1.
Order of the British Empire
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There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order. Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards. Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the Queen is not head of state, occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame – Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War, when first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was divided into Military. The Orders motto is For God and the Empire, at the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal, in addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order, and appoints all members of the Order. The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three, Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales, Queen Mary, and the current Grand Master, the Duke of Edinburgh. The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross,845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the number of members of the fourth and fifth classes. Foreign recipients, as members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry, women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood. Because of this, Dame Commander is awarded in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor, for example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor. The Order has six officials, the Prelate, the Dean, the Secretary, the Registrar, the King of Arms, the Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Orders Prelate. The Dean of St Pauls is ex officio the Dean of the Order, the Orders King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters
2.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
3.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh is an award granted to individuals that the Royal Society of Edinburgh judges to be eminently distinguished in their subject. Around 50 new fellows are elected each year in March, as of 2016 there are around 1650 Fellows, including 71 Honorary Fellows and 76 Corresponding Fellows. Fellows are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRSE, examples of fellows include Peter Higgs and Jocelyn Bell Burnell. Previous fellows have included Melvin Calvin and Benjamin Franklin, see the Category, Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for more examples
4.
Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society
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Fellowship of the Royal Astronomical Society is a fellowship granted to individuals whose application is acceptable to the Royal Astronomical Society. Around a third of Fellows are based outside the United Kingdom, Fellows are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRAS. As of 2016 examples of fellows include Yvonne Elsworth, Jocelyn Bell Burnell, see the Category, Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society for more examples
5.
Lurgan
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Lurgan is a town in County Armagh, Northern Ireland. The town is near the shore of Lough Neagh and in the north-eastern corner of the county. Lurgan is about 18 miles south-west of Belfast and is linked to the city by both the M1 motorway and the Belfast–Dublin railway line and it had a population of about 23,000 at the 2001 Census. It is within the Armagh, Banbridge and Craigavon district, Lurgan is characteristic of many Plantation of Ulster settlements, with its straight, wide planned streets and rows of cottages. It is the site of a number of listed buildings including Brownlow House. The development of the new city of Craigavon had a impact on Lurgan in the 1960s when much industry was attracted to the area. The expansion of Craigavons Rushmere Retail Park in the 2000s has affected the towns retail trade further, the name Lurgan is an anglicisation of the Irish name An Lorgain. This literally means the shin, but in placenames means a hill or ridge. Earlier names of Lurgan include Lorgain Chlann Bhreasail and Lorgain Bhaile Mhic Cana, the McCanns were a sept of the ONeills and Lords of Clanbrassil before the Plantation of Ulster period in the early 17th century. About 1610, during the Plantation and at a time when the area was populated by Irish Gaels. Brownlow became MP for Armagh in the Irish Parliament in 1639, during the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Brownlows castle and bawn were destroyed, and he and his wife and family were taken prisoner and brought to Armagh and then to Dungannon in County Tyrone. The land was passed to the McCanns and the OHanlons. In 1642, Brownlow and his family were released by the forces of Lord Conway, William Brownlow died in 1660, but the family went on to contribute to the development of the linen industry which peaked in the town in the late 17th century. In 1821 the population of Lurgan was 2,715, this increased to 4,677 by 1841, there were a couple of reasons for this large growth in population. Firstly the opportunities provided by the linen industry led many to abandon their meagre living in rural areas. Secondly the ever-expanding town gave tradesmen the opportunity to work in the construction of new buildings such as Brownlow House. The large numbers of workers migrating to the town inevitably resulted in over-crowding. When the potato crop failed for a time in 1846 the resulting starvation led to a quickly overcrowded workhouse which by the end of 1846 exceeded its 800 capacity
6.
Murray Edwards College, Cambridge
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Murray Edwards College is a women-only constituent college of the University of Cambridge. It was founded as New Hall in 1954, and unlike other colleges, it was founded without a benefactor. New Hall was founded in 1954, housing sixteen students in Silver Street where Darwin College now stands and this was at a time when Cambridge had the lowest proportion of women undergraduates of any university in the United Kingdom, and when only two other colleges admitted female students. In 1962, members of the Darwin family gave their home, The Orchard and this new site was located on Huntingdon Road, about a mile from the centre of Cambridge. The architects chosen were Chamberlin, Powell and Bon, who are known for their design of the Barbican in London, the building work began in 1964 and was completed by W. & C. The new college could house up to 300 students, in 1975, the Colleges President Dame Rosemary Murray became the first woman to hold the post of Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Since then, two subsequent presidents, Anne Lonsdale and Jennifer Barnes, have become Pro-Vice-Chancellors of the University of Cambridge, men-only Cambridge colleges were converted into mixed colleges in the 1970s and 1980s. The fellowship and staff at Murray Edwards College are nevertheless recruited from both sexes, New Hall received its Royal Charter in 1972. Vertically in the centre, place a Dolphin with head downwards to the left, on top, place three stars horizontally across. Bordering the arms, place a square representing the battlements of a castle. The black castellation round the arms marks the location on Castle Hill. The three stars are borrowed from the Murray coat of arms, while the heraldic Dolphin symbolises a youthful spirit of exploration and discovery, in addition to the arms, the college had designed a new logo to mark its transition from New Hall to Murray Edwards College. It was based on the design of the interior of the hall and was called the spark. However, on consultation with its alumnae, the decided to continue to use its arms in official materials. Like many of the other Cambridge Colleges, Murray Edwards College was not built all at one time but expanded as the need arose, the College therefore has several accommodation blocks of differing styles. It is divided into the Wolfson, Nuffield and Spooner Wings, part of the original structure was designed in the 1960s and completed in 1965. In 2009, part of block was refurbished to improve fire safety. Pearl House, named after Dr Valerie Pearl, the second President of the College, the building was constructed with funding from the Kaetsu Foundation
7.
Pulsar
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A pulsar is a highly magnetized, rotating neutron star or white dwarf, that emits a beam of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can be observed only when the beam of emission is pointing toward Earth, neutron stars are very dense, and have short, regular rotational periods. This produces a very precise interval between pulses that range from milliseconds to seconds for an individual pulsar, Pulsars are believed to be one of the candidates of high and ultra-high energy astroparticles. The precise periods of pulsars make them very useful tools, observations of a pulsar in a binary neutron star system were used to indirectly confirm the existence of gravitational radiation. The first extrasolar planets were discovered around a pulsar, PSR B1257+12, certain types of pulsars rival atomic clocks in their accuracy in keeping time. The first pulsar was observed on November 28,1967, by Jocelyn Bell Burnell and they observed pulses separated by 1.33 seconds that originated from the same location on the sky, and kept to sidereal time. When observations with another telescope confirmed the emission, it eliminated any sort of instrumental effects and it is an interesting problem—if one thinks one may have detected life elsewhere in the universe, how does one announce the results responsibly. Even so, they nicknamed the signal LGM-1, for little green men and it was not until a second pulsating source was discovered in a different part of the sky that the LGM hypothesis was entirely abandoned. Their pulsar was later dubbed CP1919, and is now known by a number of designators including PSR 1919+21, PSR B1919+21, although CP1919 emits in radio wavelengths, pulsars have, subsequently, been found to emit in visible light, X-ray, and/or gamma ray wavelengths. The word pulsar is a portmanteau of pulsating star, and first appeared in print in 1968, An entirely novel kind of came to light on Aug.6 last year and was referred to, by astronomers. Now it is thought to be a novel type between a white dwarf and a neutron, the name Pulsar is likely to be given to it. Dr. A. Hewish told me yesterday, … I am sure that today every radio telescope is looking at the Pulsars. The existence of stars was first proposed by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934. The discovery of the Crab pulsar later in 1968 seemed to provide confirmation of the neutron star model of pulsars. The Crab pulsar has a 33-millisecond pulse period, which was too short to be consistent with other proposed models for pulsar emission. Moreover, the Crab pulsar is so named because it is located at the center of the Crab Nebula, consistent with the 1933 prediction of Baade and Zwicky. Considerable controversy is associated with the fact that Professor Hewish was awarded the prize while Bell, Bell claims no bitterness upon this point, supporting the decision of the Nobel prize committee. In 1974, Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. and Russell Hulse discovered for the first time a pulsar in a binary system and this pulsar orbits another neutron star with an orbital period of just eight hours
8.
Herschel Medal
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The Herschel Medal is awarded by the Royal Astronomical Society for investigations of outstanding merit in observational astrophysics. It is awarded for a piece of work so that younger scientists can be candidates for the award. It is named after the RASs first president, William Herschel, the medal was first awarded in 1974. The medal has been shared twice, in 1977 and 1986 and it has been awarded 18 times to a total of 20 people
9.
