1.
HNLMS Johan de Witt (L801)
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HNLMS Johan de Witt is the second Landing Platform Dock amphibious warfare ship of the Royal Netherlands Navy. It is a design of Rotterdam, which was designed in conjunction between the Netherlands and Spain. The ship, displacing 16,800 tons, was launched in February 2007, the motto of the ship is Ago Quod Ago, translated as I do what I do. The ship is equipped with a helicopter deck for helicopter operations. It can carry six NH90 helicopters or four Chinook helicopters and it has a well dock for two landing craft utility and it carries four davit-launched LCVPs. The dock is wide enough to support two LCAC, the vessel has an extra deck with rooms for command staff to support a battalion size operation. The ship has a complete Class II hospital, including an operation theatre, a surgical team can be stationed on board. The ship also has a system enabling it to convert seawater into drinking water. It is also equipped with pod propulsion to ensure the ship stays in position when sea basing, when participating in high-risk operations Johan de Witt needs additional protection from frigates or destroyers. Johan de Witt also supported the locals with medical assistance and supplying food, galicia-class landing platform dock HNLMS Rotterdam Johan de Witt at defensie. nl
2.
Adriaen Hanneman
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Adriaen Hanneman was a Dutch Golden Age painter best-known today for his portraits of the exiled British royal court. His style was influenced by his contemporary, Anthony van Dyck. He was born into a wealthy Catholic patrician family in the Hague and he left for England in 1623 where he lived for 16 years. There he met and was influenced by Anthony van Dyck, Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen and he enjoyed the patronage of Constantijn Huygens, who introduced him at court. He returned to the Hague, where he married the daughter of his old drawing teacher, Maria van Ravesteyn, in 1645 he became deacon of the Guild of St. Luke. In 1656 he was one of the dissenters who split off into the Confrerie Pictura, in 1666 he was awarded a silver goblet for his years of service to this group. After his first wife died, he married a second time to Alida Bezemer in 1669 and his pupils were Jeremias van der Eyden, Reinier de la Haye, Marcus van der Linde, Gijsbert van Lybergen, Simon du Parcq, Bernardus van der Vechte, Jan Jansz. He influenced the painter Govert Flinck, like so many other Catholic painters, he fell on hard times soon after this as the Rampjaar approached. Records show him selling possessions again and again in 1670, though he had been a highly respected and successful man, his entire estate only brought 1,000 guilders. Hanneman is best known for portraits of the British and Dutch nobility. According to some sources, he may have worked in the studio of Van Dyke in London, later, in the Hague, he painted several English Royalists who had gone into exile in the Netherlands after the English Civil War. In about 1648, he painted Charles, the Prince of Wales, later Charles II of England, the original painting is lost, but about thirty copies were made, and are found in different museums, including the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. In about 1654, he painted the four-year-old William III, Prince of Orange, in about 1664 he painted Maria I Stuart the wife of Prince William II. The painting was made years after her death, at the request of her son. Mary is painted wearing a South American cloak of colored feathers, such cloaks had been brought to the Netherlands from Brazil as early as 1644. Portrait of a Woman, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Portrait of a Woman, Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow Henry, Duke of Gloucester National Gallery of Art, Washington D. C. Posthumous Portrait of Mary I Stuart with a Servant, Mauritshuis Museum, Portrait of Lady Lucy Percy, Minneapolis Institute of the Arts. William Hamilton, Second Duke of Hamilton, National Portrait Gallery, Charles II as Prince of Wales, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford and National Portrait Gallery, London
3.
County of Holland
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The territory of the County of Holland corresponds roughly with the current provinces of North and South Holland in the Netherlands. The oldest sources refer to the not clearly defined county as Frisia, before 1101, sources talk about Frisian counts, but in this year Floris II, Count of Holland is mentioned as Florentius comes de Hollant. This title was used after Holland was united with Hainault, Bavaria-Straubing. The titles eventually lost their importance, and the last count, Philip II of Spain, around 800, under Charlemagne, the Frankish Empire covered a great deal of Europe. In much of this empire an important unit of administration, corresponding roughly to a shire or county in England, was the gau. A comes or Count ruled over one or more gaue, because of the low trade, the negative trade balance with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim states, and the disappearance of currency, the economy was more or less reduced to bartering. The kings vassals could only be rewarded by giving them land, from this the system of Feudalism developed. The vassals, who were appointed by the king, strove for a system of inheritance. This become more and more the rule, and in 877 it was legalised in the Capitulary of Quierzy, upon the death of a king, the Frankish kingdom was frequently divided among his heirs. This partible inheritance often caused internal struggle which made centralized government problematic, the Viking Raids further undermined centralized government. At the end of the reign of Emperor Louis the Pious, the power had weakened because of the flood of 838. Upon Lothairs death in 855, the part of Middle Francia was awarded to his second son Lothair II. The Treaty of Ribemont in 880 added the Kingdom of Lotharingia — of which the Low Countries were part — to East Francia, which attempted to integrate it. However, there were no connections there were between the four German Stem Duchies of east Francia, the Franconia, the Saxony, the Bavaria. Lotharingia took a position with a large amount of self-determination. This became clear when Louis the Child, the last Carolingian of East Francia, while the Stem Duchies flocked to Duke Conrad I of Franconia, Lotharingia chose for the Carolingian Charles the Simple, king of West Francia. In Frisia the situation was complex, the power was in the hands of Roriks successor Godfrid the Sea King, who became embroiled in the high politics of the Frankish empire. He was allied with the children of the former Carolingian Lotharingian king Lothair II, the main actor in this murder was Everard Saxo, the count of Hamaland
4.
