1.
Jesse Jackson Jr.
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Jacksons wife, Sandi Jackson, served on the Chicago City Council. He served as a national co-chairman of the 2008 Barack Obama presidential campaign, Jackson established a consistent liberal record on both social and fiscal issues, and he has co-authored books on civil rights and personal finance. In October 2012, Jackson was investigated for financial improprieties including misuse of campaign funds, Jackson resigned from Congress on November 21,2012, citing mental and physical health problems, including bipolar disorder, and gastrointestinal problems. On February 8,2013, Jackson admitted to violating campaign law by using campaign funds to make personal purchases. Jackson pleaded guilty on February 20,2013 to one count of wire, on August 14,2013, he was sentenced to 30 months in federal prison. He attended nursery school at the University of Chicago and attended John J. Pershing Elementary School, at age five Jackson mimicked his father in a speech atop a milk crate at the Operation PUSH headquarters. He and his brother Jonathan were sent to Le Mans Military Academy in Rolling Prairie and he was often paddled for disciplinary reasons during his time as a cadet. Jackson repeated ninth grade and was suspended from school twice.2 yards per carry in six games, Jackson enrolled in North Carolina A&T University, his fathers alma mater, earning his Bachelor of Science degree magna cum laude in 1987. He decided to follow his fathers advice to receive an education at the Chicago Theological Seminary. Jackson proceeded to law school at the University of Illinois and convinced his wife to transfer there from the Georgetown University Law Center. He then earned a Juris Doctor from the University of Illinois College of Law in 1993, Jackson never sat for the bar exam despite finishing his coursework a semester early. As a teenager, Jackson and his brother Jonathan assisted in their fathers civil rights activities, during the 1984 Democratic primaries, the three Jackson brothers sometimes appeared at events together in support of their fathers presidential campaign. While in college, Jackson held a voter registration drive that registered 3,500 voters on a campus with 4,500 students and his first job after graduation was as an executive director for the Rainbow Coalition. Jackson was again involved in his fathers campaigning during the 1988 Democratic primaries. Jackson Jr. was the last of the five children to speak and introduced his father with the words a man who fights against the odds and his experience with the DNC gave him the opportunity to work on numerous congressional election races. After the convention he became a vice president of Operation PUSH. Jackson was arrested on his twenty-first birthday in Washington, D. C. following his participation in demonstrations against apartheid at the South African Embassy and he had been arrested with his father and brother the year before in a similar activity. His protest against apartheid extended to weekly demonstrations in front of the South African Consulate in Chicago, Jackson shared the stage with Nelson Mandela when Mandela made his historic speech following his release from a 27-year imprisonment in Cape Town in February 1990
2.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
3.
Paul Strauss
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Paul Eric Strauss is a shadow senator from the District of Columbia. In 2006, Strauss ran for the Districts City Council to represent Ward 3 and he came in second place in the Democratic primary, receiving 15% of the vote, while Mary Cheh received 44% of the vote. Strauss was selected to be a superdelegate to the 2008 Democratic National Convention where he endorsed Barack Obama, Strauss received 65% of the vote in the September Democratic primary, while Democratic challenger Phil Pannell received 33%. In the November general election, Strauss faced Republican Nelson F. Rimensnyder, Statehood Green Party candidate Keith Ware, and Libertarian Party Candidate Damien Lincoln Ober. Strauss received 82% of the vote, giving him his largest margin of victory ever, Strauss was again re-elected in 2014, with 77. 3% of the vote. Strauss was born in Brooklyn, was raised in the Upper East Side of Manhattan and he moved to Washington, D. C. in 1982, earning his bachelors degree and Juris Doctor at American University. Strauss lives in the Observatory Circle/Glover Park neighborhood in the District, Strauss is an attorney and principal of the Law Offices of Paul Strauss & Associates, P. C. A law firm specializing in estate, business, and family law. Strauss is a former Chairperson of the Districts Board of Real Property Assessments and he has been a union organizer for Hotel and Restaurant Employees Union Local 25. As a youth, Strauss was volunteer in election campaigns of Mario Biaggi, Hugh Carey, at 17, he interned for New York City Mayor Ed Koch with his own desk in the Tweed Courthouse. In his first political campaign in Washington, D. C. he mobilized other college students to register to vote against raising the age to 21. He is a former member of Washington, D. C. s Democrat State Committee. On October 1,2008, Strauss was arrested for drunken driving and he was found to have a blood-alcohol level at twice the legal level of intoxication. Democratic Primary Election 1996 Shadow Senator, D. C, general Election 2002 Shadow Senator, D. C. Democratic Primary Election 2002 Shadow Senator, D. C, general Election 2006 Representative for Ward 3 in the D. C. Council, Democratic Primary Election 2008 Shadow Senator, D. C, Democratic Primary Election 2008 Shadow Senator, D. C
4.
Greenville, South Carolina
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Greenville is the county seat of Greenville County in the upstate region of South Carolina, in the United States. The citys mayor is Knox White, who has served in that position since December 1995, with an estimated population of 64,579 as of 2015, it is the sixth-largest city in the state. The population of the area was 400,492 as of 2010. Greenville is the largest city in the Greenville-Anderson-Mauldin Metropolitan Statistical Area, the MSA had a population of 874,869 in 2015, making it the largest in South Carolina and the third largest in the Carolinas. Greenville is the largest city in the Greenville-Spartanburg-Anderson Combined Statistical Area, according to United States Census Bureau, the CSA had a population of 1,426,625 as of 2015, making it the largest CSA in the state. The CSA, a 10-county region of northwestern South Carolina, is known as The Upstate, Greenville is located approximately halfway between Atlanta and Charlotte, North Carolina, along Interstate 85, and its metropolitan area also includes Interstates 185 and 385. The land of present-day Greenville was once the ground of the Cherokee which was forbidden to colonists. A wealthy settler from Virginia named Richard Pearis arrived in South Carolina around 1754 trading with Cherokee, Pearis had a child with a Cherokee woman and received about 100,000 acres from the Cherokee around 1770. Pearis established a plantation on the Reedy River called the Great Plains in present-day downtown Greenville, the American Revolution divided the South Carolina country between the Loyalists and Patriots. Pearis supported the Loyalists and together with their allies the Cherokee attacked the Patriots, the Patriots retaliated by burning down Pearis plantation and jailing him in Charleston. Pearis never returned to his plantation but Paris Mountain is named after him, the Treaty of Dewitts Corner in 1777 ceded almost all Cherokee land, including present-day Greenville, to South Carolina. Greenville County was created in 1786 and was named for its physical appearance, however, other sources say Greenville is named after General Nathanael Greene in honor of his service in the American Revolutionary War. Lemuel J. Alston came to Greenville County in 1788 and bought 400 acres, in 1797 Alston used his land holdings to establish a village called Pleasantburg where he also built a stately mansion. Vardry McBee purchased Alstons land in 1816 who then leased the Alston mansion for a summer resort, McBee decided to make the mansion his home in 1835 until his death in 1864. Considered to be the father of Greenville, McBee donated land for many such as churches, academies. Furman University was funded by McBee who helped bring the university to Pleasantburg from Winnsboro, in 1853 McBee and other Greenville County leaders funded a new railroad called the Greenville and Columbia Railroad. Pleasantburg boomed to around 1,000 in the 1850s due to the growth of McBees donations, in 1831 Pleasantburg was incorporated as Greenville. In December 1860 Greenville supported a convention to debate the issue of secession for South Carolina, the Greenville District sent James Furman, William K. Easley, Perry E. Duncan, William H. Campbell, and James P. Harrison as delegates for the convention
5.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
6.