Astrophysics
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Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics and chemistry to ascertain the nature of the heavenly bodies, rather than their positions or motions in space. Among the objects studied are the Sun, other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the interstellar medium and their emissions are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. In practice, modern astronomical research often involves an amount of work in the realms of theoretical and observational physics. Although astronomy is as ancient as recorded history itself, it was separated from the study of terrestrial physics. Their challenge was that the tools had not yet been invented with which to prove these assertions, for much of the nineteenth century, astronomical research was focused on the routine work of measuring the positions and computing the motions of astronomical objects. Kirchhoff deduced that the lines in the solar spectrum are caused by absorption by chemical elements in the Solar atmosphere. In this way it was proved that the elements found in the Sun. Among those who extended the study of solar and stellar spectra was Norman Lockyer and he thus claimed the line represented a new element, which was called helium, after the Greek Helios, the Sun personified. By 1890, a catalog of over 10,000 stars had been prepared that grouped them into thirteen spectral types, most significantly, she discovered that hydrogen and helium were the principal components of stars. This discovery was so unexpected that her dissertation readers convinced her to modify the conclusion before publication, however, later research confirmed her discovery. By the end of the 20th century, studies of astronomical spectra had expanded to cover wavelengths extending from radio waves through optical, x-ray and it is the practice of observing celestial objects by using telescopes and other astronomical apparatus. The majority of observations are made using the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio astronomy studies radiation with a greater than a few millimeters. The study of these waves requires very large radio telescopes, infrared astronomy studies radiation with a wavelength that is too long to be visible to the naked eye but is shorter than radio waves. Infrared observations are made with telescopes similar to the familiar optical telescopes. Objects colder than stars are studied at infrared frequencies. Optical astronomy is the oldest kind of astronomy, telescopes paired with a charge-coupled device or spectroscopes are the most common instruments used. The Earths atmosphere interferes somewhat with optical observations, so adaptive optics, in this wavelength range, stars are highly visible, and many chemical spectra can be observed to study the chemical composition of stars, galaxies and nebulae
10.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
11.
University of Glasgow
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The University of Glasgow is the fourth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands four ancient universities. Along with the University of Edinburgh, the University was part of the Scottish Enlightenment during the 18th century and it is currently a member of Universitas 21, the international network of research universities, and the Russell Group. Glasgow University served all of students by preparing them for professions, the law, medicine, civil service, teaching. It also trained smaller but growing numbers for careers in science, originally located in the citys High Street, since 1870 the main University campus has been located at Gilmorehill in the West End of the city. Additionally, a number of university buildings are located elsewhere, such as the Veterinary School in Bearsden, and it is the second-oldest university in Scotland after St Andrews and the fourth-oldest in the English-speaking world. The universities of St Andrews, Glasgow and Aberdeen were ecclesiastical foundations, as one of the Ancient Universities of the United Kingdom, Glasgow University is one of only eight institutions to award undergraduate masters degrees in certain disciplines. The University has been without its original Bull since the mid-sixteenth century, in 1560, during the political unrest accompanying the Scottish Reformation, the then chancellor, Archbishop James Beaton, a supporter of the Marian cause, fled to France. He took with him, for safe-keeping, many of the archives and valuables of the Cathedral and the University, including the Mace, although the Mace was sent back in 1590, the archives were not. If they had not been lost by time, they certainly went astray during the French Revolution when the Scots College was under threat. Its records and valuables were moved for safe-keeping out of the city of Paris, the Bull remains the authority by which the University awards degrees. Teaching at the University began in the chapterhouse of Glasgow Cathedral, subsequently moving to nearby Rottenrow, the University was given 13 acres of land belonging to the Black Friars on High Street by Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563. The Lion and Unicorn Staircase was also transferred from the old site and is now attached to the Main Building. To continue this work in his will he founded Andersons College, in 1973, Delphine Parrott became its first woman professor, as Gardiner Professor of Immunology. In October 2014, the university court voted for the University to become the first academic institution in Europe to divest from the fuel industry. The University is currently spread over a number of different campuses, the main one is the Gilmorehill campus, in Hillhead. The University has also established joint departments with the Glasgow School of Art, the Universitys initial accommodation including Glasgow University Library was part of the complex of religious buildings in the precincts of Glasgow Cathedral. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Hamilton Building was replaced with a very grand two-court building with a decorated west front facing the High Street, called the Nova Erectio, over the following centuries, the Universitys size and scope continued to expand. In 1757 it built the Macfarlane Observatory and later Scotlands first public museum and it was a centre of the Scottish Enlightenment and subsequently of the Industrial Revolution, and its expansion in the High Street was constrained
12.
Open University
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The Open University is a public distance learning and research university, and one of the biggest universities in the UK for undergraduate education. The majority of the OUs undergraduate students are based throughout the United Kingdom and principally study off-campus, the OU was established in 1969 and the first students enrolled in January 1971. The University administration is based at Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, in Buckinghamshire and it also has offices and regional examination centres in many other European countries. The university awards undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, as well as qualifications such as diplomas. Since it was founded, more than 1.5 million students have studied its courses and it was rated top university in England and Wales for student satisfaction in the 2005,2006 and 2012 United Kingdom government national student satisfaction survey, and second in the 2007 survey. The Open University was founded by the Labour government under Prime Minister Harold Wilson, Wilson was a strong advocate, using the vision of Michael Young. Wilson envisioned The Open University as a marker in the Labour Partys commitment to modernising British society. He believed that it would build a more competitive economy while also promoting greater equality of opportunity. By the time the actual, much higher costs became apparent, the majority of staff are part-time Associate Lecturers and, as of the 2009–10 academic year, almost 8,000 work for the OU. Salaries are the OUs main cost - over £275 million for the 2009–2010 academic year, in 2010 the OU became one of the Sunday Times′ Best Places to Work in the Public Sector. Open University Employees Credit Union Limited is a savings and loans co-operative established by the University for staff in 1994, a member of the Association of British Credit Unions Limited, it is authorised by the Prudential Regulation Authority and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority and the PRA. Ultimately, like the banks and building societies, members’ savings are protected against business failure by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme, in 1982 the OU announced the establishment of a business school supported by the Foundation for Management Education and the British Institute of Management. In 1983 the Open University Business School was founded with 1,600 students enrolled onto the first two courses – The Effective Manager and Personnel Selection and Interviewing, the Open University Business school is accredited by the international accrediting bodies AACSB, AMBA, amd EQUIS. It is the only triple-accredited business school that specialises in flexible learning, the OU uses a variety of methods for teaching, including written and audio materials, the Internet, disc-based software and television programmes on DVD. Course-based television broadcasts by the BBC, which started on 3 January 1971, materials comprise originally authored work by in-house and external academic contributors, and from third-party materials licensed for use by OU students. For most modules, students are supported by tutors who provide feedback on their work and are available to them at face-to-face tutorials, by telephone. Some modules have mandatory day schools and these are day-long sessions which a student must attend in order to pass the module. Nevertheless, it is possible to be excused on the basis of ill-health, over the past ten years the university has adopted a policy of separating residential modules from distance-full-time taught modules
13.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
14.
University of Southampton
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The University of Southampton is a public research university located in Southampton, England. The origins of the university back to the founding of the Hartley Institution in 1862 following a legacy to the Corporation of Southampton by Henry Robinson Hartley. In 1902, the Institution developed into the Hartley University College awarding degrees from the University of London, on 29 April 1952, the institution was granted a Royal Charter to give the University of Southampton full university status, allowing it to award its own degrees. The university has seven teaching campuses, in addition, the university operates a School of Art based in nearby Winchester and an international branch in Malaysia offering courses in Engineering. Each campus is equipped with its own library facilities, the University of Southampton currently has 17,485 undergraduate and 7,390 postgraduate students, making it the largest university by higher education students in the South East region. The university owns and operates a sports ground at nearby Wide Lane for use by students, besides being recognised as one of the leading research universities in the UK, Southampton has also achieved consistently high scores for its teaching and learning activities. It additionally has one of the highest proportions of income derived from activities in Britain. As of 2015, Southampton is one of the few universities to achieve a top 20 UK position in the most established national and international rankings, in the 2016 edition of U. S. News & World Report, Southampton is placed in the top 10 of British Universities. Southampton is a member of the European University Association, the Association of Commonwealth Universities and is an institution of the Worldwide Universities Network. The university consistently ranks in the top 5 in Engineering programs in England, the University of Southampton has its origin as the Hartley Institution which was formed in 1862 from a benefaction by Henry Robinson Hartley. Hartley had inherited a fortune from two generations of successful wine merchants, at his death in 1850, he left a bequest of £103,000 to the Southampton Corporation for the study and advancement of the sciences in his property on Southamptons High Street, in the city centre. Hartley was a straggler, who had little liking of the new age docks. He did not desire to create a college for many but a centre for Southamptons intellectual elite. After lengthy legal challenges to the Bequest, and a debate as to how best interpret the language of his Will. On 15 October 1862, the Hartley Institute was opened by the Prime Minister Lord Palmerston in a civic occasion which exceeded in splendor anything that anyone in the town could remember. After initial years of struggle, the Hartley Institute became the Hartley College in 1883. This move was followed by increasing numbers of students, teaching staff, in 1902, the Hartley College became the Hartley University college, a degree awarding branch of the University of London. This was after inspection of the teaching and finances by the University College Grants Committee, an increase in student numbers in the following years motivated fund raising efforts to move the college to greenfield land around Back Lane in the Highfield area of Southampton
15.
