1.
Percussion instrument
–
A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater, struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, the percussion section of an orchestra most commonly contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and tambourine. However, the section can also contain non-percussive instruments, such as whistles and sirens, percussive techniques can also be applied to the human body, as in body percussion. On the other hand, keyboard instruments, such as the celesta, are not normally part of the percussion section, Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony. Percussion is commonly referred to as the backbone or the heartbeat of an ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments. In jazz and other popular ensembles, the pianist, bassist, drummer. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, however, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed, in the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments have been used, again generally sparingly. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music, in almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word swing is spoken. Because of the diversity of instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles, music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef. The word percussion has evolved from Latin terms, percussio, as a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as the collision of two bodies to produce a sound. Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion, Most percussion instruments are classified as idiophones and membranophones.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks. 111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone. 21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani, snare drum, (Included in most drum sets or 412. Stringed instruments played with such as the hammered dulcimer
Percussion instrument
–
Yoruba drummers: One holds
omele ako and
batá, the other two hold
dunduns.
Percussion instrument
–
Orchestral percussion section with
timpani,
unpitched auxiliary percussion and pitched
tubular bells
Percussion instrument
–
Djembé and
balafon played by
Susu people of
Guinea
Percussion instrument
–
Concussion idiophones (
claves), and struck drums (
conga drum)
2.
Lamellophone
–
A lamellophone is any of a family of musical instruments. The name comes from the Latin word lamella for plate and the Greek root phonos for sound. The name derives from the way the sound is produced, the instrument has a series of plates, or tongues. When the musician depresses the free end of a plate with a finger or fingernail, and then allows the finger to slip off, the lamellophones constitute category 12 in the Hornbostel-Sachs system for classifying musical instruments, plucked idiophones. These idiophones are equipped with one or more tongues or lammelae that produce sound by being plucked by the performer, there are two main categories of plucked idiophones, those that are in the form of a frame and those that are in the form of a comb. A large number of lamellophones originate in Africa, where they are known under different names including mbira, sanza, kisanji, likembe, kalimba and they play a role in southeast African Music. They were reported as early as the 16th century, but there is no doubt they have a longer history. The Caribbean marímbula is also of this family, the marímbula can be seen as a bass variant of the mbira and is sometimes used in hiphop music. The tongues may be arranged in the manner of a piano and may be small enough to play with individual fingers. Some conjecture that African lamellophones were derived from xylophones and marimbas, however, similar instruments have been found elsewhere, for example, the indigenous peoples of Siberia play wooden and metallic lamellophones with a single tongue. Lamellophones may be made with or without resonators, there are also electric lamellophones with an additional pickup. Schaeffners musical instrument classification scheme has a post-prominent place for the linguaphones at the second highest level of classification, in 1932, Andre Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The lamellae vibrate within a frame or hoop 121.1 Clack idiophones or Cricri - The lamella is carved in the surface of a fruit shell, which serves as resonator. 121.2 Guimbardes and jaw harps - The lamella is mounted in a rod- or plaque-shaped frame, Đàn môi Jews harp Kouxian Morsing 121.21 Idioglot guimbardes - The lamella is of one substance with the frame of the instrument. 121.22 Heteroglot guimbardes - The lamella is attached to the frame, the lamellae are tied to a board or cut out from a board like the teeth of a comb. 122.2 With cut-out lamellae Comb Mechanical music box Slit drum Steel tongue drum Teponaztli Music of Africa Gravikord Gerhard Kubik, Lamellophone, in, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Macmillan Publishers, London,1981 Lamellophone players list from N. Scott Robinson site http, //www. music. vt. edu/musicdictionary/texti/Idiophone. html http, //www. wesleyan. edu/vim/svh. html
Lamellophone
–
A Hugh Tracey treble
kalimba.
Lamellophone
–
A
Kouxian, played by plucking the ends in front of the oral cavity. The lamella resonate to produce sound.
Lamellophone
–
Whale Drum with 8 tongues (from
Emil Richards Collection)
3.
Musical instrument
–
A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
Musical instrument
–
Anne Vallayer-Coster, Attributes of Music, 1770. This
still life painting depicts a variety of French Baroque musical instruments, such as a
natural horn,
transverse flute,
musette,
violin, and
lute.
Musical instrument
–
Found in
Slovenia, the
Divje Babe Flute is considered the world's
oldest known musical instrument
Musical instrument
–
Two
Aztec slit drums, called teponaztli. The characteristic " H " slits can be seen on the top of the drum in the foreground.
Musical instrument
–
Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting lute players,
18th Dynasty (c. 1350 BC)
4.
Kouxian
–
Kouxian is a general Chinese term for any variety of jaw harp. The jaw harp is a plucked idiophone in which the lamella is mounted in a frame. Chinese jaw harps may comprise multiple idiophones that are lashed together at one end and they may be made from bamboo or a metal alloy, such as brass. Modern kouxian with three or more idiophones might be tuned to the first few tones of the pentatonic scale. The jaw harp likely originated in Asia, although played throughout China, it is particularly popular among the non-Han ethnic groups of Southwest China, such the Yunnan, Guangxi, and Guizhou. The varieties of Chinese have numerous names for the instrument. Tran Quang Hai plays a three-leaf brass kouxian on YouTube Kate Torgovnick May Mouth music, Wang Li at TED2013, Blog. Ted. com
Kouxian
–
A five-leaf kouxian
5.
Morsing
–
A morsing is a wind percussion instrument, mainly used in Rajasthan, in the Carnatic music of South India and in Sindh. It can be categorized under lamellophones, which is in the category of plucked idiophones, the metal tongue is bent at the free end in a plane perpendicular to the circular ring so that it can be struck and is made to vibrate. This bent part is called the trigger, an instrument with a history of 1500 years, its exact origin in India is not well documented. In the tradition of the Indian gurukul system of teaching, thus folk tales are a source of its history. In India it is mainly in South India, Rajasthan. It is also used while playing Rabindrasangeet in Bengal and in Assamese folk songs. In South India, it features in Carnatic concerts and percussion ensembles and it is said to be the percursor to subsequent instruments such as the harmonica and the harmonium. In Rajasthan it is called morchang and is used as an instrument in lok geet. The morsing is placed on the front teeth, with slightly pouted lips and it is struck using the index finger of the other hand to produce sound. Movement of the tongue while making nasal sounds brings out the beauty of this heavenly instrument. This can be achieved when the South Indian letter Nga or a variant thereof, is sounded thru the nose while air is pushed out or pulled in thru the mouth and this aids the meditation process and thus some players use it as a form of practising pranayama. Others speak into the instruments playing, thus giving it the effect of a light haunting echo. The morsing is firmly held in the hand, the frame or the ring between the palm and the fingers usually in the left hand, care should be taken to see that the middle part or the metal tongue is not being touched when held idle. The trigger is plucked with the tip of the index finger, sound is produced due to the vibration of the metal tongue thath is transferred through the teeth and sounds in mouth and nasal cavity. Movement of the tongue with constant plucking can produce very fast patterns of sound. By constricting the space in the mouth the nostrils can produce sounds in different phases, while traditionally made of iron, variants can be made from wood, bone, and even plastic and credit cards. The basic pitch of the instrument can be varied very little, significantly, the pitch of the instrument can only be reduced and not increased. To reduce the pitch a little, bee-wax can be applied on the plucking end, to increase the pitch, it can be filed, although this may damage the instrument
Morsing
–
Morsing(Mukharshanku)
Morsing
–
Percussion
6.
Altai people
–
The Altay or Altai are a Turkic people living in the Siberian Altai Republic and Altai Krai. For alternative ethnonyms see also Teleut, Tele, Telengit, Mountain Kalmuck, White Kalmuck, Black Tatar, the Altaians are represented as a totality of small Turkic peoples like the Altai-Kizhi, the Teleut, the Kumandin, the Chelkans, the Shors, etc. Turkic people The Altaians were annexed by the Four Oirat of Western Mongols in the 16th century, the Mongols called them Telengid or Telengid aimag in period of the Northern Yuan dynasty. After the fall of the Zunghar Khanate in the 18th century and that court referred to them as Altan Nuur Uriyangkhai. But Altaians are not genetically related to the Uriyangkhai, which is a distinct neighbouring Oirat-Mongol ethnic group in Mongolia and their skills in metalworking have been seen in artifacts dating to the 2nd millennium BC. The Altay came into contact with Russians in the 18th century, in the tsarist period, the Altay were known as oirot or oyrot. The Altay report that many of them became addicted to the Russians vodka, the Altay were originally nomadic, with a lifestyle based on hunting / trapping and pastoralism. As a result of the Soviet Union and Russian influence, many were settled into sedentary communities, in regard to religion, some of the Altay remain Tengriists or Shamanists, while others have converted to the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1904, a movement called Ak Jang or Burkhanism arose. Prior to 1917 the Altai were considered to be made up of different ethnic groups. With the rise of the 1917 revolution, the Altay attempted to make their region a separate Burkhanist republic called Oyrot and their support for the Mensheviks during the Civil War led to the ventures collapse after the Bolshevik victory and the later rise of Joseph Stalin. In the 1940s, during World War II and when he was directing numerous purges, the word oyrot was declared to be counterrevolutionary. In the early 21st century, ethnic Altaians make up about 31% of the Altai Republics population, according to the 2010 Russian census, there was a total of 69,963 Altaians who resided within the Altai Republic. This represented 34. 5% of the population of the republic, compared with 56. 6% ethnic Russians
Altai people
–
Altay man in national suit on horse
Altai people
–
Altay ethnic flag, adopted by
Russia as the official flag of the
Altai Republic.
Altai people
–
Altay woman in national dress
7.
Metal
–
A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable—that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking—as well as fusible and ductile, about 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids. Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms, astrophysicists use the term metal to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen and helium, the simplest two, in a star. The star fuses smaller atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, to larger ones over its lifetime. In that sense, the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of all chemical elements. Many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures, the atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures, namely body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed. In bcc, each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others, in fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature, atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons, resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement. This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat, while this flow of electrons occurs, the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud. This type of bond is called a metallic bond, Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales. Examples,4 Na + O2 →2 Na2O2 Ca + O2 →2 CaO4 Al +3 O2 →2 Al2O3, the transition metals are slower to oxidize because they form a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior. Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all, some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades. The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3, Mn2O7, and OsO4, which have strictly acidic reactions. Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion, however, a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the coating is expected. Water and the two form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee. Metals in general have high conductivity, high thermal conductivity. Typically they are malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving, in terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and lustrous. Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque, although most metals have higher densities than most nonmetals, there is wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense solid element and osmium the densest
Metal
–
Gallium crystals
Metal
–
Hot metal work from a
blacksmith.
Metal
–
Zinc, a base metal, reacting with an acid
Metal
–
A gold nugget
8.
Bamboo
–
The bamboos /bæmˈbuː/ are evergreen perennial flowering plants in the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent, the absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering. Bamboos include some of the plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 91 cm within a 24-hour period, giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. Bamboos are of economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick, or concrete. The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Indonesian, the subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae. The woody bamboos do not form a group, instead. Altogether, more than 1,400 species are placed in 115 genera, most bamboo are native to warm and moist tropical and warm temperate climates. However, many species are found in climates, from hot tropical regions to cool mountainous regions. In the Asia-Pacific region they occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin south to Northern Australia, and west to India, China, Japan, Korea, India, and Australia, all have several endemic populations. They also occur in numbers in sub-Saharan Africa, confined to tropical areas, from southern Senegal in the north to southern Mozambique. Bamboo is also native through Central America and Mexico, northward into the Southeastern United States, canada and continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo. Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates up to 91 cm in 24 hours. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 25–30 cm in diameter. However, the range for mature bamboo is species-dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4. 6–12 m, depending on species
Bamboo
–
Bamboo
Bamboo
–
Bamboo forest in Taiwan
Bamboo
–
Bamboo forest in
Arashiyama
Bamboo
–
Bamboo forest in
Kwa-Zulu Natal
9.
