, Prof. Benzion Netanyahu, Netanyahu is of mixed Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jewish heritage. He was initially raised and educated in Jerusalem, where he attended Henrietta Szold Elementary School, to this day, he speaks fluent English, with a noticeable Philadelphia accent. After graduating from school in 1967, Netanyahu returned to Israel to enlist in the Israel Defense Forces. He trained as a soldier and served for five years in an elite special forces unit of the IDF. He took part in numerous cross-border assault raids during the 1967–70 War of Attrition and he was wounded in combat on multiple occasions. He was involved in other missions, including Operation Inferno
12.
Prime Minister's Office (Israel)
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In addition, it is in charge of other governmental bodies, which are directly under the Prime Minister responsibilities. Atomic Energy Commission – responsible for the activities of Israel. Mossad – The Israeli intelligence body, shin Bet – internal security service of Israel. National Economic Council – Economic counseling to the Prime Minister of Israel, government Appellation Committee – determines the Hebrew names for the Israeli geographical places, and its decisions are binding for all state institutions. Lapam – – A unit within the Prime Ministers office serving as an agency for all governmental ministry offices. Laam – – A unit within the Prime Ministers office responsible for handing Journalist diploma for Israeli mass media workers, in addition, it is in charge of coordinating between the Cabinet of Israel and the foreign Journalists community staying in Israel on media activities matters. Israel State Archive – National Authority for Religious Services, Pensioner Affairs Minister of Israel – A unit within the Prime Ministers office responsible for Pensioners, elders and the Holocaust survivors. Currently, The Prime Minister himself, Benjamin Netanyahu is the Minister for Pensioner Affairs, beit Aghion Minister in the Prime Ministers Office Prime Minister of Israel Official website
13.
Deputy leaders of Israel
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Deputy leaders in Israel fall into three categories, Acting Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Minister, and Vice Prime Minister. Deputy Prime Minister and Vice Prime Minister are honorary rather than official executive positions, Acting Prime Ministers take the place of the Prime Minister if he or she is temporarily incapacitated, while the incumbent is still in office. If the Prime Minister is removed by impeachment, dies, or becomes permanently incapacitated, the designated Acting Prime Minister takes the role of Prime Minister as Acting Prime Minister, for up to 100 consecutive days, if the incumbent is temporarily incapacitated. The incumbent minister must be also a Knesset member to be eligible for this role, in the recently installed government of Benjamin Netanyahu, there is no designated Acting Prime Minister. There can be one designated minister appointed to such position. However, the holder of this position can hold other ministerial position, as the most recent designated Acting Prime Minister. Confusingly, the term is referred to as Vice Prime Minister, though a separate. If the Prime Minister is abroad, the designated minister summons the government to cabinet meetings, if there is no such designated minister, in such event, the government will vote for one. If the Prime Minister wants to replace the designated Acting Prime Minister, he needs the approval vote of the government. However, the Prime Minister may fire the designated Acting Prime Minister, Ehud Olmert, after standing-in for Prime Minister Sharon for 100 consecutive days, as acting Prime Minister, did not automatically assume office as an Interim Prime Minister. The deal was continued into the 12th Knesset, but collapsed in 1990, the role of the designated Acting Prime Minister was limited and unattractive for any chairman of major party aspiring to get the top job. The position was resurrected in 2003, with Ariel Sharon appointing Ehud Olmert to the post, Tzipi Livni then was appointed to the post, in Olmerts Government. One of the Ministers who is a member of Knesset may be designated as Acting Prime Minister, should the Prime Minister be absent from Israel, meetings of the Government will be convened and conducted by the designated Acting Prime Minister. Should the Prime Minister be temporarily unable to discharge his duties, after the passage of 100 days upon which the Prime Minister does not resume his duties, the Prime Minister will be deemed permanently unable to exercise his office. Should the Prime Minister be permanently incapacitated, the Government shall be deemed to have resigned on the 101st day during which the Acting Prime Minister served in his place. The interim prime minister is appointed by the government if the incumbent is dead or permanently incapacitated, while the acting prime minister must be a Knesset member to meet the requirements, the interim prime minister must be a member of the prime ministers party as well. Until the 2001 basic law, the government, both the acting and interim prime ministers were required to be a Knesset member in addition to being a member of the Government. In 2006, Ehud Olmert, after standing in for Prime Minister Sharon for 100 consecutive days, as acting prime minister, did not automatically assume office as an interim prime minister
14.
Cabinet of Israel
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The Government of Israel exercises executive authority in the State of Israel. It consists of ministers who are chosen and led by the prime minister, the composition of the government must be approved by a vote of confidence in the Knesset. Under Israeli law, the minister may dismiss members of the government, but must do so in writing. Most ministers lead ministries, though some are ministers without portfolio, most ministers are members of the Knesset, though only the Prime Minister and the designated acting prime minister are required to be Knesset members. Some ministers are also called deputy and vice prime ministers, unlike the designated acting prime minister, these roles have no statutory meanings. The government operates in accordance with the Basic Law and it meets on Sundays weekly in Jerusalem. There may be additional meetings if circumstances require it, the prime minister convenes these meetings. The body discussed in this article is referred to in Israeli official documents as the Government of Israel and this is in accordance to the normal translation of its Hebrew name. Another term in use is the Kitchen Cabinet, a collection of senior officials and it was formed as the Peoples Administration on 12 April 1948, in preparation for independence just over a month later. All its thirteen members were taken from Moetzet HaAm, the legislative body set up at the same time. This government has 21 ministers and seven deputy ministers, deri resigned his post as economy minister reportedly in protest of a gas monopoly deal. Netanyahu took the portfolio himself and promised to speed up the deal, Basic Law, The Government List of female cabinet ministers of Israel Current and past cabinets—Knesset website Basic Law, The Government —Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs
15.