Jonathan Jackson (activist)
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Jonathan Luther Jackson is an American business professor, entrepreneur and social justice advocate. He is the spokesman for the Rainbow/PUSH Coalition and a partner in a Chicago-based beer distributorship, River North Sales and Service. Jackson was born Jonathan Luther Jackson in Chicago, Illinois, to the Rev. Jesse Jackson, a civil rights activist and Baptist minister. His godfather was the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. from which Jackson gets his name from. The middle child of his parents five children, Jacksons siblings are Santita Jackson and U. S. Rep. Jesse Jackson, Jr. his elders, Jackson attended Whitney M. Young Magnet High School in Chicago, where he was a student-athlete. He attended his parents alma mater, North Carolina A & T University in Greensboro, North Carolina and he is a graduate of the Kellogg Graduate School of Business at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. Jackson married Marilyn Ann Richards of Brooklyn in 1995, Jonathan and Marilyn Jacksons children include Jonathan T. Jackson, Leah Jackson, and Noah Jackson. Born into a family steeped in human rights activism, Jackson has traveled the world as an aide de camp to his father. He traveled to Syria in 1983, when the Rev. Jackson negotiated with Syrian President Hafez al-Assad to release captured American pilot Navy Lt. Robert Goodman and he met Fidel Castro in 1984, when his father negotiated the release of twenty-two Americans being held in Cuba. He was also with his father in August 2005, when the Rev. Jackson traveled to Venezuela to meet Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and this followed controversial remarks by televangelist Pat Robertson where he implied Chávez should be assassinated. Jackson condemned Robertsons remarks as immoral, in 2007, Jonathan Jackson took on the issues of innocence and juvenile justice as national spokesman for the RainbowPUSH Coalition. Jackson has highlighted the stories and continued trials of those who accused the Chicago Police Department of torturing them to obtain confessions that landed them in prison. They include Darrell Cannon, who faced the death penalty for a 1983 drug-related murder, Cannon was released after accepting a January 2001 deal to abandon his torture claim in exchange for being released, according to the Northwestern Center on Wrongful Convictions. Jackson has also showcased the travails of the Rev. Oscar Walden, Walden was freed after being sentenced to 75 years for a rape he did not commit. After serving over 28 years in prison, Savory was released on parole December 19,2006, in 2008, he turned his attention to closures of Chicago Public Schools. In February 2010, he succeeded in helping Guggenheim Elementary School get off the closure list, Guggenheim is situated in the Englewood community on the citys South Side. Jackson, among others, made the case that forcing students to any further to school put them in harms way. They also made the case that Guggenheims test scores have steadily improved, previously, Jackson had persuaded school officials to abandon plans to close Holmes Elementary School, in addition to others
7.
Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
8.
Chicago Theological Seminary
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The Chicago Theological Seminary is an Christian ecumenical American seminary located in Chicago, Illinois, and is one of several seminaries historically affiliated with the United Church of Christ. In the 19th century, the Chicago Theological Seminary led the Christian Abolitionism movement, while during the 20th century, CTS students hold academic reciprocity with the University of Chicago, the University of Chicago Divinity School, and with member schools of the Association of Chicago Theological Schools consortium. Martin Luther King, Jr. Chicago Theological Seminary is the oldest institution of education in Chicago. Unintimidated by controversy, the seminary had a distinguished record of setting trends in church life. The very first CTS curriculum in 1855 provided for the scattering of students among congregations and missions across the Midwest, students were encouraged to learn first hand the facts of community life and church needs in a restless, experimental culture. Although such a practice was unknown at time, this curriculum was the beginning of the first field education component ever introduced into seminary education. Field education is now a part of every accredited professional theological degree program, under his leadership the magnificent buildings of the seminary were financed and constructed, and the relationship with the University firmly established. The school continued its mission until it was subsumed into the Chicago Theological Seminary in 1926, CTS alum Florence Fensham was the first dean, succeeded by Agnes M. Taylor and Margaret M. Taylor, when Dean Fensham died unexpectedly in 1912. The Chicago Theological Seminary decided to allow acceptance of women to its programs in 1926. Graham Taylor established at CTS the first distinct Department of Christian Sociology in an American theological school, boisens ashes are interred in the CTS cloisters. In 1965 CTS launched a Doctorate of Religion program, one of the first professional doctorates in ministry, the institution offers an annual Gilberto Castaneda scholarship award for outstanding GLBT students. It is home to the Lesbian Gay Bisexual and Transgender Religious Archives Network, students are invited to participate in the social activities of the Heyward Boswell Society. In 2006 CTS launched the Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Queer Religious Studies Center, founded in 2009, the Center for Jewish, Christian and Islamic Studies is the only American program of its kind based in a free-standing theological seminary. Students in the Theology, Ethics and Human Sciences concentration enjoy resources appropriate to experientially and theoretically integrate theology with the human sciences, CTS is the oldest institution of higher education in Chicago. CTS faculty and students participated in the abolitionist movement and the Underground Railroad prior to the Civil War, first seminary to introduce field education into a seminary curriculum in the US. First to create a distinct Department of Christian Sociology in an American theological school, first seminary to award a degree in divinity to a woman in the US. Faculty and students instrumental in founding the Association for Clinical Pastoral Education in 1930, first seminary in the US to award the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree for his activism in the Civil Rights movement. First African American to lead a predominantly white theological school, first free-standing Protestant seminary to endow a chair in Jewish Studies, advancing interfaith engagement and multi-faith education
9.
Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning
10.
Civil and political rights
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Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
11.
Activism
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Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, and/or environmental reform or stasis with the desire to make improvements in society. One can also express activism through different forms of art, daily acts of protest such as not buying clothes from a certain clothing company because they exploit workers is another form of activism. One view holds that acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a daily basis ranks as a form of activism, research has begun to explore how activist groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words activism and activist from 1920, Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1946 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court,1947, some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than to persuade governments to change or not to change laws. Other activists try to persuade people to remain the same, in an effort to counter change, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Activism is not always an action by Activists, every year more than 100 environmental activists are killed, in 2014116 environmental activists were assassinated, in 2015185 activists were killed around this planet. Since the 1990s, the Internet has been a tool used by activists for mobilization and communication of causes, specific platforms like MoveOn. org, founded in 1998, allow individuals to establish petitions and movements for social change. Protesters in Seattle in 1999 used email to organize protests against the WTO Ministerial Conference, throughout the 2000s, protesters continued to use social media platforms to generate interest. The power of Internet Activism came into a lens with the Arab Spring protests. They use different means to political persecution, such as Tor Browser. The activism industry consists of organizations and individuals engaged in activism, Activism is often done full-time, as part of an organizations core business. Many organizations in the industry are either non profit organizations or non-governmental organizations. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods, the term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in activities as well. Lobbying, or the influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic, many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government, many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting the political activity of tax-exempt organizations, randy Shaw, The Activists Handbook, A Primer for the 1990s and Beyond
12.
Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith
13.
Minister (Christianity)
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The term is taken from Latin minister, which itself was derived from minus. In Catholic churches, the concept of a priesthood is emphasised, many ministers are styled as The Reverend, however some use Pastor as a title, and others do not use any specific form of address. The Church of England defines the ministry of priests as follows, Priests are called to be servants, with their Bishop and fellow ministers, they are to proclaim the word of the Lord and to watch for the signs of Gods new creation. Formed by the word, they are to call their hearers to repentance and to declare in Christs name the absolution, with all Gods people, they are to tell the story of Gods love. They are to baptize new disciples in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit and they are to unfold the Scriptures, to preach the word in season and out of season, and to declare the mighty acts of God. They are to preside at the Lords table and lead his people in worship, offering them a spiritual sacrifice of praise. They are to bless the people in Gods name and they are to resist evil, support the weak, defend the poor, and intercede for all in need. They are to minister to the sick and prepare the dying for their death, guided by the Spirit, they are to discern and foster the gifts of all Gods people, that the whole Church may be built up in unity and faith. All denominations require that the minister has a sense of calling. One of the clearest references is found in 1 Timothy 3, 1-16, moreover he must have a good report of them which are without, lest he fall into reproach and the snare of the devil. Likewise must the deacons be grave, not doubletongued, not given to wine, not greedy of filthy lucre. And let these also first be proved, then let them use the office of a deacon, even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things. Let the deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children, the churches have three orders of ordained clergy, Bishops are the primary clergy, administering all sacraments and governing the church. Priests administer the sacraments and lead local congregations, they cannot ordain other clergy, however, in some denominations, deacons play a non-sacramental and assisting role in the liturgy. Until the Reformation, the clergy were the first estate but were relegated to the estate in Protestant Northern Europe. After compulsory celibacy was abolished during the Reformation, the formation of an hereditary priestly class became possible, whereby wealth. Higher positioned clergy formed this clerical educated upper class, High Church Anglicanism and High Church Lutheranism tend to emphasise the role of the clergy in dispensing the Christian Sacrament. Bishops, priests and deacons have traditionally officiated over of acts worship, reverence, rituals, among these central traditions have been baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, marriage, the Mass or the Divine Service, and coronations
14.
1984 Democratic National Convention
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The 1984 National Convention of the U. S. Democratic Party was held at the Moscone Center in San Francisco, California from July 16 to July 19,1984, former Vice President Walter Mondale was nominated for President and Representative Geraldine Ferraro of New York was nominated for Vice President. Ferraro became the first woman to be nominated by either major party for the Presidency or Vice-Presidency, in another first, the 1984 Democratic Convention was chaired by the female governor of Kentucky, Martha Layne Collins. The Democratic National Committee Chairman at the time, Charles T. Manatt, Walter Mondale was nominated for President and Geraldine Ferraro was nominated for Vice President. New York Governor Mario Cuomo gave a keynote speech. Mondales major rivals for the nomination, Senator Gary Hart and Rev. Jesse Jackson. Jackson also attempted to move the partys platform farther to the left at the Convention and he did succeed in one instance, concerning affirmative action. AIDS poster boy Bobbi Campbell gave a speech at the National March for Lesbian and Gay Rights, the system tended to punish shallow showings as yielding no delegates at all, hence Jacksons smaller delegate count than would be expected. Geraldine Ferraro was nominated by acclamation on a voice vote and she became the first woman to receive a major party nomination in the US
15.
Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1988
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Having been badly defeated in the 1984 presidential election, the Democrats in 1985 and 1986 were eager to find a new approach to win the presidency. They were looking for a young, inspiring candidate who could appeal to women, national security Democrats, to this end party leaders tried to recruit the New York Governor, Mario Cuomo, to be a candidate. Cuomo had impressed many Democrats with his keynote speech at the 1984 Democratic Convention. However, Cuomo chose not to run and as a result and he had made a strong showing in the 1984 presidential election and, after Mondales defeat, had positioned himself as the moderate centrist many Democrats felt their party would need to win. However, questions and rumors about possible extramarital affairs and about past debts dogged Harts campaign, One of the great myths is that Senator Hart challenged the media to put a tail on him and that reporters then took him up on that challenge. In fact, Hart had told E. J. Dionne from The New York Times who questioned him about these rumors that, if they followed him around, they would be bored. However, in an investigation, the Miami Herald claimed to have received an anonymous tip from a friend of Donna Rice that Rice was involved with Hart. It was only after Hart had been discovered that the Herald reporters found Harts quote in a pre-print of the New York Times magazine, on May 8,1987, a week after the Donna Rice story broke, Hart dropped out of the race. Senator Edward M. Kennedy of Massachusetts had been considered a potential candidate, two other politicians mentioned as possible candidates, both from Arkansas, didnt join the race, Senator Dale Bumpers and Governor Bill Clinton. Joseph Bidens campaign also ended in controversy after the Delaware Senator was accused of plagiarizing a speech by Neil Kinnock, in the video Biden is filmed repeating a stump speech by Kinnock, with only minor modifications. Allegations were also leaked to the press that Biden had been guilty of plagiarism years before, though Biden professed his integrity, the impression lingering in the media as the result of this double punch would lead him to drop out of the race. Dukakis later acknowledged that his campaign was responsible for leaking the tape, the Delaware Supreme Courts Board on Professional Responsibility would later clear Biden of the law school plagiarism charges. During the fall of 1987, Rep. Pat Schroeder briefly entered the race, which brought the number of candidates to eight and led to them being lampooned as Snow White, in December 1987, Hart surprised many political pundits by resuming his presidential campaign. In the Iowa caucuses, Gephardt finished first, Simon finished second, in the New Hampshire primary, Dukakis finished first, Gephardt finished second, and Simon finished third. Dukakis and Gore campaigned hard against Gephardt with negative ads, and eventually the United Auto Workers retracted their endorsement of Gephardt, in the Super Tuesday races, Dukakis won six primaries, Gore five, Jackson five and Gephardt one, with Gore and Jackson splitting the southern states. The next week, Simon won Illinois,1988 is tied with 1992 as the race with the most candidates winning primaries since the McGovern reforms of 1971. Dukakis eventually emerged as the winner, with Gores effort to paint Dukakis as too liberal for the election being unsuccessful. Jackson focused more on getting enough delegates to make sure African-American interests were represented in the platform than on winning
16.
District of Columbia
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
17.
Rainbow/PUSH
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Rainbow/PUSH is a non-profit organization formed as a merger of two non-profit organizations founded by Jesse Jackson — Operation PUSH and the National Rainbow Coalition. The organizations pursue social justice, civil rights and political activism, in December 1971, Jackson resigned from Operation Breadbasket after clashing with Rev. Ralph Abernathy and founded Operation PUSH. Jackson founded the National Rainbow Coalition in 1984 which merged with PUSH in 1996, the combined organization keeps its national headquarters on the South Side of Chicago and has branches in Washington, D. C. New York City, Los Angeles, Detroit, Houston, Atlanta, the Silicon Valley, Operation PUSH was successful at raising public awareness to initiate corporate action and government sponsorship. The National Rainbow coalition became a prominent political organization that raised awareness on numerous political issues. The merged entity has numerous social initiatives. The origins of Operation PUSH can be traced to a split in Operation Breadbasket. In 1966, Martin Luther King Jr. the head of the SCLC, appointed Jackson to head the Chicago chapter of Operation Breadbasket, after 1968, however, Jackson increasingly clashed with Kings successor at SCLC, Rev. Ralph Abernathy. The break became complete in December 1971 when Abernathy suspended Jackson for “administrative improprieties and repeated acts of violation of organizational policy. ”Jackson resigned from Operation Breadbasket, called together his allies, from its inception, Jackson referred to its membership as a Rainbow Coalition. The name Rainbow Coalition was originated in 1968 by Chicago Black Panther leader Fred Hampton to describe the multi-ethnic revolutionary federation he founded, Jackson was not part of the Hampton Rainbow Coalition, and had a difficult relationship with the Panthers. Although money was a problem at first, initial backing came from Manhattan Borough President Percy Sutton, Gary, Indiana Mayor Richard Hatcher, Aretha Franklin, Jim Brown, the organizational meeting of PUSH was in the Chicago home of Dr. T. R. M. Howard, a prominent black doctor and community leader on the South Side, before he moved to Chicago in 1956, Howard had developed a national reputation as a Mississippi civil rights leader, surgeon, and entrepreneur. Howard served on PUSHs board of directors and chaired the finance committee, through PUSH Jackson was able to continue pursuit of the same economic objectives that Operation Breadbasket had pursued. In addition, his new organization was able to expand areas of social and political development for blacks in Chicago. He also started a campaign against the legalization of abortion after the Roe vs Wade decision in 1973. The organization employed prayer vigils as a technique to call attention to issues, the organization opposed Ronald Reagans workfare initiative to compel that welfare recipients work for part of their benefits. The organization staged several boycotts including early 1980s boycotts of Anheuser Busch, the boycotts became so well known that at one point David Duke supporters referred to a boycott of Nike, Inc. as if whites were being oppressed by blacks. Nike spokesperson, Michael Jordan, disavowed the Nike boycott, the boycotts of Budweiser, and Coke as well as one against Kentucky Fried Chicken were touted for having won minority job concessions from white businesses
18.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
19.
CNN
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The Cable News Network is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel, upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States. While the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City and its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U. S. to distinguish the American channel from its sister network. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U. S. households, broadcast coverage of the U. S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories, as of February 2015, CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households in the United States. The Cable News Network was launched at 5,00 p. m. Eastern Time on June 1,1980, after an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channels first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channels first 200 employees, including the networks first news anchor. Since its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite providers, several websites. The company has 36 bureaus, more than 900 affiliated local stations, the channels success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warners eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996. A companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1,1982, on January 28,1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board. On October 14,1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. This was before correspondents reported live from the capital while American bombs were falling. Before Saddam Hussein held a press conference with a few of the hundreds of Americans he was holding hostage. Before the nation watched, riveted but powerless, as Los Angeles was looted and burned, before O. J. Simpson took a slow ride in a white Bronco, and before everyone close to his case had an agent and a book contract. This was uncharted territory just a time ago. The moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16,1991, as follows, lets describe to our viewers what were seeing. The skies over Baghdad have been illuminated, were seeing bright flashes going off all over the sky
20.