Reed (instrument)
–
A reed is a thin strip of material which vibrates to produce a sound on a musical instrument. The reeds of most woodwind instruments are made from Arundo donax or synthetic material, musical instruments may be classified according to the type and number of reeds used. The earliest types of single-reed instruments used idioglottal reeds, where the reed is a tongue cut. Much later, single-reed instruments started using heteroglottal reeds, where a reed is cut and separated from the tube of cane, by contrast, in a an uncapped double reed instrument, there is no mouthpiece, the two parts of the reed vibrate against one another. Single reeds are used on the mouthpieces of clarinets and saxophones, the back of the reed is flat and is placed against the mouthpiece, the rounded top side tapers to a thin tip. These reeds are roughly rectangular in shape except for the thin vibrating tip, all single reeds are shaped similarly but vary in size to fit each instruments mouthpiece. Reeds designed for the instrument may look identical to each other. Hardness is generally measured on a scale of 1 through 5 from softest to hardest and this is not a standardized scale and reed strengths vary by manufacturer. The thickness of the tip and heel and the profile in between affect the sound and playability, cane of different grades, even if cut with the same profile, will also respond differently. This is due to the natural differences in the density of the cane fibers. The cane used to make reeds for saxophone, clarinet, once the cane is cut, it must lay out and dry in direct sunlight for about a month. The cane is rotated regularly to ensure proper and complete drying, once dry, they are taken to be stored in a warehouse. As the cane is needed, it is pulled from the warehouse, once at the factory, the cane is taken to the cutting department where it is cut into tubes. The tubes are graded by diameter and wall density, the tubes are then cut into splits which are transformed into reed blanks. The blanks are tapered and profiled using blades or CNC machines into reeds, after the reeds are completed, they are taken to a machine that grades them for strength. Double reeds are used on the oboe, oboe damore, English horn, bass oboe, Heckelphone, bassoon, contrabassoon, sarrusophone, shawm, bagpipes, nadaswaram and they are typically not used in conjunction with a mouthpiece, rather the two reeds vibrate against each other. Reed strengths are graded from hard to soft, the making of double reeds begins in the same way as how single reeds are made. The cane is collected from Arundo donax, dried, processed, similar to single reed production, the cane is separated into various diameters. The most common diameters for American-style oboe reeds are as follows,9. 5–10 mm, 10–10.5 mm, many American oboists prefer a specific diameter at one time of the year and a different diameter at other times, depending on the season and the weather
Reed (instrument)
–
Alto and
tenor saxophone reeds.
Reed (instrument)
–
Bassoon double reeds.
Reed (instrument)
–
An oboe reed.
10.
Resonator
–
The oscillations in a resonator can be either electromagnetic or mechanical. Resonators are used to generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal. Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific tones, another example is quartz crystals used in electronic devices such as radio transmitters and quartz watches to produce oscillations of very precise frequency. A cavity resonator is one in which waves exist in a space inside the device. Acoustic cavity resonators, in sound is produced by air vibrating in a cavity with one opening, are known as Helmholtz resonators. A physical system can have as many resonant frequencies as it has degrees of freedom, systems with one degree of freedom, such as a mass on a spring, pendulums, balance wheels, and LC tuned circuits have one resonant frequency. Systems with two degrees of freedom, such as coupled pendulums and resonant transformers can have two resonant frequencies, a crystal lattice composed of N atoms bound together can have N resonant frequencies. As the number of coupled harmonic oscillators grows, the time it takes to transfer energy from one to the next becomes significant, the vibrations in them begin to travel through the coupled harmonic oscillators in waves, from one oscillator to the next. The term resonator is most often used for an object in which vibrations travel as waves, at an approximately constant velocity, bouncing back. The material of the resonator, through which the waves flow, therefore, they can have millions of resonant frequencies, although only a few may be used in practical resonators. The oppositely moving waves interfere with other, and at its resonant frequencies reinforce each other to create a pattern of standing waves in the resonator. If the distance between the sides is d, the length of a trip is 2 d. To cause resonance, the phase of a sinusoidal wave after a round trip must be equal to the initial phase so the waves self-reinforce. The above analysis assumes the medium inside the resonator is homogeneous, so the waves travel at a constant speed, and they are then called overtones instead of harmonics. There may be several such series of resonant frequencies in a single resonator, an electrical circuit composed of discrete components can act as a resonator when both an inductor and capacitor are included. Oscillations are limited by the inclusion of resistance, either via a specific resistor component, such resonant circuits are also called RLC circuits after the circuit symbols for the components. A distributed-parameter resonator has capacitance, inductance, and resistance that cannot be isolated into separate lumped capacitors, inductors, an example of this, much used in filtering, is the helical resonator. A single layer coil that is used as a secondary or tertiary winding in a Tesla coil or magnifying transmitter is also a distributed resonator
Resonator
–
RF cavities in the
linac of the
Australian Synchrotron are used to accelerate and bunch beams of
electrons; the linac is the tube passing through the middle of the cavity.
Resonator
–
A standing wave in a rectangular cavity resonator.
Resonator
–
A sport motorcycle, equipped with exhaust resonator, designed for performance.
Resonator
–
A
Dobro -style
resonator guitar
11.
Pitch (music)
–
Pitch can be determined only in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. Pitch is a major attribute of musical tones, along with duration, loudness. Pitch may be quantified as a frequency, but pitch is not a purely objective physical property, Pitch is an auditory sensation in which a listener assigns musical tones to relative positions on a musical scale based primarily on their perception of the frequency of vibration. Pitch is closely related to frequency, but the two are not equivalent, frequency is an objective, scientific attribute that can be measured. Pitch is each persons subjective perception of a wave, which cannot be directly measured. However, this not necessarily mean that most people wont agree on which notes are higher and lower. Sound waves themselves do not have pitch, but their oscillations can be measured to obtain a frequency and it takes a sentient mind to map the internal quality of pitch. However, pitches are usually associated with, and thus quantified as frequencies in cycles per second, or hertz, by comparing sounds with pure tones, Complex and aperiodic sound waves can often be assigned a pitch by this method. According to the American National Standards Institute, pitch is the attribute of sound according to which sounds can be ordered on a scale from low to high. That is, high pitch means very rapid oscillation, and low pitch corresponds to slower oscillation, despite that, the idiom relating vertical height to sound pitch is shared by most languages. At least in English, it is just one of many deep conceptual metaphors that involve up/down, the exact etymological history of the musical sense of high and low pitch is still unclear. There is evidence that humans do actually perceive that the source of a sound is slightly higher or lower in vertical space when the frequency is increased or reduced. The pitch of tones can be ambiguous, meaning that two or more different pitches can be perceived, depending upon the observer. In a situation like this, the percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as the missing fundamental, Pitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure level of the tone, especially at frequencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure increases, for instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one semitone lower in pitch than if it is just barely audible. Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets louder, theories of pitch perception try to explain how the physical sound and specific physiology of the auditory system work together to yield the experience of pitch. In general, pitch perception theories can be divided into place coding, place theory holds that the perception of pitch is determined by the place of maximum excitation on the basilar membrane. However, a purely place-based theory cannot account for the accuracy of pitch perception in the low, temporal theories offer an alternative that appeals to the temporal structure of action potentials, mostly the phase-locking and mode-locking of action potentials to frequencies in a stimulus
Pitch (music)
–
In musical notation, the different vertical positions of notes indicate different pitches. Play top (
help ·
info) & Play bottom (
help ·
info)
12.
Overtone
–
An overtone is any frequency greater than the fundamental frequency of a sound. Using the model of Fourier analysis, the fundamental and the overtones together are called partials, harmonics, or more precisely, harmonic partials, are partials whose frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental. These overlapping terms are used when discussing the acoustic behavior of musical instruments. The model of Fourier analysis provides for the inclusion of inharmonic partials, when a resonant system such as a blown pipe or plucked string is excited, a number of overtones may be produced along with the fundamental tone. In simple cases, such as for most musical instruments, the frequencies of these tones are the same as the harmonics. Examples of exceptions include the drum, – a timpani whose first overtone is about 1.6 times its fundamental resonance frequency, gongs and cymbals. The human vocal tract is able to produce highly variable amplitudes of the overtones, called formants, most oscillators, from a guitar string to a flute, will naturally vibrate at a series of distinct frequencies known as normal modes. The lowest normal mode frequency is known as the fundamental frequency, often, when an oscillator is excited by, for example, plucking a guitar string, it will oscillate at several of its modal frequencies at the same time. So when a note is played, this gives the sensation of hearing other frequencies above the lowest frequency, timbre is the quality that gives the listener the ability to distinguish between the sound of different instruments. The timbre of an instrument is determined by which overtones it emphasizes and that is to say, the relative volumes of these overtones to each other determines the specific flavor or color of sound of that family of instruments. The intensity of each of these overtones is rarely constant for the duration of a note, over time, different overtones may decay at different rates, causing the relative intensity of each overtone to rise or fall independent of the overall volume of the sound. A carefully trained ear can hear these changes even in a single note and this is why the timbre of a note may be perceived differently when played staccato or legato. A driven non-linear oscillator, such as the folds, a blown wind instrument, or a bowed violin string will oscillate in a periodic. This generates the impression of sound at integer multiple frequencies of the known as harmonics, or more precisely. Thus, in music, overtones are often called harmonics, depending upon how the string is plucked or bowed, different overtones can be emphasized. However, some overtones in some instruments may not be of an integer multiplication of the fundamental frequency. High quality instruments are built in such a manner that their individual notes do not create disharmonious overtones. This is illustrated by the following, Consider a guitar string and this dead length actually varies from string to string, being more pronounced with thicker and/or stiffer strings
Overtone
–
Vibrational modes of an ideal string, dividing the string length into integer divisions, producing
harmonic partials f, 2f, 3f, 4f, etc. (where f means fundamental frequency).
13.
Melody
–
A melody, also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively and it may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody, melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches, pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, the true goal of music—its proper enterprise—is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end, given the many and varied elements and styles of melody many extant explanations confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive. Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly, melodies in the 20th century utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha been the custom in any other historical period of Western music. While the diatonic scale was used, the chromatic scale became widely employed. Composers also allotted a structural role to the dimensions that previously had been almost exclusively reserved for pitch. Kliewer states, The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality, texture, for example, Jazz musicians use the term lead or head to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation. Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music, indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains no chord changes. Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a melody played simultaneously. In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif, a motif or melody associated with a certain idea, person or place. Appropriation Hocket Parsons code, a notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the pitch up. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. p. 517–19, the Art of Melody, p. xix–xxx. A Textbook of Melody, A course in functional melodic analysis, a History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London
Melody
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"
Pop Goes the Weasel " melody Play (
help ·
info)
Melody
14.
Fundamental frequency
–
The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental, is defined as the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform. In music, the fundamental is the pitch of a note that is perceived as the lowest partial present. In terms of a superposition of sinusoids, the frequency is the lowest frequency sinusoidal in the sum. In some contexts, the fundamental is usually abbreviated as f0, in other contexts, it is more common to abbreviate it as f1, the first harmonic. All sinusoidal and many non-sinusoidal waveforms are periodic, which is to say they repeat exactly over time. The period of a waveform is the T for which the equation is true. This means that this equation and a definition of the values over any interval of length T is all that is required to describe the waveform completely. Every waveform may be described using any multiple of this period, there exists a smallest period over which the function may be described completely and this period is the fundamental period. The fundamental frequency is defined as its reciprocal, f 0 =1 T Since the period is measured in units of time, when the time units are seconds, the frequency is in s −1, also known as Hertz. For a tube of length L with one end closed and the end open the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic is 4 L. If the ends of the tube are now both closed or both opened as in the last two animations, the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic becomes 2 L. By the same method as above, the frequency is found to be f 0 = v 2 L. At 20 °C the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s and this speed is temperature dependent and does increase at a rate of 0.6 m/s for each degree Celsius increase in temperature. The fundamental may be created by vibration over the length of a string or air column. The fundamental is one of the harmonics, a harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The reason a fundamental is also considered a harmonic is because it is 1 times itself, the fundamental is the frequency at which the entire wave vibrates. Overtones are other components present at frequencies above the fundamental. All of the components that make up the total waveform, including the fundamental
Fundamental frequency
–
Vibration and
standing waves in a string, The fundamental and the first six
overtones
15.