Thirty-fourth government of Israel
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The thirty-fourth government of Israel, also known as the Fourth Netanyahu Government, is the current government of Israel, headed by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. It was formed after the March 2015 Knesset elections, the government ministers were introduced, approved by the Knesset and sworn in on 14 May. The government deputy ministers were sworn in on 19 May, between them, the parties hold 61 of the 120 seats in the Knesset. As such, parties must adhere to the made with the Prime Minister when the coalition was formed. Changes to the responsibilities of official positions include the relinquishment of the Justice Ministers ability to appoint judges to religious courts, also, the Religious Affairs Minister will not have control over affairs connected to conversion to Judaism, that will be under the purview of the Prime Ministers office. Kulanu agreed to support the implementation of the Norwegian Law, allowing members of the Knesset to exit the Knesset upon receiving a post in the cabinet, Likud agreed to raise the salary of soldiers, give unemployment insurance to self-employed workers and set a biennial budget by October 2015. Kulanu is also permitted to vote against the coalition if it disagrees with legislation that would reform the Israeli Supreme Court, the agreement also stipulates that all obligations and commitments made to increase Haredi institutions will have to come from the Finance Ministry and not the Education Ministry. Additionally, Likud member Tzahi Hanegbi, who had to settle for a Knesset committee chairmanship, is expected to gain a position after one year. Deri resigned his post as Minister of the Economy reportedly over a gas monopoly deal. Netanyahu took over the portfolio and promised to speed up the deal, Netanyahu resigned his post as Minister of Communications following an investigation into his relationship with the media, and was replaced temporarily by Tzachi Hanegbi. See also Security Cabinet of Israel, Thirty-fourth government of Israel at the Knesset website Thirty-fourth government of Israel at the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs website
16.
Security Cabinet of Israel
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This smaller forum of the cabinet members, is designated to coordinate the diplomatic negotiations, and in times of crisis, especially war, it is designed to make quick and effective decisions. The idea of establishing a Security Cabinet was initially part of the Centre Partys platform of 1999 election, the party offered a new security plan, in which a Security Cabinet will be established for the purpose of implementing an effective peace and security plan. The idea behind the Security Cabinet was to create a professional objective advising body to the Cabinet, the members would evaluate different situations, offer alternatives and oversight, and determine positions on the Cabinet and the army. The daily agenda of the committee, and the officials to be invited to participate in its meetings shall be determined by the Prime Minister, after consulting with the minister in charge. The Minister in charge, prior to any decision making, may demand on any matter debated within the committee to be moved to a full Cabinet meeting to be debated and resolved. During Yom Kippur War, a group of ministers was formed arbitrarily and this group became to be known as The War Cabinet, and later was also nicknamed Goldas kitchen. The War Cabinet had made independent decisions during those times. Against that background, already during those times, the question of the necessity, on the other hand, some suggested that the Cabinet members should run the war as they see fit—without the need of getting anybodys approval. Receiving information concerning intelligence matters, diplomatic issues, military and security operations
17.
Kitchen Cabinet of Israel
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Meir became known for her custom of serving the attendees with a cake that she had just baked, and thus the image of a debate around her kitchen table naturally arose. Also nicknamed Goldas kitchen, it usually included Moshe Dayan, Yigal Allon, Yisrael Galili, and Yaakov Shimshon Shapira, the Kitchen attendees praised it as a preliminary assessment apparatus, while its opponents have claimed it to be a manner of overriding the official governmental bodies. Benjamin Netanyahus first Cabinet, the government, maintained such a forum which included, Netanyahu, Foreign Affairs Minister David Levy. After David Levy quit the kitchen, the activities were renewed in 1998, and it included Netanyahu, Mordechai, Sharon. In Netanyahus second Government, the 32 Government, there was also a limited forum of ministers. It was first known as the Septet Forum, and included Prime Minister Netanyahu, Ehud Barak, Avigdor Lieberman, Moshe Yaalon, Dan Meridor, Benny Begin, with the inclusion of the Minister Yuval Steinitz to the ministerial forum the name was changed to the Octet. In August 2012 Minister Avi Dichter joined the forum of ministers. With the resignation of Minister Lieberman the forum returned to an eight members structure, in Netanyhus Second Government, The Inner Kitchen Cabinet, known as the Narrow Kitchen Cabinet included Netanyahu, Lieberman and Barak. Security Cabinet of Israel Kitchen Cabinet
18.
State Comptroller of Israel
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The State Comptroller of Israel supervises and reviews the policies and operations of the government of the State of Israel. The incumbent is independent of the government and answers to the Knesset alone, the principal function of the state comptroller is to check on the legality, regularity, efficiency, economy, and ethical conduct of public institutions. By law, the State Comptroller in Israel also functions as Ombudsman to whom members of the public may send complaints about actions by governmental bodies that have caused them harm, the state comptrollers office is divided into five major inspection units. In 1965 the Comptrollers Office hosted V INCOSAI, the triennial convention of the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions. The state comptroller is elected by the Knesset in a ballot for a single term of seven years. The state comptroller can be relieved only by the Knesset or by resignation or demise, the state comptroller acts in conjunction with the State Audit Committee of the Knesset and reports to it whenever necessary. The state comptrollers budget is submitted directly to the Finance Committee and is exempt from prior consideration by the Ministry of Finance, the comptroller appointed in 2012 to replace Micha Lindenstrauss is Yosef Shapira. Economy of Israel State Comptroller website State Comptroller and Ombudsman
19.