Cherokee
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The Cherokee language is part of the Iroquoian language group. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizens of the United States. The Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has around 300,000 tribal members, in addition, numerous groups claiming Cherokee lineage, some of which are state-recognized, have members who are among those 819, 000-plus people claiming Cherokee ancestry on the US census. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians have headquarters in Tahlequah, the UKB are mostly descendants of Old Settlers, Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. They are related to the Cherokee who were relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina, the Cherokee refer to themselves as Ani-Yunwiya, which means Principal People. Many theories—though none proven—abound about the origin of the name Cherokee and it may have originally been derived from the Choctaw word Cha-la-kee, which means people who live in the mountains, or Choctaw Chi-luk-ik-bi, meaning people who live in the cave country. The earliest Spanish rendering of the name Cherokee, from 1755, is Tchalaquei, Another theory is that Cherokee derives from a Lower Creek word, Cvlakke. The Iroquois in New York have historically called the Cherokee Oyata’geronoñ, Tsalagi is sometimes misused as a name for the people, Tsalagi is actually the Cherokee word for the Cherokee language. There are two theories of Cherokee origins. Another theory is that the Cherokee had been in the Southeast for thousands of years, researchers in the 19th century recorded conversations with elders who recounted an oral tradition of the Cherokee peoples migrating south from the Great Lakes region in ancient times. They may have moved south into Muscogee Creek territory and settled at the sites of mounds built by the Mississippian culture, in the 19th century, European-American settlers mistakenly attributed several Mississippian culture sites to the Cherokee, including Moundville and Etowah Mounds. However, the Cherokee did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century, pre-contact Cherokee are considered to be part of the later Pisgah Phase of Southern Appalachia, which lasted from circa 1000 to 1500. During the late Archaic and Woodland Period, Indians in the region began to cultivate plants such as elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, sunflowers. People created new art forms such as shell gorgets, adopted new technologies, during the Mississippian Culture-period, local women developed a new variety of maize called eastern flint corn. It closely resembled modern corn and produced larger crops, the successful cultivation of corn surpluses allowed the rise of larger, more complex chiefdoms with several villages and concentrated populations during this period. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony. Much of what is known about pre-18th-century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions, the earliest ones of the mid-16th-century encountered people of the Mississippian culture, the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Muscogee and Catawba
21.
Jim Crow laws
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Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
22.
Montgomery bus boycott
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Gayle, took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional. Many important figures in the Civil Rights Movement took part in the boycott, including Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. the local background for the Montgomery bus boycott lies in growing abuse and humiliation of the black passengers by white bus drivers due to three main reasons. First, drivers increasingly abused passengers due to their own frustrations over labor disputes, third, the 1954 Brown decision also resulted in increased animosity of bus drivers towards blacks -- many of whom joined the White Citizens Councils. On February 25,1953, the Baton Rouge, Louisiana city-parish council passed Ordinance 222, however, the ordinance was largely unenforced by the city bus drivers. The drivers later went on strike after city authorities refused to arrest Rev. T. J, Jemison for sitting in a front row. Four days after the strike began, Louisiana Attorney General and former Baton Rouge mayor Fred S. LeBlanc declared the ordinance unconstitutional under Louisiana state law and this led Rev. Jemison to organize what historians believe to be the first bus boycott of the civil rights movement. The boycott ended after eight days when an agreement was reached to only retain the first two front and back rows as racially reserved seating areas. On March 2,1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested, at the time, Colvin was an active member in the NAACP Youth Council, a group to which Rosa Parks served as Advisor. Colvins legal case formed the core of Browder v. Gayle, but neither the Supreme Courts Morgan ruling nor the ICCs Keys ruling addressed the matter of Jim Crow travel within the individual states. Under the system of segregation used on Montgomery buses, the ten front seats were reserved for whites at all times, the ten back seats were supposed to be reserved for blacks at all times. The middle section of the bus consisted of sixteen unreserved seats for whites, whites filled the middle seats from the front to back, and blacks filled seats from the back to front until the bus was full. If other black people boarded the bus, they were required to stand, when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white person, she was sitting in the first line of the middle section. Often when boarding the buses, black people were required to pay at the front, get off, occasionally, bus drivers would drive away before black passengers were able to reboard. National City Lines owned the Montgomery Bus Line at the time of the Montgomery bus boycott, Rosa Parks was a seamstress by profession, she was also the secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. Twelve years before her history-making arrest, Parks was stopped from boarding a city bus by driver James F. Blake, Parks vowed never again to ride a bus driven by Blake. As a member of the NAACP, Parks was an investigator assigned to cases of sexual assault, in 1945, she was sent to Abbeville, Alabama, to investigate the gang rape of Recy Taylor. The protest that arose around the Taylor case was the first instance of a civil rights protest. In 1955, Parks completed a course in Race Relations at the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee where nonviolent civil disobedience had been discussed as a tactic, on December 1,1955, Parks was sitting in the frontmost row for black people
23.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De facto segregation—segregation in fact, without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day, the contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors. Hypersegregation is a form of segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the city are African Americans. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However it did not prohibit segregation in schools, when the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools, almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the school systems. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race, the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students, Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided an amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students, prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington, Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states, Jim Crow segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of the began in the 1890s. By 1910, Segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, the legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, everyone was supposed to receive the same public services, but with separate facilities for each race
24.
Letterman (sports)
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A letterman, in U. S. activities/sports, is a high school or college student who has met a specified level of participation or performance on a varsity team. In some instances, the sweater or jacket itself may also be awarded, a common threshold in American football and basketball is participation in a set level, often half, of all quarters in a season. In individual sports such as tennis and golf, the threshold for lettering is generally participation in one half or sometimes two-thirds of all matches contested. Frequently, other members of the team who fail to meet requirements for a letter are awarded a certificate of participation or other award considered to be of value than a letter. Some schools continue to base the awarding of letters according to performance, in sports requiring a certain number of scores, steals, baskets or tackles, according to position. In individual sports letters are often determined according to qualification for state meets or tournaments and this places much more emphasis on character, commitment and teamwork as well as, and often in place of, simply playing enough or meeting some other time or performance requirement. Sometimes in high schools performance in classes can also be an element. This philosophy gives more focus to developing and rewarding a well rounded and balanced player, an athlete who is awarded a letter is said to have lettered when they receive their letter. In recent years, some schools have expanded the concept of letterman to outside of sports, providing letters for performance in performing arts, academics, letter jackets are also known as varsity jackets and baseball jackets in reference to their American origins. The body is usually of boiled wool and the sleeves of leather with banded wrists, letter jackets are usually produced in the school colors with the body of the jacket in the schools primary color and sleeves in the secondary color. Although sometimes, the colors of the Jacket may be customized to an extent by the student. There could be cases where a student could change the color so much that it doesnt differentiate too much from school colors and they usually feature a banded collar for men or a hood for women. The letter jacket derives its name from the varsity letter chenille patch on its left breast, the letter itself can also be custom fitted to the particular sport or activity. The name of the owner usually appears either in chenille or is embroidered on the jacket itself, the owners graduation year typically appears in matching chenille. Placement of the name and year of graduation depends on school traditions, the year is most often sewn on the right sleeve or just above the right pocket. The school logo and symbols representing the activities may also be ironed on to the jacket. Lettermen who play on a team often receive a large patch commemorating their championship that is worn on the back of the jacket. Lettermen who participate in a sport in which medals are awarded often sew the medals onto their jackets to display their accomplishments, varsity jackets trace their origins to letter sweaters, first introduced by the Harvard University baseball team in 1865
25.