Harmonic series (music)
–
A harmonic series is the sequence of sounds where the base frequency of each sound is an integer multiple of the lowest base frequency. Pitched musical instruments are based on an approximate harmonic oscillator such as a string or a column of air. At these resonant frequencies, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves, interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. Because of the spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency. The musical timbre of a tone from such an instrument is determined by the relative strengths of each harmonic. A complex tone can be described as a combination of many simple periodic waves or partials, each with its own frequency of vibration, amplitude, a partial is any of the sine waves of which a complex tone is composed. A harmonic is any member of the series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The fundamental is also considered a harmonic because it is 1 times itself, a harmonic partial is any real partial component of a complex tone that matches an ideal harmonic. An inharmonic partial is any partial that does not match an ideal harmonic, Inharmonicity is a measure of the deviation of a partial from the closest ideal harmonic, typically measured in cents for each partial. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals, gongs, or tam-tams make sounds that are rich in inharmonic partials, an overtone is any partial except the lowest partial. The term overtone does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no special meaning other than to exclude the fundamental. It is the relative strengths of the different overtones that gives an instrument its particular timbre, some electronic instruments, such as synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones. Synthesizers can also combine pure frequencies into more complex tones, such as to other instruments. Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without overtones, in most pitched musical instruments, the fundamental is accompanied by other, higher-frequency harmonics. Thus shorter-wavelength, higher-frequency waves occur with varying prominence and give each instrument its characteristic tone quality, the fact that a string is fixed at each end means that the longest allowed wavelength on the string is twice the length of the string. Other allowed wavelengths are 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, theoretically, these shorter wavelengths correspond to vibrations at frequencies that are 2,3,4,5,6, etc. times the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator it vibrates against often alter these frequencies, the harmonic series is an arithmetic series. In terms of frequency, the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant and equal to the fundamental, but because human ears respond to sound nonlinearly, higher harmonics are perceived as closer together than lower ones
Harmonic series (music)
–
Harmonic series of a string with terms written as
reciprocals (2/1 written as 1/2)
16.
Acoustic resonance
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Acoustic resonance is a phenomenon where acoustic systems amplify sound waves whose frequency matches one of its own natural frequencies of vibration. An acoustically resonant object usually has more than one resonance frequency and it will easily vibrate at those frequencies, and vibrate less strongly at other frequencies. It will pick out its resonance frequency from a complex excitation, in effect, it is filtering out all frequencies other than its resonance. Acoustic resonance is also important for hearing, for example, resonance of a stiff structural element, called the basilar membrane within the cochlea of the inner ear allows hair cells on the membrane to detect sound. Like mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance can result in failure of the vibrator. The classic example of this is breaking a glass with sound at the precise resonant frequency of the glass. In musical instruments, strings under tension, as in lutes, harps, guitars, pianos, violins and so forth, have resonant frequencies directly related to the mass, length, and tension of the string. The wavelength that will create the first resonance on the string is equal to twice the length of the string, higher resonances correspond to wavelengths that are integer divisions of the fundamental wavelength. The corresponding frequencies are related to the v of a wave traveling down the string by the equation f = n v 2 L where L is the length of the string. Higher tension and shorter lengths increase the resonant frequencies, when the string is excited with an impulsive function, the string vibrates at all the frequencies present in the impulse. Those frequencies that are not one of the resonances are quickly filtered out—they are attenuated—and all that is left is the vibrations that we hear as a musical note. String resonance occurs on string instruments, strings or parts of strings may resonate at their fundamental or overtone frequencies when other strings are sounded. For example, an A string at 440 Hz will cause an E string at 330 Hz to resonate, the resonance of a tube of air is related to the length of the tube, its shape, and whether it has closed or open ends. Musically useful tube shapes are conical and cylindrical, a pipe that is closed at one end is said to be stopped while an open pipe is open at both ends. Modern orchestral flutes behave as open pipes, clarinets and lip-reed instruments behave as closed cylindrical pipes, and saxophones, oboes. Vibrating air columns also have resonances at harmonics, like strings, an open tube is a tube in which both ends are open. The tube resonates at many frequencies or notes and its lowest resonance occurs at the same frequency as a closed tube of half its length. An open tube will resonate if there is a displacement antinode at each open end and these displacement antinodes are places where there is a maximum movement of air in and out of the ends of the tube
Acoustic resonance
–
String resonance of a bass guitar A note with fundamental frequency of 110 Hz. Computed with from sampled sound with https://sourceforge.net/projects/amoreaccuratefouriertransform/.
17.
Bugle scale
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The bugle is one of the simplest brass instruments, having no valves or other pitch-altering devices. All pitch control is done by varying the players embouchure, consequently, the bugle is limited to notes within the harmonic series. See bugle call for scores to standard bugle calls, all consisting of five notes. These notes are known as the bugle scale, the bugle developed from early musical or communication instruments made of animal horns, with the word bugle itself coming from buculus, Latin for bullock. Predecessors and relatives of the bugle included the post horn, the Pless horn, the ancient Roman army used the buccina. The first verifiable use of a brass bugle as a military signal device was the Halbmondbläser, or half-moon bugle. It was U-shaped and comfortably carried by a strap attached at the mouthpiece. It first spread to England in 1764 where it was accepted widely in foot regiments. The bugle is used mainly in the military and Boy Scouts, historically the bugle was used in the cavalry to relay instructions from officers to soldiers during battle. They were used to assemble the leaders and to give marching orders to the camps, the bugle is also used in Boy Scout troops and in the Boys Brigade. The Rifles, a regiment in the British Army, has retained the bugle for ceremonial. The bugle has also used as a sign of peace in the case of a surrender. 19th century variants based on the bugle included both keyed and valved bugles. Keyed bugles were invented in England in the early 19th century, with a patent for one design, the Royal Kent bugle, taken out by Joseph Halliday in 1811. This bugle was highly popular and widely in use until c.1850 – for example, in works by Richard Willis and this variant of the bugle fell out of use with the invention of the valved cornet. Modern instruments classified as bugles are often valved, soprano bugle Alto bugle Baritone bugle Contrabass bugle Ralph T
Bugle scale
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American naval bugler in 1917
Bugle scale
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Military bugle in
B-flat
Bugle scale
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Military bugle in Japan
Bugle scale
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Bugle used by American militaries in the mid-19th century
18.
Dirck van Baburen
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Van Baburen was a Dutch painter and one of the Utrecht Caravaggisti. Dirck van Baburen was probably born in Wijk bij Duurstede, and he was also known as Teodoer van Baburen and Theodor Baburen. The earliest reference to the artist is in the 1611 records of the Utrecht Guild of St. Luke as a pupil of Paulus Moreelse, sometime between 1612 and 1615 he travelled to Rome. There, he collaborated with fellow countryman David de Haen and befriended the close follower of Caravaggio, Baburen was one of the earliest artists to belong to the group of Dutch-speaking artists active in Rome in the seventeenth-century known as the Bentvueghels, his nickname was Biervlieg. In late 1620 Baburen returned to Utrecht, where he began painting genre scenes and he was buried on 28 February 1624 in the Buurkerk, a medieval church which now houses the Museum Speelklok. Around 1629, Constantijn Huygens noted Baburen as one of the important Dutch painters active in the decades of the seventeenth century. Dirck van Baburens career was short, and only a few of his paintings are known today and he mostly painted religious subjects in Rome, including the San Pietro in Montorio Entombment that is indebted to Caravaggios version of the same subject in the Vatican Museums. Baburen also painted a Capture of Christ for Scipione Borghese and Christ Washing the Feet of the Apostles for Vincenzo Giustiniani. The Utrecht works made between 1621 as 1624, the years of Baburens career, merged the visual characteristics learnt from Caravaggio and Manfredi into genre, mythological. He was among the first artists to popularize genre subjects such as musicians, one of his best-known works is The Procuress. It depicts a man offering a coin for the services of a prostitute while an old woman. This painting was owned by Johannes Vermeers mother-in-law and appears in two of artists works, The Concert and Woman Seated at a Virginal. Han van Meegeren forged a copy of work which he may have intended to use as a prop in his forgeries of Vermeer. He painted several musicians, many of which contain a self-portrait. Oxford University Press, March 15,2007, brown, Christopher, The Utrecht Caravaggisti, in Gods, Saints & Heroes, Dutch Painting in the Age of Rembrandt. National Gallery of Art, Washington D. C, franits, Wayne, Dutch Seventeenth-Century Genre Painting. Levine, David A. Schildersbent, Grove Art Online, slatkes, L. J. Dirck van Baburen, A Dutch Painter in Utrecht and Rome. Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting 1600-1800 ISBN 0-300-06418-7, Vermeer and The Delft School, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Dirck van Baburen
Dirck van Baburen
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The lute player, 1622.
Dirck van Baburen
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Dirck van Baburen, Concert (detail), 1623, oil on canvas,
Hermitage Museum at Saint Petersburg.
Dirck van Baburen
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Dirck van Baburen,
The Procuress, 1622, oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The painting was owned by
Maria Thins, mother-in-law of
Johannes Vermeer, who reproduced it within two of his own paintings.
Dirck van Baburen
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Young man singing, 1622,
Städelsches Kunstinstitut
19.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
Jews
–
Baruch Spinoza
Jews
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Map of
Canaan
Jews
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David Ben-Gurion
Jews
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George Gershwin
20.
Judaism
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Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
Judaism
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Judaica (clockwise from top):
Shabbat candlesticks,
handwashing cup,
Chumash and
Tanakh,
Torah pointer,
shofar and
etrog box
Judaism
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Silver case containing a handwritten
Torah (
Museum of Jewish Art and History, Paris)
Judaism
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Glass platter inscribed with the Hebrew word zokhreinu – remember us
Judaism
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A 19th-century silver
Macedonian Hanukkah menorah
21.
Turkic peoples
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The Turkic peoples are a collection of ethnic groups that live in central, eastern, northern, and western Asia as well as parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family and they share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. The first known mention of the term Turk applied to a Turkic group was in reference to the Göktürks in the 6th century, a letter by Ishbara Qaghan to Emperor Wen of Sui in 585 described him as the Great Turk Khan. The Orhun inscriptions use the terms Turk and Turuk and this includes Chinese records Spring and Autumn Annals referring to a neighbouring people as Beidi. During the first century CE, Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names could be the form of Türk/Türük such as Togarma, Turukha/Turuška, Turukku. But the information gap is so substantial that we cannot firmly connect these ancient people to the modern Turks, turkologist András Róna-Tas posits that the term Turk could be rooted in the East Iranian Saka language or in Turkic. This etymological concept is related to Old Turkic word stems tür, türi-, törü. The earliest Turkic-speaking peoples identifiable in Chinese sources are the Dingling, Gekun, the Chinese Book of Zhou presents an etymology of the name Turk as derived from helmet, explaining that taken this name refers to the shape of the Altai Mountains. During the Middle Ages, various Turkic peoples of the Eurasian steppe were subsumed under the identity of the Scythians, between 400 CE and the 16th century, Byzantine sources use the name Σκύθαι in reference to twelve different Turkic peoples. However, the usage of the term is based on the linguistic classification in order to avoid any political sense. In short, the term Türki can be used for Türk or vice versa and it is generally agreed that the first Turkic people lived in a region extending from Central Asia to Siberia, with the majority of them living in China historically. Historically they were established after the 6th century BCE, the earliest separate Turkic peoples appeared on the peripheries of the late Xiongnu confederation about 200 BCE. Turkic people may be related to the Xiongnu, Dingling and Tiele people, according to the Book of Wei, the Tiele people were the remnants of the Chidi, the red Di people competing with the Jin in the Spring and Autumn period. Turkic tribes such as the Khazars and Pechenegs probably lived as nomads for many years before establishing the Turkic Khaganate or Göktürk Empire in the 6th century and these were herdsmen and nobles who were searching for new pastures and wealth. The first mention of Turks was in a Chinese text that mentioned trade between Turk tribes and the Sogdians along the Silk Road, the first recorded use of Turk as a political name appears as a 6th-century reference to the word pronounced in Modern Chinese as Tujue. The Ashina clan migrated from Li-jien to the Juan Juan seeking inclusion in their confederacy, the tribe were famed metalsmiths and were granted land near a mountain quarry which looked like a helmet, from which they were said to have gotten their name 突厥. A century later their power had increased such that they conquered the Juan Juan, Turkic peoples originally used their own alphabets, like Orkhon and Yenisey runiforms, and later the Uyghur alphabet
Turkic peoples
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Map from Kashgari's Diwan, showing the distribution of Turkic tribes.
Turkic peoples
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Turkic states shown in red
Turkic peoples
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History of the Turkic peoples Pre-14th century
Turkic peoples
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The top of Belukha in the
Altay Mountains in Mongolia is shown here. The mountain range is thought to be the birthplace of the Turkic people.
22.