Knesset
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The Knesset is the unicameral national legislature of Israel. As the legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset passes all laws, elects the President and Prime Minister, approves the cabinet, in addition, the Knesset elects the State Comptroller. The Prime Minister may also dissolve the Knesset, however, until an election is completed, the Knesset maintains authority in its current composition. The Knesset is located in Givat Ram, Jerusalem, as the legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset passes all laws, elects the president, approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the government through its committees. It also has the power to waive the immunity of its members, remove the President and the State Comptroller from office, the Knesset is presided over by a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. The Knesset is divided into committees, which amend bills on the appropriate subjects, Committee chairpersons are chosen by their members, on recommendation of the House Committee, and their factional composition represents that of the Knesset itself. Committees may elect sub-committees and delegate powers to them, or establish joint committees for issues concerning more than one committee, to further their deliberations, they invite government ministers, senior officials, and experts in the matter being discussed. There are four types of committees in the Knesset, permanent committees amend proposed legislation dealing with their area of expertise, and may initiate legislation. However, such legislation may only deal with Basic Laws and laws dealing with the Knesset, elections to the Knesset, Knesset members, or the State Comptroller. Special committees function in a manner to permanent committees, but are appointed to deal with particular manners at hand. Parliamentary inquiry committees are appointed by the plenum to deal with issues viewed as having national importance. The Ethics Committee is responsible for jurisdiction over Knesset members who violate the rules of ethics of the Knesset, within the framework of responsibility, the Ethics Committee may place various sanctions on a member, but is not allowed to restrict a members right to vote. The Knesset numbers 120 members, a subject which has often been a cause for proposed reforms and this proposed law has also been favoured by other politicians, including Benjamin Netanyahu. The 120 members of the Knesset are popularly elected from a single electoral district to concurrent four-year terms. All Israeli citizens 18 years or older may vote in legislative elections, Knesset seats are allocated among the various parties using the DHondt method of party list proportional representation. A party or electoral alliance must pass the threshold of 3. 25% of the overall vote to be allocated a Knesset seat. Parties select their candidates using a closed list, thus, voters select the party of their choice, not any specific candidate. The electoral threshold was set at 1% from 1949 to 1992, then 1. 5% from 1992 to 2003
20.
Leader of the Opposition (Israel)
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The Leader of the Opposition is the politician who leads the Official Opposition in the Israeli legislative body, the Knesset. Until 2000, the role of the Opposition Leader was not an official position, however, the party leading the coalition had never won the majority in the Knesset, but rather maintained it through a majority coalition building process within the Knesset. In early 2000, two bills to amend the Opposition Leaders status were submitted to the Knesset, one was a Government bill, and the other was a private members bill, submitted by MK Uzi Landau. The law also stipulates that the Opposition Leaders salary will be determined by Knesset committee, in this way, there can be a situation where the opposition members are for example, rightist National Union on one hand, and the Arab parties, on the other hand. The question was whether there can be a leader that will be able to assemble all factions of the opposition. 1948–1967, Menachem Begin 1967–1970, There wasnt any clear Opposition Leader during this period, though the head of the largest faction within the Opposition, between 1969–1970, Yitzhak-Meir Levin was the leader of the largest Opposition faction. Between 1988–1990, Shulamit Aloni, was the leader of the largest Opposition faction, 1990–1992, Shimon Peres 1992–1993, Yitzhak Shamir 1993–1996, Benjamin Netanyahu 1996–1997, Shimon Peres 1997–1999, Ehud Barak 1999–2000, Ariel Sharon After Amendment 8
21.
Isaac Herzog
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Yitzhak Bougie Herzog, known in English as Isaac Herzog, is an Israeli politician and lawyer. Since 2003, Herzog has been a member of the Knesset and has held ministerial posts, including Minister of Welfare. He is chairman of the Labor Party and has been the leader in the outgoing 19th Knesset. He contested the 2015 legislative election as head of the Zionist Union joint electoral list of Labor and Hatnuah. Herzog is the son of General Chaim Herzog, who served two terms as the Sixth President of Israel from 1983 to 1993, and Aura Ambache, founder of the Council for a Beautiful Israel. His paternal grandfather, Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, was the first Chief Rabbi of Ireland from 1922 to 1935, herzogs father was born in Ireland and his mother was born in Egypt, their families were of Eastern European Jewish descent. He has two brothers and a sister, Herzog was born in Tel Aviv. When his father served as Permanent Representative of Israel to the United Nations for three years, Herzog lived in New York and attended the Ramaz School. In the following years, while studying in high school, Herzog gained an advanced academic education at Cornell University. When he returned to Israel at the end of 1978, he enlisted in the IDF, Herzog studied law at Tel Aviv University. He worked at a law firm founded by his father, Herzog, Herzog is married to Michal, a lawyer, and has three boys. He resides in his home in the Tzahala neighborhood of Tel Aviv. In 1999, he was investigated in the Amutot Barak scandal. The Attorney General, therefore, decided to close the case against him due to lack of evidence, from 2000 until 2003, he served as chairman of the Israel Anti-Drug Authority. However, on 23 November 2005, he resigned from his cabinet post along with the rest of the party, prior to the 2006 elections, Herzog won second place on Labors list in the partys primaries. He was again second on the partys list for the 2009 elections, following the election, he was appointed Minister of Welfare & Social Services and Minister of the Diaspora, Society, and the Fight Against Antisemitism. However, he resigned from the cabinet after Ehud Barak left the Labor Party to establish Independence in January 2011, Herzog is chairman and whip of the Israeli-Australian Parliamentary Association. He is also one of the few Knesset members who serves in the military reserve
22.
Knesset Guard
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The Knesset Guard is an Israeli protective security unit. The Knesset Guard is responsible for the security of the Knesset building, Guards are stationed outside the building, and ushers are on duty inside. The commander of the force is called the Sergeant-at-Arms, in addition to its everyday duties, the Knesset Guard plays a ceremonial role, greeting dignitaries and taking part in the annual ceremony on Mount Herzl on the eve of Israeli Independence Day. On October 29,1957 Moshe Dwek threw a grenade during a session of the Knesset. Minister Haim Moshe Shapiro, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion and Minister of Foreign Affairs Golda Meir were injured, following the events the Israeli Police decided to establish the Knesset Guard in 1958. The Status and Authority were regulated as part of Knesset Guard Law from 1968, first Knesset Officer was Yerachmiel Belkin. Knesset Guards are armed with IMI Tavor TAR-21 and IMI Galil rifles, the Knesset Guard on the Knesset Virtual Tour Video clip depicting the Guards establishment
23.