University College London
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University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
16.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
17.
Antony Hewish
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Antony Hewish FRS is a British radio astronomer who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974 for his work on the development of radio aperture synthesis and its role in the discovery of pulsars. He was also awarded the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1969, returning to Cambridge in 1946, Hewish completed his degree and immediately joined Ryles research team at the Cavendish Laboratory, obtaining his PhD in 1952. Hewish made both practical and theoretical advances in the observation and exploitation of the apparent scintillations of radio due to their radiation impinging upon plasma. In the course of this survey, one of his students, Jocelyn Bell. The paper announcing the discovery had five authors, Hewishs name being listed first, Hewish and Martin Ryle were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1974 for work on the development of radio aperture synthesis and its role in the discovery of pulsars. The Nobel award to Ryle and Hewish without the inclusion of Bell as a co-recipient was controversial, Hewish was professor of radio astronomy at the Cavendish Laboratory from 1971 to 1989, and head of the MRAO from 1982 to 1988. He developed an association with the Royal Institution in London when it was directed by Sir Lawrence Bragg, in 1965 he was invited to co-deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on Exploration of the Universe. He subsequently gave several Friday Evening Discourses and was made a Professor of the Royal Institution in 1977, Hewish is a fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge. He is also a member of the Advisory Council for the Campaign for Science, other awards and honours include, Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1968 Eddington Medal, Royal Astronomical Society Dellinger Gold Medal, International Union of Radio Science Albert A. They have a son, a physicist, and a daughter, Hewish has argued that religion and science are complementary. In the foreword to Questions of Truth Hewish writes, The ghostly presence of virtual particles defies rational common sense and is non-intuitive for those unacquainted with physics, religious belief in God, and Christian belief. May seem strange to common-sense thinking, but when the most elementary physical things behave in this way, we should be prepared to accept that the deepest aspects of our existence go beyond our common-sense understanding
18.
Fred Hoyle
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He spent most of his working life at the Institute of Astronomy at Cambridge and served as its director for six years. He was a writer of fiction, and co-authored twelve books with his son. Hoyle was born near Bingley in Gilstead, West Riding of Yorkshire and his father, Ben Hoyle, worked in the wool trade in Bradford. His mother, Mabel Pickard, had studied music at the Royal College of Music in London, Hoyle was educated at Bingley Grammar School and read mathematics at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In late 1940, Hoyle left Cambridge to go to Portsmouth to work for the Admiralty on radar research and he was also put in charge of countermeasures against the radar guided guns found on the Graf Spee. Britains radar project employed more personnel than the Manhattan project, and was probably the inspiration for the large British project in The Black Cloud, two key colleagues in this war work were Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold, and the three had many and deep discussions on cosmology. The radar work paid for a couple of trips to North America and he had an intuition at the time I will make a name for myself if this works out. Eventually his prescient and ground breaking paper came out and he also formed a group at Cambridge exploring Stellar nucleosynthesis in ordinary stars and was bothered by the paucity of stellar carbon production in existing models. He noticed that one of the existing processes would be made a billion times more if the carbon-12 nucleus had a resonance at 7.7 MeV. After the war, in 1945, Hoyle returned to Cambridge University, Hoyles Cambridge years, 1945–1973, saw him rise to the top of world astrophysics theory, on the basis of a startling originality of ideas covering a very wide range of topics. In 1958, Hoyle was appointed to the illustrious Plumian Professor of Astronomy, in 1971 he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject Astronomical Instruments and their Construction, after his leaving Cambridge, Hoyle wrote many popular science and science fiction books, as well as presenting lectures around the world. Part of the motivation for this was simply to provide a means of support, Hoyle was still a member of the joint policy committee, during the planning stage for the 150-inch Anglo-Australian Telescope at Siding Spring Observatory in New South Wales. He became chairman of the Anglo-Australian Telescope board in 1973, and presided at its inauguration in 1974 by Charles, on 24 November 1997, while hiking across moorlands in west Yorkshire, near his childhood home in Gilstead, Hoyle fell down into a steep ravine called Shipley Glen. Roughly twelve hours later, Hoyle was found by a search dog and he was hospitalized for two months with pneumonia, kidney problems as a result of hypothermia, and a smashed shoulder, while he ever afterwards suffered from memory and mental agility problems. In 2001, he suffered a series of strokes and died in Bournemouth on 20 August, Fred Hoyle authored the first two research papers ever published on the synthesis of the chemical elements heavier than helium by nuclear reactions in stars. This idea would later be called the e Process, Hoyles second foundational nucleosynthesis publication showed that the elements between carbon and iron cannot be synthesized by such equilibrium processes. Hoyle attributed those elements to specific nuclear fusion reactions between abundant constituents in concentric shells of evolved massive, pre-supernova stars and this startlingly modern picture is the accepted paradigm today for the supernova nucleosynthesis of these primary elements
19.
Northern Ireland
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Northern Ireland is a constituent unit of the United Kingdom in the north-east of Ireland. It is variously described as a country, province, region, or part of the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland shares a border to the south and west with the Republic of Ireland. In 2011, its population was 1,810,863, constituting about 30% of the total population. Northern Ireland was created in 1921, when Ireland was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland by an act of the British parliament, Northern Ireland has historically been the most industrialised region of Ireland. After declining as a result of the political and social turmoil of the Troubles, its economy has grown significantly since the late 1990s. Unemployment in Northern Ireland peaked at 17. 2% in 1986, dropping to 6. 1% for June–August 2014,58. 2% of those unemployed had been unemployed for over a year. Prominent artists and sports persons from Northern Ireland include Van Morrison, Rory McIlroy, Joey Dunlop, Wayne McCullough, some people from Northern Ireland prefer to identify as Irish while others prefer to identify as British. Cultural links between Northern Ireland, the rest of Ireland, and the rest of the UK are complex, in many sports, the island of Ireland fields a single team, a notable exception being association football. Northern Ireland competes separately at the Commonwealth Games, and people from Northern Ireland may compete for either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympic Games. The region that is now Northern Ireland was the bedrock of the Irish war of resistance against English programmes of colonialism in the late 16th century, the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland had been declared by the English king Henry VIII in 1542, but Irish resistance made English control fragmentary. Victories by English forces in war and further Protestant victories in the Williamite War in Ireland toward the close of the 17th century solidified Anglican rule in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the victories of the Siege of Derry and their intention was to materially disadvantage the Catholic community and, to a lesser extent, the Presbyterian community. In the context of open institutional discrimination, the 18th century saw secret, militant societies develop in communities in the region and act on sectarian tensions in violent attacks. Following this, in an attempt to quell sectarianism and force the removal of discriminatory laws, the new state, formed in 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was governed from a single government and parliament based in London. Between 1717 and 1775 some 250,000 people from Ulster emigrated to the British North American colonies and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million Scotch-Irish Americans now living in the US. By the close of the century, autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom, in 1912, after decades of obstruction from the House of Lords, Home Rule became a near-certainty. A clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over a controversial budget produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. The House of Lords veto had been the unionists main guarantee that Home Rule would not be enacted, in 1914, they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for use by the Ulster Volunteers, a paramilitary organisation opposed to the implementation of Home Rule
20.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
21.