Komuz
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The komuz or qomuz, Azeri Qopuz, Turkish Kopuz, is an ancient fretless string instrument used in Central Asian music, related to certain other Turkic string instruments and the lute. It is the national instrument and one of the better-known Kyrgyz national symbols. The komuz is made from a single piece of wood and has three strings traditionally made out of gut, and often from fishing line in modern times. In the most common tunings the middle string is the highest in pitch, virtuosos frequently play the komuz in a variety of different positions, over the shoulder, between the knees and upside down. An illustration of a komuz is featured on the reverse of the one-som note, the komuz can be used either as accompaniment or as a lead instrument and is used in a wide variety of musical styles including aytysh and the recitation of epics. It is generally played seated, held horizontally and may be strummed or plucked, one piece consists of a simple tune repeated many times, each with a new stroke, as a test of the performer’s skill and creativity. The komuz has many different tunings, and the names of the tunings correspond with various styles of music. The word komuz is cognate to the names of other instruments in the Music of Central Asia, including the Kazakh kobyz, which depicted musicians at a council, holding a komuz-like instrument to their chests. The golcha gopuz was mentioned in the epic Book of Dede Korkut, the names of parts of the komuz are often allusions to body parts, particularly of horses. For example, the neck is called neck, the pegs are called. The Kyrgyz word кыл/qyl means string of an instrument or horses hair, the ancient komuz generally had two or three strings. The golcha gopuz is made from a leather covering which covered around two-thirds of the surface, the total length of the instrument is 810 mm, with the body 410 mm, the width 240 mm and the height or breadth only 20 mm. The Kyrgyz, ооз комуз or, alternatively, Kyrgyz, темир комуз, is a jaw harp, during the Soviet era the instrument fell from favour. It was derided as rudimentary and attempts were made to make it more like the Russian balalaika, after independence the komuz was again taught in music colleges, though some of the Soviet changes have remained. In the twentieth century the late Iranian dutar player Haj Ghorban Soleimani invented a new form of the komuz which has received some popularity, various myths exist about the komuz. One tells that the hunter Kambarkan was wandering in the forest when he heard a beautiful sound and he looked for the source and found the intestine of a squirrel tied between two tree branches, which he took and fashioned into a musical instrument. It is also said that the learned to sing by copying the komuz. The name is believed to have derived from the ancient Turkic words gop meaning height and uz meaning voice
Komuz
–
A Kyrgyz komuz
Komuz
–
A girl playing the Komuz.
Komuz
–
Kyrgyzstan 1-som note
Komuz
–
String
instruments
23.
Marin Mersenne
–
Marin Mersenne, Marin Mersennus or le Père Mersenne was a French theologian, philosopher, mathematician and music theorist, often referred to as the father of acoustics. Mersenne, an ordained priest, had contacts in the scientific world and has been called the center of the world of science. Marin Mersenne was born of peasant parents near Oizé, Maine and he was educated at Le Mans and at the Jesuit College of La Flèche. On 17 July 1611, he joined the Minim Friars, and, after studying theology, between 1614 and 1618, he taught theology and philosophy at Nevers, but he returned to Paris and settled at the convent of LAnnonciade in 1620. There he studied mathematics and music and met with other kindred spirits such as René Descartes, Étienne Pascal, Pierre Petit, Gilles de Roberval and he corresponded with Giovanni Doni, Constantijn Huygens, Galileo Galilei, and other scholars in Italy, England and the Dutch Republic. He was a defender of Galileo, assisting him in translations of some of his mechanical works. For four years, Mersenne devoted himself entirely to philosophic and theological writing and it is sometimes incorrectly stated that he was a Jesuit. He was educated by Jesuits, but he never joined the Society of Jesus and he taught theology and philosophy at Nevers and Paris. He was not afraid to cause disputes among his friends in order to compare their views. In 1635 Mersenne met with Tommaso Campanella, but concluded that he could teach nothing in the sciences but still he has a good memory, Mersenne asked if René Descartes wanted Campanella to come to Holland to meet him, but Descartes declined. He visited Italy fifteen times, in 1640,1641 and 1645, in 1643–1644 Mersenne also corresponded with the German Socinian Marcin Ruar concerning the Copernican ideas of Pierre Gassendi, finding Ruar already a supporter of Gassendis position. Among his correspondents were Descartes, Galilei, Roberval, Pascal, Beeckman and he died September 1 through complications arising from a lung abscess. Some history scientists suggest he died for having drunk a huge quantity of water, along with Descartes. It was written as a commentary on the Book of Genesis, at first sight the book appears to be a collection of treatises on various miscellaneous topics. However Robert Lenoble has shown that the principle of unity in the work is a polemic against magical and divinatory arts, cabalism and he mentions Martin Del Rios Investigations into Magic and criticises Marsilio Ficino for claiming power for images and characters. He condemns astral magic and astrology and the anima mundi, a popular amongst Renaissance neo-platonists. Whilst allowing for an interpretation of the Cabala, he wholeheartedly condemned its magical application—particularly to angelology. He also criticises Pico della Mirandola, Cornelius Agrippa and Francesco Giorgio with Robert Fludd as his main target, Fludd responded with Sophia cum moria certamen, wherein Fludd admits his involvement with the Rosicrucians
Marin Mersenne
–
Marin Mersenne
24.
Tie-in
–
A tie-in work is a work of fiction or other product based on a media property such as a film, video game, television series, board game, web site, role-playing game or literary property. Tie-ins are authorized by the owners of the property, and are a form of cross-promotion used primarily to generate additional income from that property. Tie-in products may also have a documentary or supplemental character, such or making-of books documenting the creation of a media property, Tie-in products also include other types of works based on the media property, such as soundtrack recordings, video games or merchandise including toys and clothing. A novelization is a novel that adapts the story of a work created for another medium, such as a film, TV series. Film novelizations were particularly popular before the advent of home video and they are often written by accomplished writers based on an early draft of the films script and on a tight deadline. Tie-in novels are often newly published editions of a novel on which a film was based, sometimes renamed to match the films title and using promotional art created for the film. For example, when Stephen Kings novella Apt Pupil was adapted to film, similarly, tie-in novels were published to promote the films Minority Report and Paycheck, featuring the original Minority Report and Paycheck short stories, both written by Philip K. Dick. In 2015, the New York Times noted the market for TV series tie-in novels. Some video games are tie-in licences for films, television shows or books, the aim for the publishers is to increase hype and revenue as the two industries effectively market one anothers releases. Movie license video games have a reputation for being poor quality, for example, Amiga Power awarding Psygnosiss three movie licenses 36% in total, that magazine being cynical towards licensed games in general, with The Blues Brothers being one of few exceptions. One of the first movie tie-in games, Ataris E. T. the Extra-Terrestrial was deemed so bad, video tie-in licences for novels tend to be adventure games. The Hobbit and The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy are text adventures, whilst I Have No Mouth, action games based on novels are less common. Novel tie-ins were published less frequently after the 1990s, with only taking risks with stories that had already been licensed for movies. Tie-ins provide both an important way of generating income from a property, and a way of satisfying the desires of fans who enthusiastically support a popular media property. The lineage of tie-in works can be quite convoluted, for example, a novelization might be done of a video game, which was based on a television show, based on a movie, based on a comic book which was the original media property. In several cases, a novelization has been released based on a movie which was in turn adapted from an original novel, in such cases, it is not uncommon to see the novelization and a movie release of the original novel side-by-side on the same shelf. These tie-ins can be considered as forms of advertising, as they create more exposure for the media property. Tie-ins need not have an association with the property
Tie-in
–
This pannier bag is a tie-in product from the
TV series South Park.
25.
A Boy Named Charlie Brown
–
It was also the final time that Peter Robbins voiced the character of Charlie Brown in 1965. The film received positive reviews from critics and audiences, and was a box office success. Snoopy, Come Home came three years later, in 1972, as a standalone sequel, when Charlie Browns baseball team loses the first Little League game of the season, he becomes convinced that he will never win anything. Linus encourages him to maintain an attitude and suggests that people learn more from losing. When Charlie Brown remains morose, Linus assures him that he will win at something. That night, Snoopy has a nightmare where he is a World War I flying ace, and is shot down while fighting a battle with an unshown enemy. When Charlie Brown stops at Lucys psychiatric help booth, she prepares slides to show him all of his faults, on the way to school the next day, Lucy jokingly suggests that Charlie Brown enter the school spelling bee. Linus, however, considers it an idea and encourages him despite the jeers of Lucy, Violet. Charlie Brown nervously enters the spelling bee, and he defeats the other children in his class when he spells insecure, as Charlie Brown studies for the school championship, he and Linus sing a spelling mnemonic as Snoopy accompanies them on a Jews harp. In class the day, Charlie Brown freezes when challenged with perceive. Crowned champion, the other kids cheerfully follow him home and sing, Lucy proclaims herself his agent, and when his friends suggest that he continue studying, he is confused. They tell him that he must now part in the National Spelling Bee in New York City. As Charlie Brown leaves, Linus reluctantly offers him his blanket for good luck, back at home, Linus suffers terrible withdrawal after being separated from his blanket. Unable to withstand it, he pleads with Snoopy to go to New York City, the two meet with an exhausted Charlie Brown at his hotel room, and he apologizes for not knowing where he left Linus blanket. As Linus checks the New York Public Library in vain, Snoopy engages in a fantasy ice-skating routine at Rockefeller Center, the two reunite and return to Charlie Brown, only to find him absentmindedly using the blanket as a shoe-shine cloth. Ecstatic to have his back, Linus joins Snoopy in the audience as Charlie Brown competes. One-by-one, the contestants are eliminated until only Charlie Brown. After correctly spelling several words, Charlie Brown is eliminated when he misspells beagle as in B–E–A–G–E–L
A Boy Named Charlie Brown
–
Theatrical release poster
A Boy Named Charlie Brown
–
"Snoopy's Harp"
26.
Snoopy
–
Snoopy is Charlie Browns pet beagle in the comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz. He can also be found in all of the Peanuts movies and television specials, since his debut on October 4,1950, Snoopy has become one of the most recognizable and iconic characters in the comic strip. The original drawings of Snoopy were inspired by Spike, one of Schulzs childhood dogs and he is perhaps best known in this last alternate persona, wearing an aviators helmet and goggles and a scarf while carrying a swagger stick. Snoopy can be selfish and/or lazy at times, and had his share of moments where he is mocking his owner, Charlie Brown, but through it all, he has great love, care. All of his fantasies have a formula, Snoopy pretends to be something, usually world famous. His short novels are never published, and his Sopwith Camel is consistently shot down by his imaginary enemy, Schulz said of Snoopys character in a 1997 interview, He has to retreat into his fanciful world in order to survive. Otherwise, he kind of a dull, miserable life. I dont envy dogs the lives they have to live, Snoopy imagines himself to speak, but never actually does, much like with real life animals, the human characters are unaware of his musings. Though very rarely, he talks, but usually to himself and his thoughts are shown in thought balloons. The only exceptions are in the animated adaptions of the musicals Youre a Good Man, Charlie Brown, the Musical in which Snoopys thoughts are verbalized by Robert Towers and Cameron Clarke respectively. Snoopys doghouse defies physics and is shown to be bigger on the inside than the outside and it is also his airplane in his fantasies. In the 90s comic strips, he is obsessed with cookies, Snoopy appeared on the October 4,1950, strip, two days after the first strip. He was called Snoopy for the first time a month later, on March 16,1952, his thoughts were first shown in a thought balloon. Snoopy first appeared upright on his legs on January 9,1956. Despite his history of conflicted loyalties and his inability to remember Charlie Browns name and he joins Charlie Brown in walking out of a game of Ha-Ha Herman when Peppermint Patty insults Charlie Brown, unaware that Charlie Brown is within earshot. He also helps Charlie Brown recover his autographed baseball when a bully takes it, when Charlie Brown has to stop dedicating himself to making Snoopy happy, Snoopy replies, Dont worry about it. In The Peanuts Movie, Snoopy remains loyal to Charlie Brown, in early Peanuts strips, Charlie Brown was not Snoopys owner, and it was initially not clear who his owner actually was. The September 29,1951 strip implied that Snoopy was owned by Shermy, Snoopy frequently tries to kiss Lucy on the cheek and/or nose, which Lucy, who is afraid of dog germs, thoroughly hates
Snoopy
–
Snoopy imagines himself as a
World War One flying Ace, while imagining his doghouse as a
Sopwith Camel.