Elections in Israel
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Elections in Israel are based on nationwide proportional representation. The electoral threshold is set at 3. 25%, with the number of seats a party receives in the Knesset being proportional to the number of votes it receives. The Knesset is elected for a term, although most governments have not served a full term. The legal voting age for Israeli citizens is 18, Elections are overseen by the Central Elections Committee and are held according to the Knesset Elections Law. National elections for the Knesset must take place every four years, though early elections have occurred more often. Failure to get the budget bill approved by the Knesset by March 31 also leads automatically to early elections. Israel uses the closed-list method of party-list proportional representation, thus citizens vote for their preferred party, the 120 seats in the Knesset are then assigned proportionally to each party that received votes, provided that the party gained votes which met or exceeded the electoral threshold. Parties are permitted to form electoral alliances so as to gain enough votes to meet the threshold. The low threshold makes the Israeli electoral system more favourable to minor parties than systems used in most other countries, while this typically is the leader of the party receiving the most seats, it is not required to be so. In the event a party wins 61 or more seats in an election, however, no party has ever won more than 56 seats in an election, thus, a coalition has always been required. That member has up to 42 days to negotiate with the different parties, if the Knesset approves the proposed government, he or she becomes Prime Minister. As the coalitions often prove highly unstable - given the number, however, so long as the coalition has at least 61 members it is entitled to remain in power. The electoral threshold for a party to be allocated a Knesset seat was only 1% until 1988, it was raised to 1. 5% and remained at that level until 2003. On 11 March 2014, the Knesset approved a new law to raise the threshold to 3. 25%, in 1992, in an attempt to produce more stable governments, Israel adopted a system of direct election of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister was directly elected separately from the Knesset in 1996,1999 and 2001, the direct election of the Prime Minister was abandoned after the 2001 election, having failed to produce more stable governments. Israels voting method is simplified by the fact that voters vote for a political party, on election day, and upon entry to a polling station, the voter is given an official envelope, and shown to a voting booth. Inside the booth is a tray of slips, one for each party, the slips are printed with the ballot letters of the party, the full official name of the party, and sometimes a slogan in small print. Each party publicizes their letter prior to election day, with most election posters featuring them, as many political parties in Israel are known by their acronyms, several parties can spell out their name in two or three letters, and thus use their name as their ballot letters
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Knesset Elections Law
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Basic Law, The Knesset is the part of the Basic Laws of Israel that governs the process of elections in the Israeli parliament or the Knesset. The law was created in 1958 and updated in 1987, members of the Knesset are elected through proportional representation based on results for the entire national electorate. This means that seats are allocated across all parties fielding candidates who receive a minimum of 3. 25% of the vote, ballot papers give voters a choice of parties, rather than choosing individual candidates. Parties have lists of candidates in order of preference, many parties have changed their way of choosing candidate lists over time. Elections are nominally held every four years, but the Knesset or prime minister can decide to call an election early, also under certain circumstances elections may be postponed past four years. The only example of a delay was the election for 8th Knesset which was postponed by a majority in the Knesset. Israeli Central Elections Committee The Basic Law, The Knesset
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Israeli Central Elections Committee
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The Israeli Central Elections Committee is the body charged under the Knesset Elections Law of 1969 to carry out the elections for the upcoming Knesset. The committee is composed of Knesset members representing various groups and is chaired by a Supreme Court Justice. Tasks for the committee include the authorization of party lists running for the Knesset, election financing, in 1985, the Knesset approved a law which, for the first time, allowed the committee to disqualify a party list on the grounds of its ideological platform. The first provision, dealing with the existence of Israel as a Jewish state, has been the most controversial since it is possible that parties favoring a one-state solution could be banned under it. The committee decided to ban the Progressive List for Peace and the Kach Party in 1988, the former was banned for allegedly negating the existence of Israel as a Jewish and democratic state, the later party was banned because of incitements to racism. In 2003, Likud MK Michael Eitan initiated a move to ban the Taal Party from participating in that years Knesset elections, the Central Election Committee proceeded to vote by a one-vote majority to disqualify Balad and Taal lists from the elections. The bans were appealed to the Israeli Supreme Court, where the Court unanimously overturned the bans on the Taal list, the Court also overturned the ban on Balad and party leader Azmi Bishara by a 7-4 majority. On 12 January 2009 the Committee voted to ban two Arab political parties, Balad and the United Arab List—Taal, from participating in the February elections, the vote passed 26-3 with one abstention to ban Balad from the elections and 21-3 with eight abstentions to disqualify UAL—Taal. The measure was proposed by the National Union and Yisrael Beiteinu parties, Yisrael Beitenu chairman Avigdor Lieberman, stated that The next step is to declare Balad illegal because its a terror organisation that seeks to hurt Israel. The leaders of the Arab parties denied the charges and appealed the decision to the Supreme court, Tibi described the vote as a political trial led by a group of fascists and racists who are willing to see the Knesset without Arabs and want to see the country without Arabs. Jamal Zahalka, chairman of Balad, warned that the decision would lead to a crisis between Israels Jewish and Arab citizens. On 21 January 2009, the Supreme Court overturned the ban, english language page of official website
26.