Martin Ryle
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Sir Martin Ryle FRS was an English radio astronomer who developed revolutionary radio telescope systems and used them for accurate location and imaging of weak radio sources. With improved equipment, Ryle observed the most distant known galaxies in the universe at that time and he was the first Professor of Radio Astronomy at the University of Cambridge, and founding director of the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory. He was Astronomer Royal from 1972 to 1982, Ryle and Antony Hewish shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974, the first Nobel prize awarded in recognition of astronomical research. In the 1970s, Ryle turned the part of his attention from astronomy to social and political issues which he considered to be more urgent. Martin Ryle was born in Brighton, the son of Professor John Alfred Ryle and he was the nephew of Oxford University Professor of Philosophy Gilbert Ryle. After studying at Bradfield College, Ryle earned a degree from Christ Church in the University of Oxford. In 1939, Ryle worked with the Telecommunications Research Establishment on the design of antennas for airborne radar equipment during World War II, after the war, he received a fellowship at the Cavendish Laboratory. The focus of Ryles early work in Cambridge was on radio waves from the Sun and his interest quickly shifted to other areas, however, and he decided early on that the Cambridge group should develop new observing techniques. In 1946 Ryle built the first multi-element astronomical radio interferometer, Ryle guided the Cambridge radio astronomy group in the production of several important radio source catalogues. One such catalogue, the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources in 1959 helped lead to the discovery of the first quasi-stellar object. While serving as university lecturer in physics at Cambridge from 1948 to 1959, Ryle became director of the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory in 1957 and professor of radio astronomy in 1959. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1952, was knighted in 1966, Ryle and Antony Hewish shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974, the first Nobel prize awarded in recognition of astronomical research. In 1968 Ryle served as professor of astronomy at Gresham College, Ryle was a new physics graduate and an experienced radio ham in 1939, when the Second World War started. He played an important part in the Allied war effort, working mainly in radar countermeasures, after the war, he returned to Cambridge with a determination to devote himself to pure science, unalloyed by the taint of war. In the 1970s, Ryle turned the part of his attention from astronomy to social and political issues which he considered to be more urgent. With publications from 1976 and continuing, despite illness, until he died in 1984, he pursued a passionate and intensive program on the responsible use of science. His main themes were warning the world of the dangers of nuclear armaments. Criticism of nuclear power, as in Is there a case for nuclear power, Research and promotion of alternative energy and energy efficiency, as in Short-term Storage and Wind Power Availability
22.
Aperture synthesis
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The image of the source is produced from these measurements. Astronomical interferometers are used for high-resolution optical, infrared, submillimetre. Aperture synthesis is only if both the amplitude and the phase of the incoming signal are measured by each telescope. Accurate optical delay and atmospheric wavefront aberration correction is required, a demanding technology which became possible only in the 1990s. This is why imaging with aperture synthesis has been used successfully in radio astronomy since the 1950s, see astronomical interferometer for more information. The number of baselines for an array of n telescopes is given by nb=/2, for example the Very Large Array has 27 telescopes giving 351 independent baselines at once, and can give high quality images. In contrast to radio arrays, the largest optical arrays currently have only 6 telescopes, most aperture synthesis interferometers use the rotation of the Earth to increase the number of different baselines included in an observation. The use of Earth rotation was discussed in detail in the 1950 paper A preliminary survey of the stars in the Northern Hemisphere. Some instruments use artificial rotation of the interferometer array instead of Earth rotation, aperture synthesis imaging was first developed at radio wavelengths by Martin Ryle and coworkers from the Radio Astronomy Group at Cambridge University. Martin Ryle and Tony Hewish jointly received a Nobel Prize for this, the radio astronomy group in Cambridge went on to found the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory near Cambridge in the 1950s. The technique was further developed in Very Long Baseline Interferometry to obtain baselines of thousands of kilometres. Aperture synthesis is used by a type of radar system known as synthetic aperture radar
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President of the Royal Astronomical Society
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The President of the Royal Astronomical Society chairs the Council of the Royal Astronomical Society and its formal meetings. They also liaise with government organisations, similar societies in countries. Future presidents serve one year as President Elect before succeeding the previous president, there have been 89 RAS presidents as of 2015. The first president was William Herschel in 1821, though he never chaired a meeting, the post has generally had a term of office of two years, but some holders resigned after one year e. g. due to poor health. Francis Baily and George Airy were elected a record of four times each, bailys eight years in the role are a record. Since 1876 no-one has served for more than two years in total, dreyer, John L. E. Turner, Herbert H. eds. History of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 1, 1820–1920, history of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 2, 1920–1980
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Institute of Physics
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The Institute of Physics is a scientific charity that works to advance physics education, research and application. It has a membership of over 50,000. The IOP supports physics in education, research and industry, the IOPs publishing company, IOP Publishing, publishes more than 70 academic journals and magazines. The Institute of Physics was formed in 1960 from the merger of the Physical Society, founded as the Physical Society of London in 1874, the Physical Society of London had been officially formed on 14 February 1874 with John Hall Gladstone as its first president. From its beginning, the society held meetings and demonstrations. In the early part of the 20th century, the profession of physicist emerged, in 1920, the Institute of Physics was created under special license from the Board of Trade. Sir Richard Glazebrook was elected first President of the Institute, as with the Physical Society, dissemination of knowledge was fundamental to the Institute, which began publication of the Journal of Scientific Instruments in 1922. The annual Reports on Progress in Physics began in 1934 and is published today. In 1952, the Institute began the Graduateship course and examination, upon being granted a royal charter in 1970, the organization renamed itself to Institute of Physics. There are four grades of membership, iMember, Associate Member, Member, qualification for AMInstP is normally by completion of an undergraduate degree that is recognised by the Institute – this covers almost all UK physics degrees. An AMInstP can become an MInstP by gaining experience as a physicist. MInstP and FInstP are the two grades of membership, granting the right to vote in Institute elections. The Institute grants academic dress to the grades of membership. Those who have passed the Institutes graduateeship examination are entitled to a violet damask Oxford burgon-shaped hood, corporate members are entitled to wear a hood of Toronto full shape in violet damask, lined in violet and faced on the cowl with 2/5 cm shot crimson silk. Fellows wear a doctors bonnet in bkack velvet with red tassels, until 1998 CPhys was granted automatically with MInstP, however since then it has become a separate qualification that is equal in stature to Chartered Engineer. From 2012, it requires re-validation every three years, the IOP accredits undergraduate degrees in physics in British and Irish universities. At post-16 level, the IOP developed the Advancing Physics A-level course, in conjunction with the OCR examining board, Advancing Physics was sold to Oxford University Press in January 2011. The IOP also developed the Integrated Sciences degree, which is run at four universities in England, the IOP provides an important educational service for secondary schools in the UK
25.
Armagh Planetarium
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In the same year Patrick Moore was appointed as Director of the Planetarium to oversee its construction. The planetarium cost £120,000 to build and was opened to the public on 1 May 1968, in addition, in 1994 a new exhibition hall, the Eartharium, was added due to increased interest in Earth Science. Under the directorship of Terence Murtagh in the 1970s, Armagh Planetarium introduced many new technologies, Murtagh recognised the possibility of exploiting the new technology of video projectors to provide the show’s special effects, eliminating entirely the need for dozens of slide projectors. Video tape recorders were very new and rare at this time, off-the-shelf video projectors had to be optically and electronically modified to present natural-looking images of celestial bodies on the dome. The system he introduced remained in place until computer controlled laserdisc players replaced the videotape players in the 1980s and this development was a great success and Armagh Planetarium was the first planetarium in the world to project video on its dome. Other planetaria around the world followed this lead, Armagh Planetarium pioneered the introduction of an electronic audience participation system. This allowed the audience to control the show themselves, space Odyssey, created in Armagh in the 1980s and scripted by Ian Ridpath, was the world’s first ever completely interactive planetarium show. This innovation has spread to planetaria worldwide, before reopening on 31 July 2006, Armagh Planetarium underwent a major refurbishment. The building was refurbished to make it more comfortable and environmentally friendly. Armagh Planetarium maintains an outreach programme, Planetarium staff travel to venues such as schools and science festivals to deliver presentations on astronomy and other sciences. A thirty-seat inflatable planetarium is used for most of these visits, on 7 December 2006, the Armagh Planetarium building was dedicated to the memory of Eric Lindsay in a ceremony led by Archbishop Robin Eames. Armagh Planetarium has used a series of projectors of increasing sophistication, the first projector was the Goto Mars, an example of advanced 1960s technology. It included individual lamps to project images of the Sun, Moon and this was followed by a Viewlex-Minolta Roman IIb, which is still in use in its current home at South Downs Planetarium in England. The first digital projector installed in Armagh was an Evans and Sutherland Digistar 1, Armagh was the first planetarium in the UK to use this new technology but it was soon replaced by the even more advanced Digistar 2. The latest Digistar 5 is a new computer system projecting full-colour fulldome video across the entire dome. Official site Biography of Dr. Eric Lindsay
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Astronomy
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Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets, while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, more generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earths atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole, Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, during the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can play an active role, especially in the discovery. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, Astronomy means law of the stars. Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. Generally, either the term astronomy or astrophysics may be used to refer to this subject, however, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Few fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics, some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field includeThe Astronomical Journal, The Astrophysical Journal and Astronomy and Astrophysics. In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye, in some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical purpose. Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye, most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon, the Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a cycle known as a saros
27.