Greensboro, North Carolina
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Greensboro is a city in the U. S. state of North Carolina. It is the third-largest city by population in North Carolina and the county seat and largest city in Guilford County, as of the 2010 census, the city population was 269,666, and in 2015 the estimated population was 285,342. Three major interstate highways in the Piedmont region of central North Carolina were built to intersect at this city, in 1808, Greensborough was planned around a central courthouse square to succeed Guilford Court House as the county seat. In 2003, the previous Greensboro – Winston-Salem – High Point metropolitan statistical area was re-defined by the U. S. Office of Management and this region was separated into the Greensboro-High Point MSA and the Winston-Salem MSA. The 2010 population for the Greensboro-High Point MSA was 723,801, the combined statistical area of Greensboro–Winston-Salem–High Point, popularly referred to as the Piedmont Triad, had a population of 1,599,477. At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Greensboro were a Siouan-speaking people called the Saura, other indigenous cultures had occupied this area for thousands of years, typically settling along the waterways, as did the early settlers. Quaker migrants from Pennsylvania, by way of Maryland, arrived at Capefair in about 1750, the new settlers began organized religious services affiliated with the Cane Creek Friends Meeting in Snow Camp in 1751. Three years later,40 Quaker families were granted approval to establish New Garden Monthly Meeting, the settlement grew rapidly during the next three years, adding members from as far away as Nantucket in Massachusetts. It soon became the most important Quaker community in North Carolina and mother of several other Quaker meetings that were established in the state and west of the Appalachians. After the Revolutionary War, the city of Greensboro was named for Major General Nathanael Greene, although the Americans lost the battle, Greenes forces inflicted heavy casualties on the British Army of General Cornwallis. Following this battle, Cornwallis withdrew his troops to a British coastal base in Wilmington, Greensboro was established near the geographic center of Guilford County, on land that was an unbroken forest with thick undergrowth of huckleberry bushes, that bore a finely flavored fruit. Property for the village was purchased from the Saura for $98. Three north-south streets were laid out intersecting with three east-west streets, the courthouse was built at the center of the intersection of Elm and Market streets. By 1821, the town was home to 369 residents, stimulated by rail traffic and improved access to markets, the city grew substantially, soon becoming known as the Gate City due to its role as a transportation hub for the Piedmont. The railroads transported goods to and from the textile mills. Many of the manufacturers developed workers housing in mill villages near their facilities, Textile companies and related businesses continued into the 21st century, when most went bankrupt, reorganized, and/or merged with other companies as textile manufacturing jobs moved offshore. Greensboro is still a center of the textile industry, with the main offices of International Textile Group, Galey & Lord, Unifi. ITG Brands, maker of Kool, Winston and Salem brand cigarettes, is the third largest tobacco company in the United States and is headquartered in Greensboro, rail traffic continues to be important for the citys economy, as Greensboro is a major regional freight hub
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North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
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Racism in the United States
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Racism and ethnic discrimination in the United States has been a major issue since the colonial era and the slave era. Legally or socially sanctioned privileges and rights were given to white Americans that were not granted to Native Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, East and South Asians have similarly faced racism in America. Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the century. Racial politics remains a phenomenon, and racism continues to be reflected in socioeconomic inequality. Racial stratification continues to occur in employment, housing, education, lending, as the United States gained its independence from Great Britain it sought to keep distancing itself from Europe and its ideologies. The distinctions within the population came from the ideological and legal implementation of race within the newly formed America, as Jeffries argues the Western analytic concept of race allowed for a rhetorical smoothing over when it came to slavery. While the existence of slavery is arguably the root of subsequent conceptualizations of African-Americans, colonies were sources of mineral wealth and crops, to be used to the home countrys advantage. Using Native Americans for manpower was impractical, they were decimated by disease, using Europeans for labor proved unsustainably expensive, as well as harmful to the supply of labor in the home countries. However, African slaves were available in numbers at prices that made plantation agriculture in the Americas profitable. It is also argued that, along with the motives underlying slavery in the Americas. According to this view, the European in-group for humane behavior included the sub-continent, with the capability to spread their schematic representation of the world, Europeans could impose a social contract, morally permitting three centuries of African slavery. As a result of the above, the Atlantic slave trade prospered, according to estimates in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, between 1626 and 1860 more than 470,000 slaves were forcibly transported from Africa to what is now the United States. Furthermore, approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to the Civil War, according to the 1860 U. S. census, there were about 385,000 slaveowners out of a white population in the slave states of approximately 7 million. During the 1820s and 1830s the American Colonization Society was the vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa. Established the colony of Liberia, assisting thousands of former African-American slaves and it was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off. Although in 1820 the slave trade was equated with piracy, punishable by death, the Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to areas loyal to, or controlled by, the Union. Slavery was not actually abolished in the United States until the passage of the 13th Amendment which was declared ratified on December 6,1865, about 4 million black slaves were freed in 1865. Ninety-five percent of blacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there as opposed to one percent of the population of the North, consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North
28.