Referendums in Israel
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Though a Basic Law providing for a national referendum or a two thirds Knesset majority prior to any territorial withdrawal has been enacted in 2014, no Referendum has ever been held in Israel. For a law to pass it must be approved in three independent readings, the law was enacted in the context of peace talks with Syria, which wants Israel to withdraw from the Golan Heights based on the land for peace formula. The Golan Heights were occupied by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, the holding of a referendum has been proposed several times over the course of Israels history, although none of these proposals has ever succeeded. David Ben-Gurion proposed a referendum on the introduction of an electoral system in 1958 to reduce the influence of the National Religious Party. Menachem Begin proposed the introduction of an initiative, which would have allowed 100,000 citizens to demand that a proposed law be submitted to a referendum. The referendum was also discussed in the 1970s, when a plebiscite over the future of the West Bank was considered. More recently, a referendum was proposed in 2005 when then Prime minister Ariel Sharon proposed Israels unilateral disengagement plan from the Gaza Strip. Israeli settlers in the Gaza Strip who were opposed to the abandonment of their settlements there had asked that a referendum be held on the plan. Sharon opposed the holding of a referendum, and the law was passed through the Knesset. Israels withdrawal from its Sinai settlements in the 1980s was also never put to a referendum
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Judiciary of Israel
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The judicial system of Israel consists of secular courts and religious courts. The law courts constitute a separate and independent unit of Israels Ministry of Justice, the system is headed by the President of the Supreme Court and the Minister of Justice. Located in Jerusalem, the Supreme Court acts as an appellate court. The Supreme Court re-evaluates decisions by the lower, district courts, sitting as the High Court of Justice, it acts as a court of first instance, often in matters concerning the legality of decisions regarding state authorities. The High Court of Justice or otherwise the Israeli Supreme Court acts sometimes not as a body to the district court. The District Courts constitute the middle level courts of the judicial system, in criminal matters, the courts have jurisdiction over cases where the accused faces a penalty of at least seven years imprisonment. In civil cases, they have jurisdiction over cases in more than two and a half million shekels are in dispute. District courts also hear appeals of judgments of the courts, as well as cases involving companies and partnership, arbitration, prisoners petitions. Sitting as courts for administrative matters, they can hear petitions against arms of the government, one also sits as the court of admiralty, hearing all cases involving shipping commerce, accidents on the sea and the like. Most cases are heard by a judge, though the court president can choose to appoint a three-judge panel. Cases where the accused is charged with a punishable by at least ten years in prison. There are six courts, one in each district of Israel. The Magistrate courts serve as trial courts. In criminal matters, they hear cases where the accused faces up to seven years imprisonment and they also have jurisdiction over the use and possession of real property. The courts also act as courts, municipal courts and family courts. Sitting as small-claims courts, they have jurisdiction over cases involving claims up to 30,000 shekels, rather than following standard evidentiary rules, they require extensive pleadings and documentation upon filing of a formally written complaint. Verdicts are expected seven days from trial, cases are heard by a single judge unless the court president decides to appoint a three-judge panel. There are five Regional Labor Courts in Israel as a tribunal of first instance, the Labor Courts Law sets forth those matters within the jurisdiction of the Labor Court
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Supreme Court of Israel
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The Supreme Court is the highest court in Israel. It has ultimate jurisdiction over all other courts and, in some cases. The Supreme Court consists of 15 justices who are appointed by the Judicial Selection Committee, once appointed, justices serve until retirement at the age of 70, unless they resign, or are removed from office. The current President of the Supreme Court is Miriam Naor, the Supreme Court is situated in Jerusalems Givat Ram governmental campus. Its jurisdiction applies to all of Israel and the Israeli-occupied territories, according to the principle of binding precedent, a ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every other court, except itself. Appointing Supreme Court Justices requires a majority of 7 of the 9 committee members, the three organs of state—the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government—as well as the bar association are represented in the Judges Nominations Committee. Thus, the shaping of the body, through the manner of judicial appointment, is carried out by all the authorities together. An eminent jurist can also be appointed to the Supreme Court, the number of Supreme Court justices is determined by a resolution of the Knesset. Currently, there are 15 Supreme Court Justices, at the head of the Supreme Court and at the head of the judicial system as a whole stands the President of the Supreme Court, and at his or her side, the Deputy President. A judges term ends when he or she reaches 70 years of age, resigns, dies, is appointed to another position that disqualifies him or her, as of December 2016 the Supreme Court Justices are, Liat Benmelech and Guy Shani serve as the Court Registrars. Below is a list of presidents of the Supreme Court, As an appellate court and it also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, the Supreme Court can also sit at a “further hearing” on its own judgment. The Supreme Court, both as a court and the High Court of Justice, is normally constituted of a panel of three Justices. The Supreme Court sits as a panel of five justices or more in a ‘further hearing’ on a matter in which the Supreme Court sat with a panel of three justices. The Supreme Court may sit as a panel of an uneven number of justices than three in matters that involve fundamental legal questions and constitutional issues of particular importance. The length of service, for purpose, is calculated from the date of the appointment of the Judge to the Supreme Court. A special power, unique to the Supreme Court, is the power to order a retrial on a matter in which the defendant has been convicted by a final judgment. In practice, a ruling to hold a retrial is very rarely made, the Court announces its judgments through individually signed opinions setting out the result and underlying reasoning
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Attorney General of Israel
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It is an independent appointed position which is one of the most important and influential in the Israeli democracy, and a central institution in the framework of the Israeli legal system. Owing to the common law tradition of the legal system, much of the positions duties are not codified in law and have been borne out of precedent. This recommendation regarding the committee was adopted in August 2000. The manner in which the Attorney General carries out the assigned to his or her position is derived to a large extent from the personality of the person holding the position. The most famous example was a scandal in the mid-1990s, relating to the appointment of Roni Bar-On as legal adviser to the government, there were suspicions that the appointment was part of a deal intended to provide leniency for Aryeh Deri in his corruption case. Those events were coined in the media as the Bar-On Hebron affair, the drawbacks of the current situation are,1. Undermining of democracy - the public’s will to achieve its objectives through the representatives is thwarted, undermining of governability - legal advisers delay and stop processes and prevent the government from functioning. The minister, on his part, can easily renounce responsibility, due to the legal intervention, both for the law and for any professional achievements. Aviad Bakshi, Legal advisers and the government, analysis and recommendations Shaked, A-G has no veto over what is legal on the Jerusalem Post website KPF conference on AG and the government
30.
Avichai Mandelblit
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Aluf Avichai Mandelblit or Mendelblit was the Chief Military Advocate General of the Israel Defense Forces between the years 2004 and 2011. On April 2013 he was appointed Cabinet Secretary, in February 2016 he was appointed Attorney General of Israel. He was born and raised in Tel Aviv and became an Orthodox Jew at the age of 26 and he was allowed to postpone his mandatory military service in the Israel Defense Forces to attend Tel Aviv University as part of the Atuda program. He joined the IDF in 1985 after graduating with a degree in law Upon joining the IDF, he held a variety of positions in the Military Prosecutors Office. Between 1991 and 1992, he served as a judge in the Military Court of the Gaza region, in 1997, he was appointed Deputy President of the Military Court of the Southern Command and the Ground Forces. In 2000 he was appointed as the Head of the Chief Military Defense, in 2004, he was promoted to the rank of Tat Aluf and appointed as the Chief Military Advocate General. In 2009, he was promoted to the rank of Aluf, during his service as the Chief Military Advocate General, Mandelblit frequently expressed the IDFs legal viewpoint upon different issues of the international humanitarian law. In December 2007, he declared that the IDFs use of bombs during the Second Lebanon War complied with international humanitarian law. He was also a part of criticism against Goldstone Report, stating. It is when you read these other reports and complaints that you realize how truly vicious the Goldstone report is and he made it look like we set out to go after the economic infrastructure and civilians, that it was intentional. On September 15,2011, Mandelblit was succeeded as the Chief Military Advocate General by Danny Efroni
31.