Cross-stitch
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Cross-stitch is a form of sewing and a popular form of counted-thread embroidery in which X-shaped stitches in a tiled, raster-like pattern are used to form a picture. The stitcher counts the threads on a piece of fabric in each direction so that the stitches are of uniform size. This form of cross-stitch is also called counted cross-stitch in order to distinguish it from other forms of cross-stitch, sometimes cross-stitch is done on designs printed on the fabric, the stitcher simply stitches over the printed pattern. Cross-stitch is also executed on easily countable fabric called aida cloth, fabrics used in cross-stitch include linen, aida, and mixed-content fabrics called evenweave such as jobelan. Fabrics are categorized by threads per inch, which can range from 11 to 40 count, aida fabric has a lower count because it is made with two threads grouped together for ease of stitching. The finished stitching size is reduced by half if the stitcher counts and stitches over one fabric thread. These methods are referred to as 2 over 2 - i. e.2 embroidery threads used to stitch over 2 fabric threads. Cross-stitch is the oldest form of embroidery and can be all over the world. Many folk museums show examples of clothing decorated with cross-stitch, especially from continental Europe, Asia, and Eastern and Central Europe. The cross stitch sampler is called that because it was stitched by a young girl to learn how to stitch and to record alphabet. These samples of her stitching could be referred back to over the years, often, motifs and initials were stitched on household items to identify their owner, or simply to decorate the otherwise-plain cloth. In the United States, the earliest known cross-stitch sampler is currently housed at Pilgrim Hall in Plymouth, the sampler was created by Loara Standish, daughter of Captain Myles Standish and pioneer of the Leviathan stitch, circa 1653. Traditionally, cross-stitch was used to embellish items like household linens, tablecloths, dishcloths, although there are many cross-stitchers who still employ it in this fashion, it is now increasingly popular to work the pattern on pieces of fabric and hang them on the wall for decoration. Cross stitch is often used to make greeting cards, pillowtops, or as inserts for box tops, coasters. Multicoloured, shaded, painting-like patterns as we know today are a fairly modern development. Besides designs created expressly for cross stitch, there are programs that convert a photograph or a fine art image into a chart suitable for stitching. One stunning example of this is in the cross stitched reproduction of the Sistine Chapel charted and stitched by Joanna Lopianowski-Roberts, individually owned local needlework shops often have stitching nights at their shops, or host weekend stitching retreats. Today cotton floss is the most common embroidery thread and it is a thread made of mercerized cotton, composed of six strands that are only loosely twisted together and easily separable
28.
Eleven-plus
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The eleven-plus is an examination administered to some students in England and Northern Ireland in their last year of primary education, which governs admission to various types of secondary school. The name derives from the age group for secondary entry, 11–12 years, the eleven-plus was once used throughout England and Wales but is now only used in some counties and boroughs in England. Also known as the transfer test, it is associated with the Tripartite System which was in use from 1944 to 1976. The examination tests a students ability to solve problems using verbal reasoning, the intention was that it should be a general test for intelligence. Introduced in 1944, the examination was used to determine which type of school the student should attend after primary education, a grammar school, the eleven-plus was created by the 1944 Butler Education Act. This established a Tripartite System of education, with an academic, a technical, prevailing educational thought at the time was that testing was an effective way to discover to which strand a child was most suited. The results of the exam would be used to match childrens secondary schools to their abilities, when the system was implemented, technical schools were not available on the scale envisaged. Instead, the Tripartite System came to be characterised by competition for places at the prestigious grammar schools. As such, the took on a particular significance. Rather than allocating according to need or ability, it seen as a question of passing or failing. This led to the exam becoming widely resented by some although strongly supported by others, the structure of the eleven-plus varied over time, and among the different counties which used it. Usually, it consisted of three papers, Arithmetic – A mental arithmetic test, writing – An essay question on a general subject. General Problem Solving – A test of knowledge, assessing the ability to apply logic to simple problems. Some exams have, Non-Verbal Verbal Most children took the eleven-plus in their year of primary school. Originally, the test was voluntary, as of 2009, some 30% of students in Northern Ireland do not sit for it. In Northern Ireland, pupils were awarded grades in the ratios to pupils sitting the exam, A, B1, B2, C1, C2, D. There are 164 remaining grammar schools in parts of England. In counties in which vestiges of the Tripartite System still survive, today it is generally used as an entrance test to a specific group of schools, rather than a blanket exam for all pupils, and is taken voluntarily
29.
The Mount School, York
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The Mount School is a Quaker independent day and boarding school in York, England, for girls aged 11–18. Its junior school is The Mount Junior School, and it has a department for girls. There are two or three forms in Year 7 to 11 and College, there are about 9 to 21 girls in each form. Each form has a head of form and year, the school was founded by Yorkshire Quakers in 1785 in Trinity Lane, moving to Castlegate in 1831 and to its current premises on Dalton Terrace in 1857. The current headmistress is Adrienne Richmond, the school motto is Fidelis in Parvo, meaning faithfulness in small things. The school is a member of the Girls Schools Association, the Independent Schools Council and is listed in the Good Schools Guide. The school has a range of school activities including creative writing, debating, music, art, jewellery making, textiles, forest school. Pupils also remain to complete their homework, after activities girls may stay for supper. Boarders are separated into School House and College House, for the College years, Girls are able to stay for one night a week up to every night of the term. There are many boarding activities and traditions upheld by the department including the Christmas Carols on the Stairs. The Mount School has many long standing traditions throughout the school year, College girls present three events to the school, one at the end of each term. Firstly the College I Pantomime, then the College II Talent Show, the Leavers Play is presented to the school at Leavers Supper, usually the final Thursday of the year. The school holds an end of term meeting both at Christmas and in the summer, between these meetings is Family Day. This a usually during mid May and is the main fund-raising event of the year, the school body selects two charities to support each year, one based in the UK and one overseas. The students, sometimes staff, speak about potential charities during Morning Meeting before all students vote for which to support, Family Day is an opportunity for every year to run a stall to raise money, whilst music and drama group offer entertainment. Other activity groups run stalls to raise awareness for the work of such as Amnesty International and Eco-Schools Eco Committee. This represents the highest achievement for an eco-friendly school, the Foundation Meeting, or Speech Day, summarises the year and introduces the new head girl team. Awards and Scholarships are presented to students every year group, including Grade 8 Music
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Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
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BBC Four
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BBC Four is a British television channel operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation and available to digital television viewers on Freeview, IPTV, satellite, and cable. BBC Four launched on 2 March 2002, with a running from 19,00 to 04,00. The channel shows a variety of programmes including comedy, documentaries, music, international film, original programmes, drama. An alternative to programmes on the mainstream TV channels and it is required by its licence to broadcast at least 100 hours of new arts and music programmes,110 hours of new factual programmes and to premiere twenty international films each year. BBC Four launched on 2 March 2002 at 19,00 GMT, BBC Four began originally as a late schedule to BBC Two, before it received its own channel, along with BBC Three. Curiously, BBC Four had to launch before BBC Three as a result of the government delaying approval plans, BBC Four would rebrand this channel, and bring it into line with the well recognised BBC One and Two brands at the same time. Planning for the new channel, along with the new BBC Three, had been in progress since October 2000, however, the BBC Four plans were approved earlier, and as a result launched before BBC Three. BBC Four was different from the old BBC Knowledge, the channel would be more heavily promoted with more new and original programming and the channel would not be broadcast 24 hours a day. This was because on the Freeview digital terrestrial platform, BBC Four is broadcast in a statistically multiplexed stream in Multiplex B that timeshares with the CBeebies channel. As a result, BBC Four broadcasts from 19,00 to around 04,00 each night, with an hours down-time, on 12 May 2011, BBC Four was added to the Sky EPG in the Republic of Ireland on channel 230. It later moved to EPG211 to free up space for new channels, BBC Four forms part of the BBC Vision group, and as a result, the channel controller is answerable to the head of this executive department, Emma Swain, as of 2012. The channel direction is determined by the channels remit, set by royal charter and the governing body. On 20 January 2016, Kim Shillinglaw announced that she had decided to leave the BBC as the Controller of BBC Two & BBC Four, as a result of the reorganisation, the post of Controller BBC Two and Four will close after her departure later in 2016. On 16 July 2013, the BBC announced that a high-definition simulcast of BBC Four would be launched by early 2014, the channel launched on 10 December 2013, and rolled out nationwide up to June 2014. The channel broadcasts on the BBCs new HD multiplex on Freeview, prior to launch, the majority of BBC Fours HD output was broadcast on the BBC HD channel before its closure on 26 March 2013. The first evenings BBC Four programmes were simulcast on BBC Two, BBC Four further supports foreign language films with its annual World Cinema Award which has been running since 2004. On weekdays at 19,00 and weekends at 21,00 and it screens a number of documentaries such as The Century of the Self and The Trials of Henry Kissinger. The channel is also home to many political travel shows such as Holidays in the Axis of Evil which features investigative journalism, drama has given the channel some of its most popular programmes, with The Alan Clark Diaries and Kenneth Williams, Fantabulosa
32.