Snoopy
–
Snoopy's original appearance from October 4, 1950.
Snoopy
–
Statue at
Kennedy Space Center. Now located in the Apollo/Saturn V building.
27.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
28.
Magic (paranormal)
–
Magic or sorcery is the use of rituals, symbols, actions, gestures, and language with the aim of exploiting supernatural forces. The term magic has a variety of meanings, and there is no agreed upon definition of what it is or how it can be used. Religious scholars have defined magic in many different ways, one approach, associated with the anthropologists Edward Tylor and James G. Frazer, has magic and science be opposites. Many scholars of religion have rejected the utility of the term magic, the term magic comes from the Old Persian magu, a word that applied to a form of religious functionary about which little is known. This meaning of the term was adopted by Latin in the first century BCE. The concept was incorporated into Christian theology during the first century CE. This concept was pervasive throughout the Middle Ages, although in the modern period Italian humanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to establish the idea of natural magic. Both negative and positive understandings of the term were retained in Western culture over the following centuries, throughout Western history, there have been examples of individuals claiming to be practitioners of magic and referring to themselves as magicians. This trend has proliferated in the period, with a growing number of magicians appearing within the esoteric milieu. Scholars of religion have failed to agree on a definition of magic is. The subject has one of intense dispute, with some scholars criticizing the validity of the term in the first place. Even among those throughout history who have described themselves as magicians, there has been some debate among scholars as to whether to use the term magic at all. The scholar of religion Jonathan Z. Smith for example argued that it had no utility as a term that scholars should use. Religious historian Wouter Hanegraaff agreed, stating that the magic is an important object of historical research. Since the 1990s its usage among scholars has declined, within Western culture, magic has been linked to the idea of the Other. Using the term magic when discussing non-Western cultures or pre-modern forms of Western society raises problems, alternately, this term implies that all categories of magic are ethnocentric and that such Western preconceptions are an unavoidable component of scholarly research. Magic is one of the most heavily theorized concepts in the study of religion, the intellectualist approach to defining magic is associated with two prominent British anthropologists, Edward Tylor and James G. Frazer. This was an approach that viewed magic as being the theoretical opposite of science, in his 1871 book Primitive Culture, Tylor characterized magic as beliefs based on the error of mistaking ideal analogy for real analogy
Magic (paranormal)
–
"
Circe Offering the Cup to Ulysses " by
John William Waterhouse
Magic (paranormal)
–
The "
Magician " card from a 15th-century
tarot deck.
Magic (paranormal)
–
Juju charm protecting dugout canoe on riverbank, in
Suriname.1954.
Magic (paranormal)
–
Traditional welcome performance,
Mitral,
Kheda district, Gujarat
29.
Shamanic
–
The word shaman probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Mircea Eliade writes, A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be, shamanism = technique of religious ecstasy. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul, alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community, Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The word shaman probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples. The Tungusic term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum, adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China, a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- to know, other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language. This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917, ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an anachronism and an impossibility that is nothing more than a far-fetched etymology. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, there is no single agreed-upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, the first of these uses the term to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in a state of consciousness at the behest of others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be, the fourth definition identified by Hutton uses shamanism to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia. According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, Shamans are normally called by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be inherited, turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis
Shamanic
–
Shaman
Shamanic
–
The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, produced by the Dutch explorer
Nicolaes Witsen, who authored an account of his travels among Samoyedic- and Tungusic-speaking peoples in 1692. Witsen labelled the illustration as a "Priest of the Devil" and gave this figure clawed feet to highlight what Witsen perceived as demonic qualities.
Shamanic
–
Russian postcard based on a photo taken in 1908 by S.I. Borisov, showing a female shaman, of probable
Khakas ethnicity.
Shamanic
–
South Moluccan Shaman exorcising evil spirits occupying children,
Buru. 1920.
30.
Octave
–
In music, an octave or perfect octave is the interval between one musical pitch and another with half or double its frequency. It is defined by ANSI as the unit of level when the base of the logarithm is two. The octave relationship is a phenomenon that has been referred to as the basic miracle of music. The most important musical scales are written using eight notes. For example, the C major scale is typically written C D E F G A B C, two notes separated by an octave have the same letter name and are of the same pitch class. Three commonly cited examples of melodies featuring the perfect octave as their opening interval are Singin in the Rain, Somewhere Over the Rainbow, the interval between the first and second harmonics of the harmonic series is an octave. The octave has occasionally referred to as a diapason. To emphasize that it is one of the intervals, the octave is designated P8. The octave above or below a note is sometimes abbreviated 8a or 8va, 8va bassa. For example, if one note has a frequency of 440 Hz, the note one octave above is at 880 Hz, the ratio of frequencies of two notes an octave apart is therefore 2,1. Further octaves of a note occur at 2n times the frequency of that note, such as 2,4,8,16, etc. and the reciprocal of that series. For example,55 Hz and 440 Hz are one and two away from 110 Hz because they are 1⁄2 and 4 times the frequency, respectively. After the unison, the octave is the simplest interval in music, the human ear tends to hear both notes as being essentially the same, due to closely related harmonics. Notes separated by a ring together, adding a pleasing sound to music. For this reason, notes an octave apart are given the note name in the Western system of music notation—the name of a note an octave above A is also A. The conceptualization of pitch as having two dimensions, pitch height and pitch class, inherently include octave circularity, thus all C♯s, or all 1s, in any octave are part of the same pitch class. Octave equivalency is a part of most advanced cultures, but is far from universal in primitive. The languages in which the oldest extant written documents on tuning are written, leon Crickmore recently proposed that The octave may not have been thought of as a unit in its own right, but rather by analogy like the first day of a new seven-day week
Octave
31.
Kyrgyz people
–
The Kyrgyz people are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia, primarily Kyrgyzstan. There are several theories on the origin of ethnonym Kyrgyz and it is often said to be derived from the Turkic word kyrk, with -iz being an old plural suffix, so Kyrgyz literally means a collection of forty tribes. A rival myth, recorded in 1370 in the Yuán Shǐ, the original root of the ethnonym appears to have been the word kirkün, probably meaning field people. This and the Chinese transcription Tse-gu suggest that the ethnonym was Kirkut and/or Kirkur. By the time of the Mongol Empire, the meaning of the word kirkun had apparently been forgotten – as was shown by variations in readings of it across different reductions of the Yuán Shǐ and this may have led to the adoption of Kyrgyz and its mythical explanation. When distinction had to be made, more specific terms were used, the Kyrgyz proper were known as the Kara-Kirghiz, and the Kazakhs were named the Kaisaks. or Kirghiz-Kazaks. They were described in Tang Dynasty texts as having red hair and green eyes, while those with dark hair, in Chinese sources, these Kyrgyz tribes were described as fair-skinned, green- or blue-eyed and red-haired people with a mixture of European and Mongol features. According to recent historical findings, Kyrgyz history dates back to 201 BC, the Yenisei Kyrgyz lived in the upper Yenisey River valley, central Siberia. In Late Antiquity the Yenisei Kyrgyz were a part of the Tiele people, later, in the Early Middle Ages, the Yenisei Kyrgyz were a part of the confederations of the Göktürk and Uyghur Khaganates. In 840 a revolt led by the Yenisei Kyrgyz brought down the Uyghur Khaganate, by the 16th century the carriers of the ethnonym Kirgiz lived in South Siberia, Xinjiang, Tian Shan, Pamir-Alay, Middle Asia, Urals, in Kazakhstan. Though it is impossible to directly identify the Yenisei and Tien Shan Kyrgyz. Also, there follow from the oldest notes about the Kyrgyz that the mention of Kyrgyz ethnonym originates from the 6th century. The Kyrgyz as ethnic group are mentioned quite unambiguously in the time of Genghis Khan rule, the genetic makeup of the Kyrgyz is consistent with their origin as a mix of tribes. For instance, 63% of modern Kyrgyz men of Jumgal District share Haplogroup R1a1 with Ishkashimis, Tajiks of Panjikent, Pashtuns, low diversity of Kyrgyz R1a1 indicates a founder effect within the historical period. Other groups of Kyrgyz show considerably lower haplogroup R frequencies and almost lack haplogroup N, west Eurasian mtDNA ranges from 27% to 42. 6% in the Kyrgyz with Haplogroup mtDNA H being the most predominant marker at 21. 3% among the Kyrgyz. They are considered to be a people that were created by a combination of Mongol, Khitan and they generally have an East Asian appearance like their neighbours the Kazakhs, in contrast to the mostly Caucasoid Tajiks and the mixed-looking Uzbeks. The Kyrgyz state reached its greatest extent after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 AD, the Kirghiz qaghan assisted the Tang dynasty in destroying the Uyghur Khaganate and rescuing the Princess Taihe from the Uyghurs. They also killed a Uyghur khagan in the process, then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as the Tian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years
Kyrgyz people
–
Genetic origins of the Kyrgyz from various parts of Kyrgyzstan. East Asian (e.g. Mongol) ancestry forms half to mostly 2/3 nationwide, Central/South Asian forms the 2nd largest at around 1/4, and European at around 1/8. Middle Eastern ancestry is minimal to non-existent, depending on locality. Ethnic Kyrgyz in Tajikistan and western part of Kyrgyzstan are both half-East Asian and Caucasian, other Kyrgyz are predominantly East Asian.
Kyrgyz people
–
1st row
Chinghiz Aitmatov Alykul Osmonov Bubusara Beyshenalieva Shabdan Baatyr 2nd row
Suymenkul Chokmorov Kurmanjan Datka Tolomush Okeyev Bokonbayev 3rd row Baytik Baatyr
Kasym Tynystanov Sayakbay Karalaev Togolok Moldo
Kyrgyz people
–
A Kyrgyz around
Murghab, in the
Pamirs of Tajikistan.
Kyrgyz people
–
A Kyrgyz family
32.
Kyrgyz Republic
–
Kyrgyzstan, officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a country in Central Asia. Landlocked and mountainous, Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west and southwest, Tajikistan to the southwest and its capital and largest city is Bishkek. Kyrgyzstans recorded history spans over 2,000 years, encompassing a variety of cultures and empires, ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the countrys 5.7 million people, followed by significant minorities of Uzbeks and Russians. Kyrgyz is closely related to other Turkic languages, although Russian remains widely spoken and is the official language, the majority of the population are non-denominational Muslims. In addition to its Turkic origins, Kyrgyz culture bears elements of Persian, Mongolian and Russian influence. Kyrgyz is believed to have derived from the Turkic word for forty, in reference to the forty clans of Manas. Literally, Kyrgyz means We are forty, at the time, in the early 9th century AD, the Uyghurs dominated much of Central Asia, Mongolia, and parts of Russia and China. King, Scythians were early settlers in present-day Kyrgyzstan, the Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 A. D. From the 10th century the Kyrgyz migrated as far as the Tian Shan range, in the twelfth century the Kyrgyz dominion had shrunk to the Altay Range and Sayan Mountains as a result of the Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century, the Kyrgyz peacefully became a part of the Mongol Empire in 1207. The descent of the Kyrgyz from the autochthonous Siberian population is confirmed on the hand by the recent genetic studies. Issyk Kul Lake was a stopover on the Silk Road, a route for traders, merchants. Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the 17th century by the Mongols, in the century by the Manchurian Qing Dynasty. In the late century, the majority part of what is today Kyrgyzstan was ceded to Russia through two treaties between China and Russia. The territory, then known in Russian as Kirghizia, was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous revolts against Tsarist authority, in addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion against Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate to China. Soviet power was established in the region in 1919. On 5 December 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a republic of the Soviet Union
Kyrgyz Republic
–
Silk road caravansary utilized during the
Islamic Golden Age
Kyrgyz Republic
–
Flag
Kyrgyz Republic
–
Kyrgyz nomads, 1869–1870, by Vasily Vereshchagin
Kyrgyz Republic
–
Kyrgyz yurt, 1869–1870, by
Vasily Vereshchagin
33.