ESPN.com
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ESPN. com is the official website of ESPN. It is owned by ESPN Internet Ventures, a division of ESPN Inc. ESPN. com also has partnerships with MLB. com, NBA. com, NFL. com, WNBA. com, MLSsoccer. com NHL. com, Baseball America, Golf Digest, Scouts Inc. Each section contains pages devoted to, scores, teams, schedules, standings, players, transactions, news wires, injures, the website was part of the MSN portal from 2001 to 2004. ESPN launched a Spanish language website in 2000, ESPN Deportes. com, the content of some ESPN. com articles is argued to have been plagiarized. ESPN started local chapters of its website in response to the decline of local sports coverage available as newspapers continue to go out of business across the country. Each page covers local professional and college teams, hiring locally known writers, in markets where the ABC Owned Television Stations owns a station, their sports coverage is incorporated with the corresponding ESPN local site. Some local sites have expanded into high school sports coverage
29.
Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
30.
John H. White (photojournalist)
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John H. White is an American photojournalist, recipient of a Pulitzer Prize in 1982. When John H. White was nine years old, a teacher told him that he would grow up to work on a garbage truck because he was slow in math. At home, his father told him to grow up to be his best, to look for the best in others, White has said that this was a turning point in his life. Whites father also played a role in his photography. At age 14, Whites church burned down and his father asked him to take photos of the destruction and reconstruction, White now credits this first assignment with his focus on photo stories. After working for the Chicago Daily News, White joined the staff of the Chicago Sun Times in 1978, White also teaches photojournalism at Columbia College Chicago, and formerly taught at Northwestern University. In 1973 and 1974 White worked for the Environmental Protection Agencys DOCUMERICA project photographing Chicago, Whites photographs show the difficulties facing residents as well as their spirit and pride. White was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Photojournalism in 1982 for his excellent work on a variety of subjects. He was selected as a photographer for the 1990 project Songs of My People, hal Buell, the former head of the Associated Press Photography Service, noted that White is one of the best photographers at capturing the everyday vignette. White has published a book about Cardinal Bernardin, but he has yet to publish a book of his work outside the religious realm, White has said that he lives by three words, faith, focus, flight. Im faithful to my purpose, my mission, my assignment, my work, I stay focused on what Im doing and whats important. And I keep in flight—I spread my wings and do it, keep In Flight. com John H. White, Portrait of Black Chicago DOCUMERICA - John H White 180 photos on Flickr
31.
Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was an American Baptist minister and activist who was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, with the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech, on October 14,1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches, in the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to include opposition towards poverty and the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled Beyond Vietnam. In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D. C. to be called the Poor Peoples Campaign, Kings death was followed by riots in many U. S. cities. Ray, who fled the country, was arrested two months later at London Heathrow Airport, King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin Luther King Jr. Day was established as a holiday in numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, hundreds of streets in the U. S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in Washington State was also renamed for him. The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, King was born on January 15,1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King. It was during this time he chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther, King had Irish ancestry through his paternal great-grandfather, as well as African ancestry. King was a child, between an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King. King sang with his choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind. His mother was an accomplished organist and choir leader, and she took him to various churches to sing and he received attention for singing I Want to Be More and More Like Jesus. King later became a member of the choir in his church. King said that his father regularly whipped him until he was fifteen, King saw his fathers proud and fearless protests against segregation, such as King Sr. When King was a child, he befriended a boy whose father owned a business near his familys home. When the boys were six, they started school, King had to attend a school for African Americans, King lost his friend because the childs father no longer wanted the boys to play together. King suffered from depression throughout much of his life, in his adolescent years, he initially felt resentment against whites due to the racial humiliation that he, his family, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segregated South
32.
Selma to Montgomery marches
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The Selma to Montgomery marches were three protest marches, held in 1965, along the 54-mile highway from Selma, Alabama to the state capital of Montgomery. By highlighting racial injustice, they contributed to passage that year of the Voting Rights Act, the African-American group known as the Dallas County Voters League launched a voters registration campaign in Selma in 1963. Joined by organizers from the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, they began working that year in an effort to register black voters. SCLC brought many prominent civil rights and civic leaders to Selma in January 1965, local and regional protests began, with 3,000 people arrested by the end of February. Bevel had been working on his Alabama Project for voting rights since late 1963, the first march took place on March 7,1965, organized locally by Bevel, Amelia Boynton, and others. State troopers and county possemen attacked the marchers with billy clubs and tear gas after they passed over the county line. Law enforcement beat Boynton unconscious, and the media publicized worldwide a picture of her wounded on the bridge. The second march took place March 10, troopers, police, and marchers confronted each other at the county end of the bridge, but when the troopers stepped aside to let them pass, King led the marchers back to the church. He was obeying a federal injunction while seeking protection from court for the march. That night, a white group beat and murdered civil rights activist James Reeb, a Unitarian Universalist minister from Boston, many other clergy and sympathizers from across the country also gathered for the second march. The violence of the Bloody Sunday and of Reebs death led to an outcry and some acts of civil disobedience. The protesters demanded protection for the Selma marchers and a new voting rights law to enable African Americans to register. With Governor Wallace refusing to protect the marchers, President Johnson committed to do so, the third march started March 21. The marchers arrived in Montgomery on March 24 and at the Alabama State Capitol on March 25, with thousands having joined the campaign,25,000 people entered the capital city that day in support of voting rights. The route is memorialized as the Selma To Montgomery Voting Rights Trail, subjective application of the laws effectively closed most blacks out of politics. Selma is a town and the seat of Dallas County. In 1961, the population of Dallas County was 57% black, with the literacy test administered subjectively by white registrars, even educated blacks were prevented from registering or voting. Led by the Boynton family, Rev. L. L. Anderson, J. L. Chestnut, and Marie Foster and their efforts were blocked by state and local officials, the White Citizens Council, and the Ku Klux Klan
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James Bevel