Crab Nebula
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The Crab Nebula is a supernova remnant in the constellation of Taurus. The now-current name is due to William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, corresponding to a bright supernova recorded by Chinese astronomers in 1054, the nebula was observed later by English astronomer John Bevis in 1731. The nebula was the first astronomical object identified with a supernova explosion. At an apparent magnitude of 8.4, comparable to that of Saturns moon Titan, it is not visible to the naked eye, the nebula lies in the Perseus Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, at a distance of about 2.0 kiloparsecs from Earth. It has a diameter of 3.4 parsecs, corresponding to an apparent diameter of some 7 arcminutes, and is expanding at a rate of about 1,500 kilometres per second, or 0. 5% of the speed of light. At the center of the lies the Crab Pulsar, a neutron star 28–30 kilometres across with a spin rate of 30.2 times per second. At X-ray and gamma ray energies above 30 keV, the Crab Nebula is generally the strongest persistent source in the sky, the nebulas radiation allows for the detailed studying of celestial bodies that occult it. The inner part of the nebula is a much smaller pulsar wind nebula that appears as a shell surrounding the pulsar, for the Crab Nebula, the divisions are superficial but remain meaningful to researchers and their lines of study. Modern understanding that the Crab Nebula was created by a supernova dates to 1921 and this eventually led to the conclusion that the creation of the Crab Nebula corresponds to the bright SN1054 supernova recorded by Chinese astronomers in AD1054. There is also a 13th-century Japanese reference to this guest star in Meigetsuki, the Crab Nebula was first identified in 1731 by John Bevis. The nebula was independently rediscovered in 1758 by Charles Messier as he was observing a bright comet and it is in searching in vain for the comet that Charles Messier found the Crab nebula, which he at first thought to be Halleys comet. After some observation, noticing that the object that he was observing was not moving across the sky, Messier then realised the usefulness of compiling a catalogue of celestial objects of a cloudy nature, but fixed in the sky, to avoid incorrectly cataloguing them as comets. After several observations, he concluded that it was composed of a group of stars. The 3rd Earl of Rosse observed the nebula at Birr Castle in 1844 using a 36-inch telescope and he observed it again later, in 1848, using a 72-inch telescope and could not confirm the supposed resemblance, but the name stuck nevertheless. In 1913, when Vesto Slipher registered his spectroscopy study of the sky, in the early twentieth century, the analysis of early photographs of the nebula taken several years apart revealed that it was expanding. Tracing the expansion back revealed that the nebula must have become visible on Earth about 900 years ago, historical records revealed that a new star bright enough to be seen in the daytime had been recorded in the same part of the sky by Chinese astronomers in 1054. Changes in the cloud, suggesting its small extent, were discovered by Carl Lampland in 1921 and that same year, John Charles Duncan demonstrated that the remnant is expanding, while Knut Lundmark noted its proximity to the guest star of 1054.5 by July. The supernova was visible to the eye for about two years after its first observation
33.
Synchrotron radiation
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Synchrotron radiation is the electromagnetic radiation emitted when charged particles are accelerated radially, i. e. when they are subject to an acceleration perpendicular to their velocity. It is produced, for example, in synchrotrons using bending magnets, if the particle is non-relativistic, then the emission is called cyclotron emission. If, on the hand, the particles are relativistic, sometimes referred to as ultrarelativistic. Synchrotron radiation may be achieved artificially in synchrotrons or storage rings, the radiation produced in this way has a characteristic polarization and the frequencies generated can range over the entire electromagnetic spectrum which is also called continuum radiation. Pollock recounts, On April 24, Langmuir and I were running the machine and as usual were trying to push the electron gun, some intermittent sparking had occurred and we asked the technician to observe with a mirror around the protective concrete wall. He immediately signaled to turn off the synchrotron as he saw an arc in the tube, the vacuum was still excellent, so Langmuir and I came to the end of the wall and observed. At first we thought it might be due to Cherenkov radiation, when high-energy particles are in acceleration, including electrons forced to travel in a curved path by a magnetic field, synchrotron radiation is produced. This is similar to an antenna, but with the difference that, in theory. The radiated power is given by the relativistic Larmor formula while the force on the electron is given by the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac force. The radiation pattern can be distorted from a dipole pattern into an extremely forward-pointing cone of radiation. Synchrotron radiation is the brightest artificial source of X-rays, the planar acceleration geometry appears to make the radiation linearly polarized when observed in the orbital plane, and circularly polarized when observed at a small angle to that plane. Amplitude and frequency are however focused to the polar ecliptic, electrons are accelerated to high speeds in several stages to achieve a final energy that is typically in the GeV range. Each proton may lose 6.7 keV per turn due to this phenomenon, Synchrotron radiation is also generated by astronomical objects, typically where relativistic electrons spiral through magnetic fields. Two of its characteristics include non-thermal power-law spectra, and polarization, solar flares accelerate particles that emit in this way, as suggested by R. Giovanelli in 1948 and described critically by J. H. Piddington in 1952. T. K. Breus noted that questions of priority on the history of astrophysical synchrotron radiation is complicated, writing, In particular, Ginzburg broke his relationships with I. S. Shklovsky and did not speak with him for 18 years, in the West, Thomas Gold and Sir Fred Hoyle were in dispute with H. Alfven and N. Herlofson, while K. O. Kiepenheuer and G. Hutchinson were ignored by them, such jets, the nearest being in Messier 87, have been confirmed by the Hubble telescope as apparently superluminal, travelling at 6 × c from our planetary frame. This phenomenon is caused because the jets are travelling very near the speed of light, because at every point of their path the high-velocity jets are emitting light, the light they emit does not approach the observer much more quickly than the jet itself
34.
Pulsar wind nebula
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A pulsar wind nebula, sometimes called a plerion, is a type of nebula found inside the shells of supernova remnants that is powered by pulsar winds generated by its central pulsar. These nebulae were discovered in 1976 as small depressions at radio wavelengths near the centre of supernova remnants and they have since been found to be X-ray emitters and are possibly γ-ray sources. As the plerion ages, the nebulosity of the supernova remnant dissipates, over time, pulsar wind nebulae may change in behaviour and become relic nebulae surrounding millisecond radio pulsars or even older and slower rotating pulsars. Plerions are estimated to last around 15,000 years, after which the shell dissipates as the energies from the pulsar decreases, importantly, this depends on the rate of energy lost by the pulsar as its spin rate slows, which varies among the known pulsars. Pulsar winds are composed of charged particles accelerated to relativistic speeds by the rapidly rotating, the pulsar wind often streams into the surrounding interstellar medium, creating a standing shock wave called the wind termination shock, where matter is decelerated to sub-relativistic speed. Beyond this radius, synchrotron emission increases in the magnetized flow and these processes can switch on and off with many reversals, and this creates the numerous visible shells centred on the pulsar. Pulsar wind nebulae often show the properties, An increasing brightness towards the center. A highly polarized flux and a spectral index in the radio band. The index steepens at X-ray energies due to radiation losses. An X-ray size that is smaller than their radio and optical size. A photon index at TeV gamma-ray energies of ~2.3, Pulsar wind nebulae can be powerful probes of a pulsar/neutron stars interaction with its surroundings. Their unique properties can be used to infer the geometry, energetics, and composition of the wind, the space velocity of the pulsar itself. G292. 0+01.8 The Pulsar Wind Nebula Catalog
35.