Ostinato
–
In music, an ostinato is a motif or phrase that persistently repeats in the same musical voice, usually at the same pitch. The repeating idea may be a pattern, part of a tune. Both ostinatos and ostinati are accepted English plural forms, the reflecting the words Italian etymology. If the cadence may be regarded as the cradle of tonality, within the context of film music, Claudia Gorbman defines an obstinate as a repeated melodic or rhythmic figure that propel scenes that lack dynamic visual action. Ostinato plays an important part in improvised music, in which it is referred to as a riff or a vamp. A favorite technique of contemporary writers, ostinati are often used in modal and Latin jazz. Ostinato are used in 20th-century music to stabilize groups of pitches, as in Stravinskys The Rite of Spring Introduction and Augurs of Spring. A famous type of ostinato, called the Rossini crescendo, owes its name to a crescendo that underlies a persistent musical pattern and this style was emulated by other bel canto composers, especially Vincenzo Bellini, and later by Wagner. Applicable in homophonic and contrapuntal textures they are repetitive rhythmic-harmonic schemes, more familiar as accompanimental melodies, the techniques appeal to composers from Debussy to avant-garde composers until at least the 1970s. Lies in part in the need for unity created by the abandonment of functional chord progressions to shape phrases. Relentless, repetitive character help to establish and confirm the modal center and their popularity may also be justified by their ease as well as range of use, though. Ostinato must be employed judiciously, as its overuse can lead to monotony. Ground bass or basso ostinato is a type of form in which a bass line. Aaron Copland describes basso ostinato as, the easiest to recognize of the variation forms wherein. A long phrase—either an accompanimental figure or an actual melody—is repeated over and over again in the bass part, however, he cautions, it might more properly be termed a musical device than a musical form. Many instruments south of the Sahara Desert play ostinato melodies and these include lamellophones such as the mbira, as well as xylophones like the balafon, the bikutsi, and the gyil. Ostinato figures are also played on string instruments such as the kora, gankoqui bell ensembles, often, African ostinatos contain offbeats or cross-beats, that contradict the metric structure. Other African ostinatos generate complete cross-rhythms by sounding both the main beats and cross-beats, in the following example, a gyil sounds the three-against-two cross-rhythm
Ostinato
–
Ghanaian gyil
Ostinato
–
Dido's Lament ground bass, measures 1–6. Play (
help ·
info)
Ostinato
–
Ghanaian gyil cross-rhythmic ostinato. Play (
help ·
info)
Ostinato
–
Cuban guajeo written in cut-time. Play (
help ·
info)
34.
Fifth step (musical scale)
–
In music theory, a scale is any set of musical notes ordered by fundamental frequency or pitch. A scale ordered by increasing pitch is a scale. Some scales contain different pitches when ascending than when descending, for example, the Melodic minor scale. Due to the principle of equivalence, scales are generally considered to span a single octave. A musical scale represents a division of the space into a certain number of scale steps. A measure of the width of each scale step provides a method to classify scales, based on their interval patterns, scales are put into categories including diatonic, chromatic, major, minor, and others. A specific scale is defined by its interval pattern and by a special note. The tonic of a scale is the selected as the beginning of the octave. Typically, the name of the scale specifies both its tonic and its interval pattern, for example, C major indicates a major scale with a C tonic. Scales are typically listed from low to high, most scales are octave-repeating, meaning their pattern of notes is the same in every octave. An octave-repeating scale can be represented as an arrangement of pitch classes. The distance between two notes in a scale is called a scale step. The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the root of the scale, for example, in a C major scale the first note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes can also be numbered in relation to other, C and E create an interval of a third. A single scale can be manifested at many different pitch levels, for example, a C major scale can be started at C4 and ascending an octave to C5, or it could be started at C6, ascending an octave to C7. As long as all the notes can be played, the octave they take on can be altered, the pitch distances or intervals among the notes of a scale tell us more about the sound of the music than does the mere number of tones. The notes of a scale form intervals with each of the notes of the chord in combination. A 5-note scale has 10 of these intervals, a 6-note scale has 15, a 7-note scale has 21
Fifth step (musical scale)
–
Ascending and descending
chromatic scale Play (
help ·
info)
35.
Musical scale
–
In music theory, a scale is any set of musical notes ordered by fundamental frequency or pitch. A scale ordered by increasing pitch is a scale. Some scales contain different pitches when ascending than when descending, for example, the Melodic minor scale. Due to the principle of equivalence, scales are generally considered to span a single octave. A musical scale represents a division of the space into a certain number of scale steps. A measure of the width of each scale step provides a method to classify scales, based on their interval patterns, scales are put into categories including diatonic, chromatic, major, minor, and others. A specific scale is defined by its interval pattern and by a special note. The tonic of a scale is the selected as the beginning of the octave. Typically, the name of the scale specifies both its tonic and its interval pattern, for example, C major indicates a major scale with a C tonic. Scales are typically listed from low to high, most scales are octave-repeating, meaning their pattern of notes is the same in every octave. An octave-repeating scale can be represented as an arrangement of pitch classes. The distance between two notes in a scale is called a scale step. The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the root of the scale, for example, in a C major scale the first note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes can also be numbered in relation to other, C and E create an interval of a third. A single scale can be manifested at many different pitch levels, for example, a C major scale can be started at C4 and ascending an octave to C5, or it could be started at C6, ascending an octave to C7. As long as all the notes can be played, the octave they take on can be altered, the pitch distances or intervals among the notes of a scale tell us more about the sound of the music than does the mere number of tones. The notes of a scale form intervals with each of the notes of the chord in combination. A 5-note scale has 10 of these intervals, a 6-note scale has 15, a 7-note scale has 21
Musical scale
–
Ascending and descending
chromatic scale Play (
help ·
info)
36.
Tuva
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The Tyva Republic, Tyva or Tuva is a federal subject of Russia. It lies in the center of Asia, in southern Siberia. The republic borders the Altai Republic, the Republic of Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Irkutsk Oblast, and its capital is the city of Kyzyl. It has a population of 307,930, from 1921 until 1944, Tuva constituted a sovereign, independent nation, under the name of Tannu Tuva, officially, the Tuvan Peoples Republic, or the Peoples Republic of Tannu Tuva. The independence of Tannu Tuva, however, was recognized only by its neighbors, a majority of the people are ethnic Tuvans who speak Tuvan as their native tongue, while Russian is spoken natively by the Russian minority, both are official and widely understood in the country. Tuva is governed by the Great Khural, which elects a chairman for a four-year term, the current chairman is Sholban Kara-ool. The territory of Tuva has been controlled by the Xiongnu Empire and Mongolian Xianbei state, Rouran Khaganate, Mongol Empire, Northern Yuan, Khotgoid Khanate, medieval Mongol tribes, including Oirats and Tumeds inhabited in the territory of republic. In 1758–1911 it was brought under Manchu rule, during the 1911 revolution in China, tsarist Russia formed a separatist movement among the Tyvans. Tsar Nicholas II ordered Russian troops into Tyva in 1912, as Russian settlers were allegedly being attacked, Tyva became nominally independent as the Urjanchai Republic before being brought under Russian protectorate as Uryankhay Kray under Tsar Nicholas II on 17 April 1914. This move was requested by a number of prominent Tyvans, including the High Lama. A Tyvan capital was established, called Belotsarsk, meanwhile, in 1911 Mongolia became independent, though under Russian protection. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 that ended the imperial autocracy, pyotr Ivanovich Turchaninov was named governor of the territory. In the autumn of 1918 the southwestern part was occupied by Chinese troops, from July 1919 to February 1920 the communist Red Army controlled Tyva, but from 19 February 1920 to June 1921 it was occupied by China. On August 14,1921 the Bolsheviks established a Tuvan Peoples Republic, in 1926, the capital was renamed Kyzyl, meaning red. Tyva was de jure an independent state between the World Wars, the states first ruler, Prime Minister Donduk, sought to strengthen ties with Mongolia and establish Buddhism as the state religion. This unsettled the Kremlin, which orchestrated a coup carried out in 1929 by five young Tyvan graduates of Moscows Communist University of the Toilers of the East. In 1930 the pro-Soviet regime discarded the states Mongol script in favor of a Latin alphabet designed for Tyva by Russian linguists, Tyva voluntarily became a part of The Soviet Union in 1944, with the approval of Tyvas Little Khural. The exact circumstances surrounding Tannu-Tuvas incorporation into the USSR in 1944 remain obscure, salchak Toka, the leader of Tyvan communists, was given the title of First Secretary of the Tyvan Communist Party, and became the de facto ruler of Tyva until his death in 1973
Tuva
–
Hindiktig-hol lake, Tuva
Tuva
Tuva
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Russian President
Vladimir Putin in Tyva
Tuva
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The geographic "center of Asia"
37.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
Oxford English Dictionary
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Seven of the twenty volumes of the printed version of the second edition of the OED
Oxford English Dictionary
–
Frederick Furnivall, 1825–1910
Oxford English Dictionary
–
James Murray in the Scriptorium at Banbury Road
Oxford English Dictionary
–
The 78 Banbury Road,
Oxford, house, erstwhile residence of
James Murray, Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary
38.
Carnatic music
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The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music, most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in gāyaki style. Although there are differences, the basic elements of śruti, swara, rāga. Carnatic music is usually taught and learned through compositions. Other typical instruments used in performances may include the ghatam, kanjira, morsing, venu flute, veena, the most outstanding performances, and the greatest concentration of Carnatic musicians, are to be found in the city of Chennai. Like all art forms in Indian culture, Indian classical music is believed to be an art form which originated from the Devas and Devis. The Yajur-Veda, which consists of sacrificial formulae, mentions the veena as an accompaniment to vocal recitations. References to Indian classical music are made in ancient texts, including epics like the Ramayana. The Yajnavalkya Smriti mentions vīṇāvādana tattvajñaḥ śrutijātiviśāradaḥ tālajñaścāprayāsena mokṣamārgaṃ niyacchati, Carnatic music is based as it is today on musical concepts that were described in detail in several ancient works, particularly the Bharatas Natya Shastra and Silappadhikaram by Ilango Adigal. Owing to Persian and Islamic influences in North India from the 12th century onwards, commentaries and other works, such as Sharngadevas Sangita Ratnakara, further elaborated on the musical concepts found in Indian classical music. By the 16th and 17th centuries, there was a clear demarcation between Carnatic and Hindustani music, Carnatic music remained relatively unaffected by Persian and Arabic influences and it was at this time that Carnatic music flourished in Vijayanagara, while the Vijayanagar Empire reached its greatest extent. Purandara Dasa, who is known as the father of Carnatic Music, venkatamakhin invented and authored the formula for the melakarta system of raga classification in his Sanskrit work, the Chaturdandi Prakasika. Govindacharya is known for expanding the system into the sampoorna raga scheme – the system that is in common use today. Carnatic music was patronized by the local kings of the Kingdom of Mysore. Some famous court-musicians proficient in music were Veene Sheshanna and Veene Subbanna, during the 19th century, the city of Chennai emerged as the locus for Carnatic music. The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on music, most compositions are written to be sung. Like Hindustani music, Carnatic music rests on two elements, rāga, the modes or melodic formulæ, and tāḷa, the rhythmic cycles. Today, Carnatic music is presented by musicians in concerts or recordings, Carnatic music itself developed around musical works or compositions of phenomenal composers. Śruti commonly refers to musical pitch and it is the approximate equivalent of a tonic in Western music, it is the note from which all the others are derived
Carnatic music
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A Lady Playing the Tanpura, ca. 1735 (Rajasthan)
Carnatic music
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Saraswati, the
Hindu goddess of all knowledge, music, arts and science, with her instrument, the veena.
Carnatic music
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A portrait of
Tyagaraja – one among the celebrated Carnatic trinity
Carnatic music
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A portrait of
Muthuswamy Dikshitar – one of the celebrated Carnatic trinity.
39.
Music in the Sakha Republic
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The Sakha Republic lies in Russian Federation. Its most distinctive national instrument is the khomus, a lamellophone, the Yakut people are a large ethnic group in Sakha. They are known for a poem called Olonkho. This epic is performed a cappella, generally at festivals, always by one man alone, the timbre and tone of the singer reveal the roles of the different characters. The Republic has been represented in the Turkvision Song Contest since 2013
Music in the Sakha Republic
40.