Districts of Israel
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There are six main administrative districts of Israel, known in Hebrew as mehozot and Arabic as mintaqah and fifteen sub-districts known as nafot. Each sub-district is further divided into Cities, municipalities, and Regional councils it contains, the Judea and Samaria Area, however, is not included in the number of districts and sub-districts as Israel has not applied its civilian jurisdiction in that part of the West Bank. Population,1,358,600 District capital, Nazareth Safed – population,113,700 Kinneret – population,110,500 Yizreel – population,482,300 Akko – population,605,700 Golan – population,46,400. Population,966,700 District capital, Haifa Haifa – population,560,600 Hadera – population,406,000 Central District. Population,2,024,500 District capital, Ramla Sharon – population,446,500 Petah Tikva – population,685,000 Ramla – population,326,400 Rehovot – population,566,600 Tel Aviv District. Population,1,350,000 District capital, Tel Aviv Southern District, currently only the Coordination and Liaison Administration operates there. Jewish Population,407,118, Palestinian population, roughly 1.8 million, largest city, Modiin Illit The name Judea and Samaria for this geographical area is based on terminology from the Hebrew and other sources relating to ancient Israel and Judah/Judea. The territory has been under Israeli control since the 1967 Six-Day War but not annexed by Israel, in Jewish religious terms, it is part of the Land of Israel, which leads to politically contentious issues. However, it is not considered part of the State of Israel by the UN, urban Israel, Details and pictures about many cities in Israel
32.
Local government in Israel
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Local governments appoint a head, or mayor, who is selected through a process of democratic elections along with his fellow council members. Councils may enact bylaws for improvement of the quality of life. City and local councils are united in the framework of the Centre for Local Government in Israel, founded in 1938, the district planning commission is a joint state-local authority which approves detailed local plans and acts as a forum for handling appeals of decisions. Furthermore local authorities are allowed to local taxes and collect various payments for services. They prepare their own budgets, although these then must be approved by the Ministry of the Interior, israeli Democracy - How does it work - Local government
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City council (Israel)
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City councils - plural, (Hebrew, עִירִיּוֹת Iriyot / singular, (Hebrew, עִירִיָּה Iriya - are the official designations of the cities within Israels system of local government. City mayors and members of the city councils are elected every five years, list of cities in Israel Local council Regional council Local Government in Israel. 2009 Local Authorities on Israel Government portal City Council Ordinance
34.
Local council (Israel)
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There are 265 local councils in Israel. Local councils should not be confused with local committees, which are lower-level administrative entities, Local council status is determined by passing a minimum threshold, enough to justify operations as independent municipal units, although not large enough to be declared a city. In general this applies to all settlements of over 2,000 people, the Israeli Interior Minister has the authority of deciding whether a locality is fit to become a municipal council. Local councils also have an important role in town planning, the Union of Local Authorities in Israel is the umbrella organization of local councils in Israel. The union represents the local councils vis a vis the national government, ULAI was established in 1938, under the British Mandate, as the League of Local Councils. Regional council City council List of cities in Israel Local Government in Israel
35.
Regional council (Israel)
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As of 2003, there were 53 regional councils, usually responsible for governing a number of settlements spread across rural areas. Regional councils include representation of anywhere between 3 and 54 communities, usually spread over a large area within geographical vicinity of each other. Each community within a regional council usually does not exceed 2000 in population and is managed by a local committee and this committee sends representatives to the administering regional council proportionate to their size of membership and according to an index which is fixed before each election. Those settlements without an administrative council do not send any representatives to the regional council, representatives from those settlements which are represented directly are either chosen directly or through an election. The predominant form of communities represented on regional councils are kibbutzim and moshavim, the following sortable table lists all 53 regional councils by name, and the district or area according to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. The list includes the regional councils in the Golan Heights and the West Bank, areas considered occupied territories under international law, city council Local council List of Israeli cities Local Government in Israel
36.