Radio telescope
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A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio receiver used to receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky in radio astronomy. Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and they may be used singly, or linked together electronically in an array. Unlike optical telescopes, radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night, Radio waves from space were first detected by engineer Karl Guthe Jansky in 1932 at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey using an antenna built to study noise in radio receivers. The first purpose-built radio telescope was a 9-meter parabolic dish constructed by radio amateur Grote Reber in his yard in Wheaton. The sky survey he did with it is considered the beginning of the field of radio astronomy. The first radio antenna used to identify an astronomical radio source was one built by Karl Guthe Jansky, Jansky was assigned the job of identifying sources of static that might interfere with radio telephone service. Janskys antenna was an array of dipoles and reflectors designed to receive short wave radio signals at a frequency of 20.5 MHz and it was mounted on a turntable that allowed it to rotate in any direction, earning it the name Janskys merry-go-round. It had a diameter of approximately 100 ft and stood 20 ft tall, by rotating the antenna, the direction of the received interfering radio source could be pinpointed. A small shed to the side of the antenna housed an analog recording system. Jansky finally determined that the faint hiss repeated on a cycle of 23 hours and 56 minutes and this period is the length of an astronomical sidereal day, the time it takes any fixed object located on the celestial sphere to come back to the same location in the sky. An amateur radio operator, Grote Reber, was one of the pioneers of what became known as radio astronomy and he built the first parabolic dish radio telescope, a 9 metres in diameter) in his back yard in Wheaton, Illinois in 1937. The range of frequencies in the spectrum that makes up the radio spectrum is very large. This means that the types of antennas that are used as radio telescopes vary widely in design, size, at wavelengths of 30 meters to 3 meters, they are generally either directional antenna arrays similar to TV antennas or large stationary reflectors with moveable focal points. Since the wavelengths being observed with these types of antennas are so long, at shorter wavelengths parabolic dish antennas predominate. The angular resolution of an antenna is determined by the ratio of the diameter of the dish to the wavelength of the radio waves being observed. This dictates the size a radio telescope needs for a useful resolution. Radio telescopes that operate at wavelengths of 3 meters to 30 cm are usually well over 100 meters in diameter, telescopes working at wavelengths shorter than 30 cm range in size from 3 to 90 meters in diameter. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe mapped the Cosmic microwave background radiation in 5 different frequency bands, centered on 23 GHz,33 GHz,41 GHz,61 GHz, the worlds largest filled-aperture radio telescope is the Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope completed in 2016 by China
36.
Quasar
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A quasar is an active galactic nucleus of very high luminosity. A quasar consists of a black hole surrounded by an orbiting accretion disk of gas. As gas in the accretion disk falls toward the black hole, quasars emit energy across the electromagnetic spectrum and can be observed at radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, and X-ray wavelengths. The most powerful quasars have luminosities exceeding 1041 W, thousands of greater than the luminosity of a large galaxy such as the Milky Way. Quasars are found over a broad range of distances. The peak epoch of quasar activity in the Universe corresponds to redshifts around 2, as of 2011, the most distant known quasar is at redshift z=7.085, light observed from this quasar was emitted when the Universe was only 770 million years old. Because quasars are distant objects, any light which reaches the Earth is redshifted due to the expansion of space. In early optical images, quasars appeared as point sources, indistinguishable from stars, with infrared telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope, the host galaxies surrounding the quasars have been detected in some cases. These galaxies are normally too dim to be seen against the glare of the quasar, most quasars, with the exception of 3C273 whose average apparent magnitude is 12.9, cannot be seen with small telescopes. The luminosity of some quasars changes rapidly in the optical range, because these changes occur very rapidly they define an upper limit on the volume of a quasar, quasars are not much larger than the Solar System. This implies a high power density. The mechanism of brightness changes probably involves relativistic beaming of astrophysical jets pointed nearly directly toward Earth, the highest redshift quasar known is ULAS J1120+0641, with a redshift of 7.085, which corresponds to a comoving distance of approximately 29 billion light-years from Earth. Since light cannot escape the black holes, the energy is actually generated outside the event horizon by gravitational stresses. Central masses of 105 to 109 solar masses have been measured in quasars by using reverberation mapping. The matter accreting onto the hole is unlikely to fall directly in. Quasars may also be ignited or re-ignited when normal galaxies merge, in fact, it has been suggested that a quasar could form as the Andromeda Galaxy collides with our own Milky Way galaxy in approximately 3–5 billion years. More than 200,000 quasars are known, most from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, all observed quasar spectra have redshifts between 0.056 and 7.085. Applying Hubbles law to these redshifts, it can be shown that they are between 600 million and 28.85 billion light-years away
37.
Chart recorder
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A chart recorder is an electromechanical device that records an electrical or mechanical input trend onto a piece of paper. Chart recorders may record several inputs using different color pens and may record onto strip charts or circular charts, chart recorders are built in three primary formats. Strip chart recorders have a strip of paper that is ejected out of the recorder. Circular chart recorders have a disc of paper that must be replaced more often. Roll chart recorders are similar to strip chart recorders except that the data is stored on a round roll. Chart recorders pre-dated electronic data loggers which have replaced them in many applications, charles Babbage incorporated a chart recorder into the dynamometer car that he built in 1838 or 1839. Here is how he described it, A roll of paper a thousand feet in length was slowly unwinding itself upon the long table, about a dozen pens connected with a bridge crossing the middle of the table were each marking its own independent curve gradually or by jumps. The paper advance was geared to the wheels of the carriage, while pens recorded time, the drawbar pull of the locomotive. In 1848-1850 a system of registers was used by John Locke to improve the precision of astronomical observations of stars. This method was adopted by astronomers in other countries as well, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvins syphon recorder of 1858 was a sensitive instrument that provided a permanent record of telegraph signals through long underwater telegraph cables. These recorders came to be referred to as pen registers, although this later became part of law enforcement jargon referring to the use of such a register to record dialed telephone numbers. A patent for a Pressure Indicator and Recorder was issued to William Henry Bristol, Bristol went on to form the Bristol Manufacturing Company in 1889. However, dataloggers decreasing cost and power requirements allow them to increasingly replace chart recorders, the paper chart is driven past the pen at a steady rate by a clockwork or electrical drive mechanism. One common method is to use a synchronous motor which turns at a constant speed related to the power frequency. Industrial strip-chart recorders may have two-speed gear trains that allow a speed to be used for initial adjustments of a process or to follow process upsets. Medical and scientific recorders allow a range of accurately-controlled speeds to be set. An X-Y recorder drives the chart depending on the value of another process signal, for example, a universal testing machine may plot the tension force on a specimen against its length. Depending on the recorder, either the paper chart is moved or else the pen carriage has two axes of motion
38.
Neutron star
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A neutron star is the collapsed core of a large star. Neutron stars are the smallest and densest stars known to exist, though neutron stars typically have a radius on the order of 10 km, they can have masses of about twice that of the Sun. They result from the explosion of a massive star, combined with gravitational collapse. They are supported against further collapse by neutron degeneracy pressure, a described by the Pauli exclusion principle. If the remnant has too great a density, something which occurs in excess of a limit of the size of neutron stars at 2–3 solar masses. Neutron stars that can be observed are very hot and typically have a temperature around 6×105 K. They are so dense that a normal-sized matchbox containing neutron-star material would have a mass of approximately 3 billion tonnes and their magnetic fields are between 108 and 1015 times as strong as that of the Earth. The gravitational field at the stars surface is about 2×1011 times that of the Earth. As the stars core collapses, its rotation rate increases as a result of conservation of angular momentum, some neutron stars emit beams of electromagnetic radiation that make them detectable as pulsars. Indeed, the discovery of pulsars in 1967 was the first observational suggestion that stars exist. The radiation from pulsars is thought to be emitted from regions near their magnetic poles. The fastest-spinning neutron star known is PSR J1748-2446ad, rotating at a rate of 716 times a second or 43,000 revolutions per minute, giving a linear speed at the surface on the order of 0.24 c. There are thought to be around 100 million neutron stars in the Milky Way, however, most are old and cold, and neutron stars can only be easily detected in certain instances, such as if they are a pulsar or part of a binary system. Soft gamma repeaters are conjectured to be a type of neutron star with strong magnetic fields, known as magnetars, or alternatively. Additionally, such accretion can recycle old pulsars and potentially cause them to mass and spin-up to very fast rotation rates. The merger of binary stars may be the source of short-duration gamma-ray bursts and are likely strong sources of gravitational waves. Any main-sequence star with a mass of above 8 times the mass of the sun has the potential to produce a neutron star. As the star evolves away from the sequence, subsequent nuclear burning produces an iron-rich core
39.
Royal Observatory, Edinburgh
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The Royal Observatory, Edinburgh is an astronomical institution located on Blackford Hill in Edinburgh. The site is owned by the Science and Technology Facilities Council, the ROE comprises the UK Astronomy Technology Centre of STFC, the Institute for Astronomy of the School of Physics and Astronomy of the University of Edinburgh, and the ROE Visitor Centre. The ROE Library includes the Crawford Collection of books and manuscripts gifted in 1888 by James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th Earl of Crawford. Before it moved to the present site in 1896, the Royal Observatory was located on Calton Hill, close to the centre of Edinburgh, at what is now known as the City Observatory. The University of Edinburgh in 1785 and by Royal Warrant of George III created the Regius Chair of Astronomy, after his death in 1828 the position remained vacant until 1834. In 1811 private citizens had founded the Astronomical Institution of Edinburgh with John Playfair – professor of natural philosophy – as its president, during his visit of Edinburgh in 1822, George IV bestowed upon the observatory the title of Royal Observatory of King George the Fourth. In 1834 – with Government funding – the instrumentation of the observatory was completed and this cleared the way to uniting the observatory with the Regius Chair, and Thomas Henderson was appointed the first Astronomer Royal for Scotland and second Regius Professor of Astronomy. The main instruments of the new observatory were a 6. 4-inch transit telescope, in 1852 Charles Piazzi Smyth – second Astronomer Royal for Scotland – came up with the idea of building astronomical observatories on high mountains with good weather. He travelled to Tenerife a few years later for site testing, nothing came of it until about 100 years later, when this mode of operation became common practice the world over. A time service was established in 1858, timings of star transits were used to keep the observatory clock accurate. The clock was wired up to control the drop of a ball on Nelsons Monument. This is visible from the port of Leith, thus providing time for shipping. Another wire led to a gun on Edinburgh Castle. Chronic underfunding by the Government eventually lead to Smyths resignation in 1888, the Government then intended to close the Royal Observatory and to abolish the post of Astronomer Royal for Scotland. Ralph Copeland was appointed third Astronomer Royal for Scotland and oversaw the move of the two observatories from Dunecht and Calton Hill to Blackford Hill, the new site was opened in April 1896. The instruments to move into the domes were a 15-inch refractor, an 8. 5-inch transit circle was housed in a separate building further west. The time service continued to control the ball on Calton Hill. It also controlled a time gun in Dundee and a clock at Rosyth dockyard, in the 1910s and 1920s research at the ROE led to more accurate pendulum clocks, which remained in service until they had to give way to quartz clocks in the 1960s
40.