Yakuts
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Yakuts are Turkic people who mainly inhabit the Sakha Republic. The Yakut language belongs to the Siberian branch of the Turkic languages, Yakuts mainly live in the Republic of Sakha in the Russian Federation, with some extending to the Amur, Magadan, Sakhalin regions, and the Taymyr and Evenk Autonomous Districts. The Yakuts are divided into two groups based on geography and economics. Yakuts in the north are historically semi-nomadic hunters, fishermen, reindeer breeders, while southern Yakuts engage in animal husbandry focusing on horses, the ancestors of Yakuts were Kurykans who migrated from Yenisey river to Baikal Lake. The Yakuts originally lived around Olkhon and the region of Lake Baikal, beginning in the 13th century they migrated to the basins of the Middle Lena, the Aldan and Vilyuy rivers under the pressure of the rising Mongols. The northern Yakuts were largely hunters, fishermen and reindeer herders, while the southern Yakuts raised cattle and horses. In the 1620s the Tsardom of Muscovy began to move into their territory and annexed or settled down on it, imposed a fur tax and managed to suppress several Yakut rebellions between 1634 and 1642. Russian brutality in collection of the pelt tax sparked a rebellion and aggression among the Yakuts, the Yakut population alone is estimated to have fallen by 70 percent between 1642 and 1682 because of the Grand Duchy of Muscovy expeditions. The discovery of gold and, later, the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway, by the 1820s almost all the Yakuts had been converted to the Russian Orthodox church, although they retained, and still retain, a number of Shamanist practices. Yakut literature began to rise in the late 19th century, a national revival occurred in the early 20th century. In 1922, the new Soviet government named the area the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The last conflict of the Russian Civil War, known as the Yakut Revolt, occurred here when Cornet Mikhail Korobeinikov, a White Russian officer, led an uprising and a last stand against the Red Army. In the late 1920s through the late 1930s, Yakut people were systematically persecuted and its possible that hunger and malnutrition resulting from the period resulted in a decline in the Yakut total population from 240,500 in 1926 to 236,700 in 1959. By 1972, the population began to recover, Yakut males belong to Haplogroup N3a. Currently, Yakuts form a plurality of the total population within the vast Sakha Republic. According to the 2010 Russian census, there were a total of 466,492 Yakuts residing in the Sakha Republic during that year, or 49. 9% of the total population of the Republic. According to the 2010 census, some 87% of the Yakuts in the Sakha Republic are fluent in the Yakut language, the Sakha/Yakut language belongs to the Northern branch of the Siberian group of Turkic languages. It is most closely related to the Dolgan language, slightly less closely related languages include Tuvan and Shor
Yakuts
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Yakut elder, early 20th c.
Yakuts
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Sakha herder with a reindeer, early 20th c.
Yakuts
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Sakha hunter with gun, early 20th c.
41.
Tuvans
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The Tuvans or Tuvinians are a Turkic people ethnic group living in southern Siberia. They are historically known as one of the Uriankhai, from the Mongolian designation, Tuvans have historically been cattle-herding nomads, tending to their herds of goats, sheep, camels, reindeer, cattle and yaks for the past thousands of years. They have traditionally lived in covered by felt or chums covered with birch bark or hide that they relocate seasonally as they move to newer pastures. Traditionally, the Tuvans were divided into nine regions called khoshuun, namely the Tozhu, Salchak, Oyunnar, Khemchik, Khaasuut, Shalyk, Nibazy, Daavan and Choodu, the first four were ruled by Uriankhai Mongol princes, while the rest were administered by Borjigin Mongol princes. Besides prehistoric rock-carvings to be found especially along the Yenisei banks, here, Scythian kurgan burials are being researched, revealing the earliest and easternmost remains of these people who spread all the way to Europe. Their story and fantastic gold treasures can be appreciated in the National Museum in Kyzyl, the Xiongnu ruled over the area of Tuva prior to 200 AD. At this time, a known to the Chinese as Dingling inhabited the region. The Chinese recorded the existence of a tribe of Dingling origin named Dubo in the eastern Sayans and this name is recognized as being associated with the Tuvan people and is the earliest written record of them. The Xianbei defeated the Xiongnu and they, in turn, were defeated by the Rouran, from around the end of the 6th century, the Göktürks held dominion over Tuva up until the 8th century when the Uyghurs took over. Tuvans were subjects of the Uyghur Khanate during the 8th and 9th centuries, the Uyghurs established several fortifications within Tuva as a means of subduing the population. There are plans being discussed to restore the remains of one of these fortresses, Uyghur dominance was broken by the Yeniseian Kyrgyz in 840 AD, who came from the upper reaches of the Yenisei. In 1207, the Oirat prince Quduqa-Beki led Mongol detachments under Jochi to a tributary of the Kaa-Khem river and they encountered the Tuvan Keshdims, Baits, and Teleks. This was the beginning of Mongol suzerainty over the Tuvans, after the collapse of the Naiman Khanate, Tuvans moved to modern Mongolia and some Naimans moved to modern Kazakhstan territory. Tuvans came to be ruled for most of the 17th century by Khalka Mongol leader Sholoi Ubashis Altan-Khan Khanate and it was at this time in 1615 that the first Russians, Vasily Tyumenets and Ivan Petrov, visited Tuva as emissaries to the Altan-Khan. Russian documents from this time record information about different tribal groups that contributed to the composition of modern Tuvans, Tyumenets and Petrov describe the Maads, who became Russian subjects in 1609, living in the Bii-Khem basin,14 days ride from Tomsk. The Maads travelled to the area of the Khemchik and Ulug-Khem next to the lands of the Altan-Khan near the lake Uvs Nuur, the ambassadors also described the Sayan raising reindeer with the Tochi from the Sayan to the Altai mountain ranges. The descendants of the Ak-Sayan and Kara-Sayan live mostly around Tere-Khol rayon, the state of the Altan-Khan disappeared due to constant warring between the Oirats and the Khalka of Jasaghtu Khan aimag. The Tuvans became part of the Dzungarian state ruled by the Oirats, the Dzungars ruled over all of the Sayano-Altay Plateau until 1755
Tuvans
–
Tuvan throat singer.
Tuvans
–
Map showing extent of Uyghur Khanate and placement of Kyrgyz in 820 AD.
Tuvans
–
Tuvan on a horse.
Tuvans
–
Shaman of
Kyzyl, 2005. Tuvan
shamanhood is being preserved and revitalized [
by whom?]
42.
Sindhi language
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Sindhi /ˈsɪndi/ is an Indo-Aryan language of the historical Sindh region, spoken by the Sindhi people. It is the language of the Pakistani province of Sindh. In India, Sindhi is one of the scheduled languages officially recognized by the federal government, most Sindhi speakers are concentrated in Pakistan in the Sindh province, and in India, the Kutch region of the state of Gujarat and in the Ulhasnagar region of the state of Maharashtra. The Sindhi language and other languages of Pakistan are struggling to be officially given the status of national language in Pakistan. Before the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the language of Sindh. There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as KTN, Sindh TV, Awaz Television Network, besides this, Indian television Doordarshan have been asked by the Indian court to start a news channel for Hindu Sindhis of India. Sindhi Computing is the used for the Software developed for the Sindhi language. Sindhi language software such as Sindhi language keyboards have been developed for the Windows OS, various other online websites provide Sindhi keyboard such as, M. B Sindhi keyboard by Majid Bhurgri. The name Sindhi is derived from Sindhu, the name of the Indus River. When Sindh was occupied by British army and was annexed with Bombay, Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29,1857 advising civil servants in Sindh to qualify examination in Sindhi. He also ordered Sindhi to be used in all official communication, seven-grade education system commonly known as Sindhi-Final was introduced in Sindh. Sindhi Final was made a prerequisite for employment in revenue, police, like other languages of this family, Sindhi has passed through Old Indo-Aryan and Middle Indo-Aryan stages of growth, and it entered the New Indo-Aryan stage around the 10th century CE. In the year 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi, the script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities, according to Islamic Sindhi tradition, the first translation of the Quran into Sindhi was completed in the year 883 CE /270 AH in Mansura, Sindh. The first extensive Sindhi translation was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi, the first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq. Sindhi has a large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other languages. Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 16 vowels, the consonant to vowel ratio is around average for worlds languages at 2.8. All plosives, affricates, nasals, the flap and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts
Sindhi language
Sindhi language
–
Sindhi
43.
Sicilian language
–
Sicilian is a Romance language spoken on the island of Sicily and its satellite islands. It is also spoken in southern and central Calabria, in the parts of Apulia, Salento, and Campania, on the Italian peninsula. The Ethnologue describes Sicilian as being distinct enough from Standard Italian to be considered a language and is recognized as a minority language by UNESCO. Some assert that Sicilian represents the oldest Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin, Sicilian has the oldest literary tradition of the Italic languages. Sicilian is currently spoken by the majority of the inhabitants of Sicily, the latter are found in the countries which attracted large numbers of Sicilian immigrants during the course of the past century or so, especially the United States, Canada, Australia and Argentina. In the past two or three decades, large numbers of Sicilians were also attracted to the zones of northern Italy and indeed the rest of the European Union. It is not used as an official language anywhere, even within Sicily, there is currently no central body, in Sicily or elsewhere, that regulates the language in any way. However, since its inception in 1951, the Centro di studi filologici e linguistici siciliani in Palermo has been researching and publishing information on the Sicilian language. The autonomous regional parliament of Sicily has legislated to encourage the teaching of Sicilian at all schools, further, the Sicilian language would be protected and promoted under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. However, Italy has signed this treaty, but the Italian Parliament has not ratified it, the term Calabro-Sicilian refers to the fact that a form of Sicilian, or a dialect closely related to Sicilian, is spoken in central and southern Calabria. Sicilianu is the name of the language in Sicily itself, the term Siculu describes one of the larger prehistoric groups living in Sicily before the arrival of Greeks in the 8th century BC. It can also be used as an adjective to qualify, or further elaborate on, the very earliest influences, visible in Sicilian to this day, exhibit both prehistoric Mediterranean elements and prehistoric Indo-European elements, and occasionally a blending of both. Ruffino 2001 Before the Roman conquest, Sicily was occupied by populations considered indigenous, including Sicels, Sicani, Elymians, the Greek language influence remains strongly visible, while the influences from the other groups are less obvious. What can be stated with certainty is that there remain pre-Indo-European words in Sicilian of an ancient Mediterranean origin, of the three main prehistoric groups, only the Sicels were Indo-European, and their speech is likely to have been closely related to that of the Romans. The following table, listing words for twins, illustrates the difficulty linguists face in tackling the various sub-strata of the Sicilian language, a similar qualifier can be applied to many of the words that appear in this article. For instance, by the time the Romans had occupied Sicily during the 3rd century BC, the words with a prehistoric Mediterranean derivation often refer to plants native to the Mediterranean region or to other natural features. g. of a fruit timpa crag, cliff. The Sicels are a source of such words, but there is also the possibility of a cross-over between ancient Mediterranean words and introduced Indo-European forms. Some examples of Sicilian words with an ancient Indo-European origin, dudda mulberry, the latter would bring with them the Vulgar Latin from that region, a language not too different from that to be found in central Italy at the time
Sicilian language
–
Sicilian
44.
Music of Sicily
–
The Music of Sicily refers to music created by peoples from the isle of Sicily. Sicily is home to a variety of Christian music, including a cappella devotional songs from Montedoro and many brass bands like Banda Ionica. Harvest songs and work songs are also indigenous to the agricultural island, Sicilian flute music, called friscaletto, is also popular among traditionalist Sicilians, as are Messinas male choirs and the islands ciarameddi. Franco Battiato, Carmen Consoli, Fratelli Mancuso and Ciccio Busacca are among the most popular musicians from Sicily. Busacca has worked with Dario Fo, like many Italian musicians, but is perhaps best known for his setting the poems of Ignazio Buttitta, Fratelli Mancuso have fused traditional Sicilian peasant songs, monodic chants and other indigenous forms to create a uniquely Sicilian modern song style. Sicily has the most vibrant jazz scene in Italy, based in Palermo and including Enzo Rao and his group Shamal, pop Classical Crossover soundtrack queen Romina Arena hails from Sicily. She has not only recorded in her Sicilian/Italian languages but recorded and released recordings in other languages including English, Japanese, Spanish. Sicilys historical connections lie not primarily with mainland Italy, but with the ancient Greeks, Arab, the result has been a diverse and unique fusion of musical elements on the island. The Siciliana, a slow and lilting Italian style of music in triple meter, is loosely, Sicily is home to several different types of folk music instruments, many of which can also be found in other parts of Southern Italy. The Sicilian ciaramedda is a type of Italian Zampogna that has two equal length chanters and from two to three drones, all the pipes use single cane reeds made from Arundo donax. Also made out of Arundo donax is a small end-blown flute called a friscaletto or friscalettu, the jaw harp, known in Sicilian as marranzanu is heavily associated with Sicilian folk music. Since its invention in the early 19th century the Organetto, a diatonic folk accordion is also prevalent in traditional Sicilian music, percussion instruments include tambourines and other frame drums as well as the cupa cupa, a unique-sounding friction drum. They are Palermo, Agrigento, Caltanissetta, Catania, Enna, Messina, Ragusa, Siracusa, and Trapani. The town of Monreal in the hosts a Sacred Music Week on the premises of the cathedral, Agrigento, the site of an important folk festival. The city also has the Teatro Luigi Pirandello and a museum that hosts concerts amidst ancient ruins. Caltanissetta, the recently reopened Teatro Regina Margherita sponsors the concerts of the Friends of Music Association as well as the finals of the Vincenzo Bellini music competition. Catania, the city is the site of the splendid Teatro Massimo Bellini, built in 1890, Messina, the Teatro Vittorio Emanuele in Messina hosts concerts sponsored by the Laudamo Philharmonic Association. Messina is the site of the Arcangelo Corelli music conservatory, moreover, in Taormina there is one of the most charming music venues of Italy, the well-preserved Greek theatre which regularly hosts a season of concerts every summer
Music of Sicily
–
Teatro Massimo
Music of Sicily
–
Teatro Politeama
Music of Sicily
–
Vincenzo Bellini
Music of Sicily
–
Cathedral of Messina (2004)
45.