Foreign relations of Israel
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The term foreign relations of Israel refers to diplomatic, commercial and cultural ties between the State of Israel and other countries around the world. Israel joined the United Nations on 11 May 1949, Israel maintains diplomatic ties with 159 countries as of March 2017. Israel maintains full diplomatic relations and open borders with two of its Arab neighbours, Egypt and Jordan, after signing treaties in 1979 and 1994 respectively. The close friendship with the United States has been the linchpin of Israeli foreign policy for decades, from the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 until the Iranian Revolution and the fall of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979, Israel and Iran maintained close ties. Iran was the second Muslim-majority country to recognize Israel as a nation after Turkey. In the mid-20th century, Israel ran extensive foreign aid and educational programs in Africa, sending experts in agriculture, water management, during the 2000s, the foreign ministry warned that the increasing influence of the EU would further isolate Israel in global affairs. In the wake of a series of diplomatic rifts with Turkey, Israeli ties with Egypt have improved since the Muslim Brotherhood was removed from power there, while ties to Turkey have been uneven since their 2010 nadir but less dismal than that point. The first international organization which the Israeli government joined was the International Wheat Council, since 11 May 1949, the State of Israel has been a member of the United Nations. Israel also participates in international organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency. Within the UNESCO, Israel is a member in international programmes. Relations are carried out through the Israeli National Commission for UNESCO and it is also a member of the Bank for International Settlement since 2003. On 10 May 2010, Israel was invited to join the Organization for Economic Cooperation, Israel is a member of NATOs Mediterranean Dialogue forum. In 2014 Israel joined the Paris Club, after the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Israel was subjected to Arab League boycotts and attempts to diplomatically isolate the state. Today, Israel has diplomatic ties with 157 out of the other 192 member states of the United Nations as well as with non-member Holy See, some states recognize Israel as a state, but have no diplomatic relations. Several countries once had diplomatic relations with Israel, but have since broken or suspended them, some of these countries have since resumed relations. In addition, a number of countries that at one time had formal ties with Israel that fell short of full diplomatic relations, have severed such ties. Some of these countries accept Israeli passports and acknowledge other indications of Israeli sovereignty, Middle East, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. South and Central Asia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, other states with limited recognition, Abkhazia, Kosovo, Nagorno-Karabakh, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, State of Palestine, Sahrawi Republic, Somaliland, South Ossetia, and Transnistria
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Israel, Palestine, and the United Nations
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Issues relating to the State of Israel, the State of Palestine and other aspects of the Arab–Israeli conflict occupy repeated annual debate times, resolutions and resources at the United Nations. Since its founding in 1948, the United Nations Security Council and this followed the report of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine. The UN has sponsored several peace negotiations between the parties, the latest being the 2002 Road map for peace and these decisions often criticize Israel for its occupation of Palestinian land and its oppression of Palestinians. A number of observers have described this criticism as excessive, in addition, the UNHRC was criticized in 2007 for failing to condemn other alleged human rights abusers besides Israel. The United States has been criticized as well by the OIC and other Arab organisations, for vetoing most Security Council decisions critical of Israel, since 1961, Israel has been barred from the Asian regional group. In 2000, it was offered limited membership in the Western European, on 29 November 2012, the UN General Assembly adopted United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19 changing Palestines entity status to non-member state by a vote of 138 to 9, with 41 abstentions. Some sources claim that these measures implicitly recognised its sovereignty, in an interview on December 16,2016, UN Secretary General, Ban Ki Moon, said that the UN has issued a disproportionate volume of resolutions, reports and conferences criticizing Israel. It would consist of the representatives of Australia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, India, Iran, Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, Uruguay and Yugoslavia. In the final report of September 3,1947, seven members of the Committee in Chapter VI expressed themselves, by recorded vote, the Plan proposed an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem. The vote itself, which required a majority, was a dramatic affair. It led to celebrations in the streets of Jewish cities, but was rejected by the Arab Palestinians, within a few days, full scale Jewish–Arab fighting broke out in Palestine. It also led to violence in Arab countries, and to a Jewish exodus from Arab. The same day, five Arab states invaded and rapidly occupied much of the Arab portion of the partition plan and this war changed the dynamic of the region, transforming a two-state plan into a war between Israel and the Arab world. This resolution, accepted immediately by Israel, is the legal foundation of the Palestinian right of return claim. Resolution 194 also called for the creation of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, the Arab states initially opposed this resolution, but within a few months, began to change their position, and became the strongest advocates of its refugee and territorial provisions. The Soviet Union was the first country to recognise Israel de jure on 17 May 1948, followed by Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ireland, the United States extended de jure recognition after the first Israeli election, on 31 January 1949. On 15 May 1948, one day after the declaration of its establishment, Israel applied for membership of the United Nations, Israels second application was rejected by the Security Council on 17 December 1948 by a 5 to 1 vote, with 5 abstentions. Syria was the negative vote, the U. S. Argentina, Colombia, the Soviet Union and Ukraine voted in favor
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Geography of Israel
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The geography of Israel is very diverse, with desert conditions in the south, and snow-capped mountains in the north. Israel is located at 31°30′N 34°45′E at the end of the Mediterranean Sea in western Asia. It is bounded to the north by Lebanon, the northeast by Syria, the east by Jordan and the West Bank, to the west of Israel is the Mediterranean Sea, which makes up the majority of Israels 273 km coastline and the Gaza Strip. Israel has a coastline on the Red Sea in the south. Israels area is approximately 20,770 km2, which includes 445 km2 of inland water, Israel stretches 424 km from north to south, and its width ranges from 114 km to, at its narrowest point,15 km. The Israeli-occupied territories include the West Bank,5,879 km2, East Jerusalem,70 km2, geographical features in these territories will be noted as such. Southern Israel is dominated by the Negev desert, covering some 16,000 square kilometres, the north of the Negev contains the Judean Desert, which, at its border with Jordan, contains the Dead Sea which, at −417 m is the lowest point on Earth. The inland area of central Israel is dominated by the Judean Hills of the West Bank, whilst the central and northern coastline consists of the flat and fertile Israeli coastal plain. Inland, the region contains the Mount Carmel mountain range, which is followed inland by the fertile Jezreel Valley. The highest point in territory internationally recognized as Israeli is Mount Meron at 1,208 meters, Israel lies to the north of the equator around 31°30 north latitude and 34°45 east longitude. It measures 424 km from north to south and, at its widest point 114 km, at its narrowest point, however, this is reduced to just 15 km. It has a frontier of 1,017 km and a coastline of 273 km. It is ranked 153 on the List of countries and outlying territories by total area, prior to the establishment of the British Mandate for Palestine, there was no clear-cut definition of the geographical and territorial limits of the area known as Palestine. On the eve of World War I it was described by Encyclopædia Britannica as a geographical concept. The Sykes-Picot Treaty in 1916 divided the region later became Palestine into four political units. Under the British Mandate for Palestine, the first geo-political framework was created that distinguished the area from the countries that surrounded it. The boundary demarcation at this time did not introduce geographical changes near the frontiers, modern Israel is bounded to the north by Lebanon, the northeast by Syria, the east by Jordan and the West Bank, and to the southwest by Egypt. To the west of Israel is the Mediterranean Sea, which makes up the majority of Israels 273 km coastline, Israel has a small coastline on the Red Sea in the south
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Land of Israel