James Clerk Maxwell Telescope
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The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope is a submillimetre-wavelength telescope at Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii. The telescope is near the summit of Mauna Kea at 13,425 feet and its primary mirror is 15 metres across, it is the largest single-dish telescope that operates in submillimetre wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Scientists use it to study the Solar System, interstellar dust and gas, the JCMT started operations in 1987, and was funded until February 2015 by a partnership between the United Kingdom and Canada, and the Netherlands. It was operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre and was named in honour of mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in March 2015 the operation of the JCMT was taken over by the East Asian Observatory. The JCMT has the second-largest telescope mirror on Mauna Kea, the telescope was combined with the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory next to it, to form the first submillimetre interferometer. This success was important in pushing ahead the construction of the later Submillimeter Array, in the late 1960s, the Astronomy Committee of the UKs Science Research Council considered the importance of astronomical observations at submillimetre and millimetre wavelengths. The project, then called the National New Technology Telescope, was to be an 80/20 per cent collaboration with the Netherlands Organisation for the Advancement of Science. Site tests were made at Mauna Kea in Hawaii, the Pinaleno Mountains in Arizona, and a site in Chile, the NNTT was to be larger and with more instruments than competing telescopes such as the CSO and SMT. The final specifications called for the worlds largest telescope optimised for submillimetre wavelengths and it was to be a parabolic 15-metre antenna composed of 276 individually adjustable panels with a surface accuracy of better than 50 µm. It would be an altitude-azimuth mounted Cassegrain telescope with a mirror to direct the incoming radiation onto a number of different receivers. The antenna and mountings were to be protected from the elements by a carousel with a transparent membrane stretched across the carousel aperture. Building work started in 1983 and went well apart from a delay caused by the hijacking of the ship carrying the telescope across the Pacific by modern-day pirates. The telescope saw first light in 1987, the name for the final facility was changed to the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope. The telescope itself was operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre, from Hilo, from 1987 until March 2013 this the telescope was funded by a partnership of the United Kingdom, Canada, and the Netherlands ). In 2013 the Netherlands withdrew, and until 2015 the shares became UK75 percent, the JCMT has two kinds of instruments—broadband continuum receivers and heterodyne detection spectral line receivers. Continuum emission is a tracer of star formation in galaxies and gives astronomers clues to the presence, distance. Within our own galaxy dust emission is associated with stellar nurseries, spectral-line observations can be used to identify particular molecules in molecular clouds, study their distribution and chemistry and determine gas velocity gradients across astronomical objects. The older continuum single pixel UKT14 bolometer receiver was replaced around 1995 by the Submillimetre Common-User Bolometer Array and this instrument operated simultaneously at wavelengths of 450 and 850 micron, and was sensitive to the thermal emission from interstellar dust
41.
Mauna Kea
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Mauna Kea, is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii. Standing 4,207 m above sea level, its peak is the highest point in the state of Hawaii, much of the mountain is under water, when measured from its oceanic base, Mauna Kea is over 10,000 m tall. Mauna Kea is about a years old, and has thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago. In its current post-shield state, its lava is more viscous, Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now considered dormant. In Hawaiian mythology, the peaks of the island of Hawaiʻi are sacred, an ancient law allowed only high-ranking aliʻi to visit its peak. Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food, when Europeans arrived in the late 18th century, settlers introduced cattle, sheep and game animals, many of which became feral and began to damage the mountains ecological balance. With its high elevation, dry environment, and stable airflow, since the creation of an access road in 1964, thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit. The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio. Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate, Mauna Kea is one of five hotspot volcanoes that form the island of Hawaii, the largest and youngest island of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. Of these five volcanoes, Mauna Kea is the fourth oldest and it began as a preshield volcano driven by the Hawaii hotspot around one million years ago, and became exceptionally active during its shield stage until 500,000 years ago. Mauna Kea entered its quieter post-shield stage 250,000 to 200,000 years ago, Mauna Kea does not have a visible summit caldera, but contains a number of small cinder and pumice cones near its summit. A former summit caldera may have been filled and buried by later summit eruption deposits, Mauna Kea is over 3,200 km3 in volume, so massive that it and its neighbor, Mauna Loa, depress the ocean crust beneath it by 6 km. The volcano continues to slip and flatten under its own weight at a rate of less than 0.2 mm per year, much of its mass lies east of its present summit. Mauna Kea stands 4,205 m above sea level, just 35 m higher than its neighbor Mauna Loa, measured from its base on the ocean floor, it rises over 10,000 m, significantly greater than the elevation of Mount Everest above sea level. Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Kea has been created as the Pacific tectonic plate has moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earths underlying mantle. The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, the prevailing, though not completely settled, view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planets mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era. However, while Hawaiian volcanism is well-understood and extensively studied, there remains no definite explanation of the mechanism causes the hotspot effect. Lava flows from Mauna Kea overlapped in complex layers with those of its neighbors during its growth, most prominently, Mauna Kea is built upon older flows from Kohala to the northwest, and intersects the base of Mauna Loa to the south
42.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
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University of Bath
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The University of Bath is a public university located in Bath, Somerset, United Kingdom. It received its Royal Charter in 1966 and can trace its roots to a school established in Bristol in 1856. According to The Times Higher Education Student Experience Survey 2015 the University of Bath is the best university in the UK for student experience, in The Times and The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2014 the university was awarded the title of Best Campus University in Britain. Bath was awarded the title of ‘University of the Year 2011/12’, 87% was graded 4*/3*, defined as world-leading/internationally excellent. Until 30 October 2012, it was also a member of the 1994 Group, the University of Bath can trace its roots to a technical school established in Bristol in 1856, by the honourable Cameron Smart Meng, MIET. In 1885 the school part of the Society of Merchant Venturers and was renamed the Merchant Venturers Technical College. Meanwhile, in the city of Bath, a pharmaceutical school. This became part of the Technical College in 1929, in 1963, the Robbins Committee report paved the way for the college to assume university status as Bath University of Technology. Construction of the campus began in 1964, with the first building, now known as 4 South, completed in 1965. In November 1966, the first degree ceremony took place at the Assembly Rooms in Bath, over the subsequent decade, new buildings were added as the campus took shape. Such plans, however, did not come to fruition, the university logo features the so-called Gorgons head which is taken, via the universitys coat of arms, from a Roman sculpture found in the city. The universitys main campus is located on Claverton Down, a distance from the centre of Bath, the site is compact, it is possible to walk from one end to the other in fifteen minutes. The design involved the separation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic, with traffic on the ground floors and pedestrians on a raised central thoroughfare. Buildings would line the parade and student residences built on tower blocks rise from the central thoroughfare, at the centre of the campus is the Library and Learning Centre, a facility open round the clock offering computing services, information and research assistance as well as books and journals. Building names are based on their location and distance vis-à-vis the library, odd-numbered buildings are on the same side of the parade as the library, and even-numbered buildings are on the opposite side. 7 West is generally accessible only via 5 West or 9 West, buildings on the south of the campus,1 South to 4 South, are accessible via roads and pedestrian walkways by the university lake and gardens. In Bath, there is a particular contrast between the campus and the Georgian style architecture of the World Heritage City of Bath. The eastern part of the campus is dominated by the Sports Training Village, built in 1992, the northern perimeter of the university is bounded by student residences Westwood, Eastwood, Brendon Court, Polden Court, Solsbury Court, Marlborough Court and Woodland Court
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. Who's Who (UK). Oxford University Press. 1 December 2017. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.7157. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
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