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James Luther Bevel was a minister and leader of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. He suggested that SCLC call for and join a March on Washington in 1963, Bevel later strategized the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches, which contributed to Congressional passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act. He initiated and directed some of the 1961 and 1962 voting rights movement in Mississippi, in 1967, Bevel was chair of the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam. He initiated the 1967 March on the United Nations as part of the anti-war movement and his last major action was as co-initiator of the 1995 Day of Atonement/Million Man March in Washington, DC. In 2005 Bevel was accused of incest by one of his daughters and he was tried in April 2008. Maintaining his innocence, Bevel was convicted of unlawful fornication, he was sentenced to 15 years in prison, after serving seven months he was freed awaiting an appeal, he died of pancreatic cancer in December 2008. He was buried in Eutaw, Alabama, Bevel was born in 1936 in Itta Bena, Mississippi, the son of Illie and Dennis Bevel. He was one of seventeen children and he grew up in rural LeFlore County of the Mississippi Delta and in Cleveland. He worked on a plantation for a time as a youth. He was educated at segregated local schools in Mississippi and in Cleveland, after high school he served in the U. S. Navy for a time and seemed headed for a career as a singer. Called in a different direction, he attended the American Baptist Theological Seminary in Nashville, Tennessee, from 1957 to 1961 and he also joined the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. While at seminary, he reread Leo Tolstoys The Kingdom of God is Within You, Bevel also attended workshops at the Highlander Folk School taught by its founder, Myles Horton, who emphasized grassroots organizing. After the success of this action, and with the aid of SCLCs Ella Baker, activist students from Nashville, working on SNCCs commitment to desegregate theaters, Bevel successfully directed the 1961 Nashville Open Theater Movement. At the time the Open Theater Movement had success in Nashville, after buses and riders were severely attacked, including a firebombing of a bus and beatings with police complicity in Birmingham, Alabama, CORE suspended the rides. Diane Nash, the Nashville Student Movements chairman, urged the group to continue the Freedom Rides, Bevel selected the student teams for the buses. He and the others were arrested after they arrived in Jackson, Mississippi, eventually the Freedom Riders reached their goal of New Orleans, Louisiana, generating nationwide coverage of the violence to maintain Jim Crow and white supremacy in the South. While in the Jackson jail, Bevel and Bernard Lafayette initiated the Mississippi Voting Rights Movement and they, Nash, and others stayed in Mississippi to work on grassroots organizing. Activists encountered severe violence at that time and retreated to regroup, later efforts in Mississippi developed as Freedom Summer in 1964, when extensive voter education and registration efforts took place
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Southern Christian Leadership Conference
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The Southern Christian Leadership Conference is an African-American civil rights organization. SCLC, which is associated with its first president, Martin Luther King Jr, had a large role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Prior to this, Rustin, in New York City, conceived the idea of initiating such an effort and first sought C. K. Steele to make the call and take the lead role. Steele declined, but told Rustin he would be glad to work right beside him if he sought King in Montgomery and their goal was to form an organization to coordinate and support nonviolent direct action as a method of desegregating bus systems across the South. In addition to King, Rustin, Baker, and Steele, Fred Shuttlesworth of Birmingham, Joseph Lowery of Mobile, on February 15, a follow-up meeting was held in New Orleans. Out of these two meetings came a new organization with King as its president, a small office was established in the Prince Hall Masonic Temple Building on Auburn Avenue in Atlanta with Ella Baker as SCLCs first—and for a long time only—staff member. The organization also drew inspiration from the crusades of evangelist Billy Graham, during its early years, SCLC struggled to gain footholds in black churches and communities across the South. Social activism in favor of racial equality faced fierce repression from police, White Citizens Council, SCLCs advocacy of boycotts and other forms of nonviolent protest was controversial among both whites and blacks. Many black community believed that segregation should be challenged in the courts and that direct action excited white resistance, hostility. Many of these leaders were uneasy at involving ordinary blacks in mass activity such as boycotts. SCLCs belief that churches should be involved in activism against social ills was also deeply controversial. Many ministers and religious leaders—both black and white—thought that the role of the church was to focus on the needs of the congregation. To some of them, the activity of King and SCLC amounted to dangerous radicalism which they strongly opposed. Under the auspices of the Highlander Folk School the program was expanded across the South, the Johns Island Citizenship School was housed at The Progressive Club, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007. Eventually, close to 69,000 teachers, most of them volunteers and many with little formal education. In 1961 and 1962, SCLC joined SNCC in the Albany Movement and it is generally considered the organizations first major nonviolent campaign. At the time, it was considered by many to be unsuccessful, despite large demonstrations and many arrests, few changes were won, and the protests drew little national attention. Yet, despite the lack of immediate gains, much of the success of the subsequent Birmingham Campaign can be attributed to lessons learned in Albany, by contrast, the 1963 SCLC campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, was an unqualified success
35.
T. R. M. Howard
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Theodore Roosevelt Mason T. R. M. Howard was an American civil rights leader, fraternal organization leader, entrepreneur and surgeon. He was also president of the National Medical Association and chairman of the board of the National Negro Business League and a leading national advocate of African-American businesses. Howard was born in Murray, Kentucky to Arthur Howard, a twister, and Mary Chandler, a cook for Will Mason. Mason took note of the work habits, talent, ambition. He put him to work in his hospital and eventually paid for much of his medical education, Howard later showed his gratitude by adding Mason as one of his middle names. While at Union College, he won the Anti-Saloon League of Americas national contest for best orator in 1930. During his years in school in California, Howard took part in civil rights and political causes and wrote a regular column for the California Eagle. He was also the president of the California Economic, Commercial, through the League and his columns, he championed black business ownership, the study of black history, and opposed local efforts to introduce segregation. In 1935, he began a 41-year marriage with prominent black socialite Helen Nela Boyd, after a residency at Homer G. Phillips Hospital, Howard became the medical director of the Riverside Sanitarium, the main Adventist health care institution to serve blacks. While there, he founded a company, restaurant, hospital, home construction firm, and a large farm where he raised cattle, quail, hunting dogs. He also built a zoo and a park as well as the first swimming pool for blacks in Mississippi. In 1947, he broke with the Knights and Daughters, organized the rival United Order of Friendship, Howard rose to prominence as a civil rights leader after founding the Regional Council of Negro Leadership in 1951. The RCNL organized yearly rallies in Mound Bayou for civil rights, sometimes as many as ten thousand attended including such future activists as Fannie Lou Hamer and Amzie Moore. Some of the speakers were Rep. William L. Dawson of Chicago, Alderman Archibald J. Carey, Jr. of Chicago, Rep. Charles Diggs of Michigan, one of the entertainers was Mahalia Jackson. In 1954, Howard hatched a plan to fight a credit squeeze by the White Citizens Councils against civil rights activists in Mississippi. At his suggestion, the NAACP under Roy Wilkins encouraged businesses, churches, the funds were made available for loans to victims of the squeeze. Howard moved into the limelight as never before after the murder of Emmett Till in August 1955. He delivered ne of the earliest and loudest denunciations of Tills murder, saying if the slaughtering of Negroes is allowed to continue
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