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The Land of Israel is the traditional Jewish name for an area of indefinite geographical extension in the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definitions of the limits of this territory vary between passages in the Hebrew Bible, with mentions in Genesis 15, Exodus 23, Numbers 34. Nine times elsewhere in the Bible, the land is referred as from Dan to Beersheba. According to the Book of Genesis, the land was first promised by God to the descendants of Abram, abrams name was later changed to Abraham, with the promise refined to pass through his son Isaac and to the Israelites, descendants of Jacob, Abrahams grandson. During the mandatory period the term Eretz Yisrael or the Land of Israel was part of the official Hebrew name of Mandatory Palestine, official Hebrew documents used the Hebrew transliteration of the word “Palestine” פלשתינה followed always by the two initial letters of Eretz Yisrael, א״י Aleph-Yod. The Land of Israel concept has been evoked by the founders of the State of Israel. It often surfaces in political debates on the status of the West Bank, Ezekiel, though generally preferring the phrase soil of Israel, employs eretz israel twice, respectively at Ezekiel 40,2 and Ezekiel 47,18. According to Anita Shapira, the term Eretz Yisrael was a term, vague as far as the exact boundaries of the territories are concerned. The Hebrew Bible provides three specific sets of borders for the Promised Land, each with a different purpose. And to their descendants after them, whilst Numbers 34, 1–15 describes the Land of Canaan which is allocated to nine, the expression Land of Israel is first used in a later book,1 Samuel 13,19. It is defined in detail in the exilic Book of Ezekiel as a land where both the tribes and the strangers in midst, can claim inheritance. The name Israel first appears in the Hebrew Bible as the name given by God to the patriarch Jacob, deriving from the name Israel, other designations that came to be associated with the Jewish people have included the Children of Israel or Israelite. The term Land of Israel occurs in one episode in the New Testament, the section in which it appears was written as a parallel to the earlier Book of Exodus. The passage describes the area as the land of the ten named ancient peoples living there. Genesis gives the border with Egypt as Nahar Mitzrayim – nahar in Hebrew denotes a river, never a wadi. Only the Red Sea and the Euphrates are mentioned to define the southern and eastern borders of the land promised to the Israelites. The Red Sea corresponding to Hebrew Yam Suf was understood in ancient times to be the Erythraean Sea, thus the entire Arabian peninsula lies within the borders described
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Transport in Israel
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Transportation in Israel is based mainly on private motor vehicles and bus service and an expanding railway network. Demands of population growth, political factors, the Israel Defense Forces, tourism, all facets of transportation in Israel are under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport and Road Safety. Israels road network spans 18,096 kilometers of roads, of which 449 km are classified as freeways, the network spans the whole country. Buses are the main form of public transport. In 2015, bus passenger trips totaled approximately 678 million, in 2009,16 companies operated buses for public transport, totaling 5,939 buses and 8,470 drivers. Egged is Israels largest bus company, and operates throughout the country. Bus routes in some areas are operated by smaller carriers, the largest being the Dan Bus Company, Bus stations in Israel, other than standalone bus stops, come in two types, terminals and central stations. Each terminal serves a number of routes, usually over a dozen, the largest central bus terminal in the country is the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station, which is also the second largest bus terminal in the world. Israel also has a taxi service, run by several private companies, depending on location. The shared sherut service usually appears a yellow minivans and travel along the path as the normal buses with identical route numbers. For a slightly higher price, the shared sherut service allows passengers to hop on and hop off anyway along the path of travel. During peak travel, often the time of travel can be shortened as the number of passengers is significantly small compared to normal bus services, some routes continue to travel through the night and on Shabbat providing transport needs to the population when normal buses services cease. The beginning and end of the sherut vans may differ from the Tachana Makazit and on the weekends and evenings, on August 5,2010, the Ministry of Transport opened a website that contained information about public bus and train routes in the country. Previously, information was only by the individual public transit operators. Israel has one bus rapid transit system in Haifa, called the Metronit, in 2013 there were over 45 million passenger rides taken. Many of Israels railway lines were constructed before the founding of the state during Ottoman, the first line was the Jaffa–Jerusalem railway, followed by the Jezreel Valley railway, which formed part of the greater Hejaz railway. Southern lines were built by the warring states—from the north by the Ottomans. Beginning in the mid-1960s, railway development stagnated, and a number of lines were abandoned altogether, development restarted in the 1990s, the opening of Tel Avivs Ayalon railway in 1993 signaling a new era of rail development
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Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
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Red Sea
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The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait, to the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez. The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion, the sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has an area of roughly 438,000 km2, is about 2250 km long and. It has a depth of 2211 m in the central median trench. However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life, the sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the worlds northernmost tropical sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, a line joining Husn Murad and Ras Siyyan. Red Sea is a translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa, Latin Mare Rubrum, Arabic, البحر الأحمر. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar, Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī, the name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the waters surface. A theory favored by modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions, herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was known to western geographers as Mare Mecca. Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. C, in that version, the Yam Suph is translated as Erythra Thalassa. The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the part of the Indian Ocean. The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, one such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC. Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea, historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible
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Dead Sea
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The Dead Sea, is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and Palestine to the west. Its surface and shores are 430.5 metres below sea level, the Dead Sea is 304 m deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With 34. 2% salinity, it is 9.6 times as salty as the ocean and this salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea is 50 kilometres long and 15 kilometres wide at its widest point and it lies in the Jordan Rift Valley and its main tributary is the Jordan River. The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years and it was one of the worlds first health resorts, and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilizers. People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics, the Dead Sea water has a density of 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to floating. The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate, multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession, which had begun causing many problems. The Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, will provide water to neighboring countries, the first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021. In Hebrew, the Dead Sea is Yām ha-Melaḥ, meaning sea of salt, the Bible uses this term alongside two others, the Sea of the Arabah, and the Eastern Sea. The designation Dead Sea never appears in the Bible, in prose sometimes the term Yām ha-Māvet is used, due to the scarcity of aquatic life there. In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al-Bahr al-Mayyit, or less commonly baḥrᵘ lūṭᵃ, another historic name in Arabic was the Sea of Zoʼar, after a nearby town in biblical times. The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites, the Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform. This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. It is here that the Upper Jordan River/Sea of Galilee/Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end. The Jordan River is the major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools. The Mujib River, biblical Arnon, is one the larger sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan. The Wadi Mujib valley,420 m below the sea level in the southern of Jordan valley, is a biosphere reserve, other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh /Nahal Dragot, and Nahal Arugot
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