World music
–
The term was popularized in the 1980s as a marketing category for non-Western traditional music. Globalization has facilitated the expansion of world musics audiences and scope and it has grown to include hybrid subgenres such as world fusion, global fusion, ethnic fusion, and worldbeat. To enhance the process of learning, he invited more than a dozen visiting performers from Africa and Asia, the term became current in the 1980s as a marketing/classificatory device in the media and the music industry. There are several conflicting definitions for world music, one is that it consists of all the music in the world, though such a broad definition renders the term virtually meaningless. The term also is taken as a classification of music that combines Western popular music styles with one of many genres of music that are also described as folk music or ethnic music. However, world music is not exclusively traditional folk music and it may include cutting edge pop music styles as well. Succinctly, it can be described as music from out there. It is a nebulous term with an increasing number of genres that fall under the umbrella of world music to capture musical trends of combined ethnic style and texture. As a result, definitions of the genre have become particularly varied, similar terminology between distinctly different sub-categories under primary music genres, such as world, rock and pop can be as ambiguous and confusing to industry moguls as it is to consumers. In a report on the 2014 globalFEST National Public Radios Anastasia Tsioulcas said Even within the music community. Whats more, I believe that in peoples imaginations, world music means a kind of fairly awful, gloppy, hippy-ish. Its a problematic, horrible term that satisfies absolutely no one, the Breton musician Alan Stivell pioneered the connection between traditional folk music, modern rock music and world music with his 1972 album Renaissance of the Celtic Harp. At this time, Stivells contemporary, Welsh singer-songwriter Meic Stevens popularised Welsh folk music, more recently, other Welsh-language bands such as Calan and 9 Bach have achieved international acclaim. The broad category of music includes isolated forms of ethnic music from diverse geographical regions. These dissimilar strains of music are commonly categorized together by virtue of their indigenous roots. World fusion / Worldbeat / Ethnic fusion / Global fusion can also blend specific indigenous sounds with more blatant elements of Western pop. Depending on style and context, world music can sometimes share the music genre. Good examples are Tibetan bowls, Tuvan throat singing, Gregorian chant or Native American flute music, World music blended with new-age music is a sound, loosely classified as the hybrid genre, ethnic fusion
World music
–
Guinean-born self-taught guitarist, singer, and songwriter
Alpha Yaya Diallo at a festival
World music
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Omer Ihsas and Peace Messengers
World music
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Delhi 2 Dublin in 2012
World music
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Anda Union at a music festival
46.
Drone (music)
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In music, a drone is a harmonic or monophonic effect or accompaniment where a note or chord is continuously sounded throughout most or all of a piece. Burden also refers to a part of a song that is repeated at the end of each stanza, the term comes from the French bourdon, a staff, or a pipe made in the form of a staff. The drone does not take its name from the bee and it is a far older word, sharing an Indo-European root with the Sanskrit dhran, the Greek thren-os, and the English thrum, drum, and dream. Of all harmonic devices, it is not only the simplest, a drone effect can be achieved through a sustained sound or through repetition of a note. It most often establishes a tonality upon which the rest of the piece is built, a drone can be instrumental, vocal or both. Drone can be placed in different ranges of the texture, in the lowest part, in the highest part. The drone is most often placed upon the tonic or dominant, a drone on the same pitch as a melodic note tends to both hide that note and to bring attention to it by increasing its importance. A drone differs from a pedal tone or point in degree or quality. A pedal point may be a form of tone and thus required to resolve unlike a drone, or a pedal point may simply be considered a shorter drone. The systematic use of drones originated in instrumental music of ancient Southwest Asia, and spread north and west to Europe, east to India and it is a key component of much Australian aboriginal music through the didgeridoo. It is used in Indian music and is played with the tanpura and other Indian drone instruments like the ottu, the ektar, the dotara, the surpeti, the surmandal and the shankh. Most of the types of bagpipes that exist worldwide have up to three drones, making one of the first instruments that comes to mind when speaking of drone music. In America, most forms of the African-influenced banjo contain a drone string, since the 1960s, the drone has become a prominent feature in drone music and other forms of avant-garde music. In vocal music drone is particularly widespread in traditional cultures, particularly in Europe. Drones are not uncommon in primitive music, but neither are they characteristic of it and it is also present in some isolated regions of Asia. Drone is also the term for the part of a musical instrument intended to produce the drone effects sustained pitch, different melodic Indian instruments contain a drone. For example, the sitar features three or four resonating drone strings, and Indian notes are practiced to a drone, bagpipes feature a number of drone pipes, giving the instruments their characteristic sounds. A hurdy-gurdy has one or more drone strings, the bass strings of the Slovenian drone zither also freely resonate as a drone
Drone (music)
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A Lady Playing the Tanpura, ca. 1735.
Drone (music)
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Highland bagpipes, with drone pipes over the pipers' left shoulders
47.
Harmony
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In music, harmony considers the process by which the composition of individual sounds, or superpositions of sounds, is analysed by hearing. Usually, this means simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches, or chords, the study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic line. In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms, in many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords are often augmented with tensions. A tension is an additional member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass. Typically, in the common practice period a dissonant chord resolves to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds, in simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between tense and relaxed moments. The term harmony derives from the Greek ἁρμονία, meaning joint, agreement, concord, from the verb ἁρμόζω, to fit together, the term was often used for the whole field of music, while music referred to the arts in general. In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements, in the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches sounding in combination, and in the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches sounding together. Aristoxenus wrote a work entitled Harmonika Stoicheia, which is thought the first work in European history written on the subject of harmony, the underlying principle behind these texts is that harmony sanctions harmoniousness by conforming to certain pre-established compositional principles. Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the ambiguity of the term in modern use, ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations or from the point of view of musical texture (distinguishing between harmonic and contrapuntal. The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in music theory and this is usually accounted for by the replacement of horizontal writing, common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the vertical element of composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation, as Carl Dahlhaus puts it, It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the structure of chords but also their movement, like music as a whole, harmony is a process. Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias towards European musical traditions, pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration. Nevertheless, emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias, the conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use of improvisatory techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation. Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process of prior composition, some traditions of Western music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony. This model provides that the seventh and ninth are not dissonant
Harmony
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Barbershop quartets, such as this US Navy group, sing 4-part pieces, made up of a melody line (normally the lead) and 3 harmony parts.
Harmony
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Rameau 's 'Traité de l'harmonie' (Treatise on Harmony) from 1722.
Harmony
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Example of implied harmonies in
J.S. Bach's Cello Suite no. 1 in G, BWV 1007, bars 1-2. Play (
help ·
info) or Play harmony (
help ·
info)
48.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
UNESCO
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UNESCO offices in
Brasília
UNESCO
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UNESCO
UNESCO
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UNESCO Institute for Water Education in
Delft
UNESCO
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The Garden of Peace, UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Donated by the Government of Japan, this garden was designed by American-Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener Toemon Sano.
49.
Intangible Cultural Heritage
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Intangible cultural heritage is promoted by UNESCO as a counterpart to the World Heritage focusing mainly on intangible aspects of culture. Some of that takes the form of cultural property, formed by tangible artefacts such as buildings or works of art. Many parts of culture, however are intangible, including song, music, dance, drama, skills, cuisine, crafts and festivals. They are forms of culture that can be recorded but cannot be touched or stored in physical form, like in a museum and these cultural vehicles are called Human Treasures by the UN. The Mediterranean diet, the traditional Mexican cuisine and the Japanese dietary culture of washoku are just some examples of this booming phenomenon, digital heritage is a representation of heritage in the digital realm. Digital intangible heritage is a sub-category of Intangible Cultural Heritage, each member of the community possesses a piece of the shared knowledge. Crucial knowledge is passed on during community activities, frequently without any attention to the process. Prior to the UNESCO Convention, efforts had already made by a number of states to safeguard their intangible heritage. Other countries, including South Korea, the Philippines, the United States, Thailand, France, Romania, the Czech Republic, in 2003 UNESCO adopted the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. This went into effect on 20 April 2006, UNESCO has also created other intangible culture programs, such as a list called Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. This list began in 2001 with 19 items and a further 28 were listed in 2003 and it was superseded in 2008 by the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. The issue still remains open in legal scholarship, document from Newfoundland, Canada Exploring a Model of Living Cultural Heritage New model of Intangible heritage
Intangible Cultural Heritage
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Noh mask; Japan was the first country to
introduce legislation to protect and promote its
intangible heritage
Intangible Cultural Heritage
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Logo of Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
Intangible Cultural Heritage
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Baul singers at Vasantotsav,
Shantiniketan
Intangible Cultural Heritage
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A
Kunqu performer's portrayal of
Hu Sanniang
50.
Albrechtsberger
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Johann Georg Albrechtsberger was an Austrian musician and composer. Albrechtsberger was born at Klosterneuburg, near Vienna and he originally studied music at Melk Abbey and philosophy at a Benedictine seminary in Vienna and became one of the most learned and skillful contrapuntists of his age. Albrechtsbergers earliest classmates included Michael Haydn and Franz Joseph Aumann, after being employed as organist at Raab in 1755 and Maria Taferl in 1757, he was appointed Thurnermeister back at Melk Abbey. In 1772 he was appointed organist to the court of Vienna and his fame as a theorist attracted to him in the Austrian capital a large number of pupils, some of whom afterwards became eminent musicians. See, List of music students by teacher, A to B#Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Beethoven had arrived in Vienna in 1792 to study with Joseph Haydn but quickly became infuriated when his work was not being given attention or corrected. Haydn recommended his friend Albrechtsberger, with whom Beethoven then studied harmony, on completion of his studies, the young student noted, Patience, diligence, persistence, and sincerity will lead to success, which reflects upon Albrechtsbergers own compositional philosophy. When Beethoven was finished studying with Albrechtsberger he decided to get a few more tips and pointers, so to speak, from there Beethoven possibly studied with Antonio Salieri, but this is unknown as a fact. It is also possible that Beethoven went off on his own to make a living. Albrechtsberger died in Vienna, his grave is in St. Marx cemetery and they are in the library of the Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. Around 1765, he wrote at least seven concerti for jaw harp and they are pleasant, well written works in the galant style. One of his most notable works is his Concerto for Alto Trombone, as the trombone has few works dating back to the classical period, his concerto is often highlighted by the trombone community. He also wrote a Concerto for the Mandola, Op.27, written positively about in the 1914 book The Guitar, probably the most valuable service he rendered to music was in his theoretical works. In 1790 he published at Leipzig a treatise on composition, of which an edition appeared in 1821. A collection of his writings on harmony, in three volumes, was published under the care of his pupil Ignaz von Seyfried in 1826, an English version of this was published by Novello in 1855. His compositional style derives from Johann Joseph Fuxs counterpoint, who was Kapellmeister at St Stephens Cathedral 1713-1741 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg
Albrechtsberger
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Johann Georg Albrechtsberger portrait by
Leopold Kupelwieser
Albrechtsberger
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A folio from VII Canoni a piu voci in partitura, by Albrechtsberger, written in his own hand.
Play range as string harmonics (help·info)
Schlesinger, Kathleen (1911). "Jew's Harp". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 411.