Adriaan Pauw
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Adriaan Pauw, knight, heer van Heemstede, Bennebroek, Nieuwerkerk etc. was Grand Pensionary of Holland from 1631 to 1636 and from 1651 to 1653. He was born in Amsterdam in a merchant family - his father, Reinier Pauw wasnt only a merchant. He was the pensionary of Amsterdam from 1611 to 1627, in 1620 he bought the town of Heemstede and was called Lord of Heemstede. He was appointed grand pensionary in 1631, Pauw, Holland and Amsterdam wanted an alliance with Spain, but Prince Frederick Henry of Orange wanted an alliance with France. Frederick Henry sent Pauw to France to start an alliance against Spain, Pauw accepted this assignment and allied with France. He resigned in 1636 as grand pensionary, after the Peace of Münster for which he was instrumental as ambassador for Holland Pauw became grand pensionary again in 1651 although there was much opposition against him. He tried to stop a war with England in 1652, Adriaan Pauw was married to Anna van Ruytenburgh, daughter of Pieter van Ruytenburgh, heer van Vlaardingen, Vlaardingerambacht en Ter Horst, a wealthy merchant. Her mother was Aleyda Huybrechts van Duyvendrecht, H. W. J. de Boer, H. Bruch, H. Krol. Schets van het leven van Adriaan Pauw, het slot van Heemstede onder Adriaan Pauw. Media related to Adriaen Pauw at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Gaspar Fagel
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Gaspar Fagel was a Dutch statesman, writer and quasi-diplomat who authored correspondence from and on behalf of William III, Prince of Orange during the English Revolution of 1688. Fagel was born into a patrician family. Little is known of his life, but in 1663 he was elected Pensionary of Haarlem. In 1667 Fagel was one of the signers of the Perpetual Edict, in 1670, he was made Greffier of the Staten-Generaal and in 1672 after the resignation and subsequent murder of Jan and Cornelis de Witt. Fagel was responsible for writing letters on instruction from William III. In 1687, Fagel wrote an letter to the English people, as Pensionary of Netherlands. The letter was interpreted as a covert bid, by William II. Media related to Gaspar Fagel at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Dordrecht
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Dordrecht, colloquially Dordt, historically in English named Dort, is a city and municipality in the western Netherlands, located in the province of South Holland. It is the fourth largest city of the province, having a population of 118,782 in 2014. The municipality covers the entire Dordrecht Island, also often called Het Eiland van Dordt, bordered by the rivers Oude Maas, Beneden Merwede, Nieuwe Merwede, Hollands Diep, and Dordtsche Kil. Dordrecht is the largest and most important city in the Drechtsteden and is part of the Randstad. Dordrecht is the oldest city in the Holland area and has a rich history, the name Dordrecht comes from Thuredriht, Thuredrecht. The name seems to mean thoroughfare, a ship-canal or -river through which ships were pulled by rope from one river to another, as here from the Dubbel to the Merwede, or vice versa. Earlier etymologists had assumed that the drecht suffix came from Latin trajectum, a ford, the Drecht is now supposed to have been derived from draeg, which means to pull, tow or drag. Dordrecht is informally called Dordt by its inhabitants, in earlier centuries, Dordrecht was a major trade port, well known to British merchants, and was called Dort in English. The city was formed along the Thure river, in the midst of peat swamps and this river was a branch of the river Dubbel, which is part of the massive Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta complex, near the current Bagijnhof. Around 1120 reference to Dordrecht was made by a remark that count Dirk IV of Holland was murdered in 1049 near Thuredrech, Dordrecht was granted city rights by William I, Count of Holland, in 1220, making it the oldest city in the present province of South Holland. In fact, Geertruidenberg was the first city in the county of Holland to receive city rights. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Dordrecht developed into an important market city because of its strategic location and it traded primarily in wine, wood and cereals. Dordrecht was made more important when it was given staple right in 1299. In 1253 a Latin school was founded in Dordrecht and it still exists today as the Johan de Witt Gymnasium and is the oldest gymnasium in the Netherlands. From 1600 to 1615 Gerhard Johann Vossius was rector at this school, on 18–19 November 1421, the Saint Elisabeths flood flooded large parts of southern Holland, causing Dordrecht to become an island. It was commonly said that over 10,000 people died in the flood, the gathering is regarded as the first important step towards the free and independent Dutch Republic. Other important gatherings such as the Union of Brussels and the Union of Utrecht paved the way for independence of the Dutch Republic. The Union of Dordrecht was held in an Augustinian monastery, nowadays simply called het Hof
7.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
8.
The Hague
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The Hague is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands, and the capital city of the province of South Holland. With a population of 520,704 inhabitants and more than one million including the suburbs, it is the third-largest city of the Netherlands. The Rotterdam The Hague Metropolitan Area, with a population of approximately 2.7 million, is the 12th-largest in the European Union and the most populous in the country. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation. The Hague is the seat of the Dutch government, parliament, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State, but the city is not the capital of the Netherlands, which constitutionally is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands plans to live at Huis ten Bosch and works at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, the Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and numerous other major Dutch companies. The Hague originated around 1230, when Count Floris IV of Holland purchased land alongside a pond, in 1248, his son and successor William II, King of the Romans, decided to extend the residence to a palace, which would later be called the Binnenhof. He died in 1256 before this palace was completed but parts of it were finished by his son Floris V, of which the Ridderzaal and it is still used for political events, such as the annual speech from the throne by the Dutch monarch. From the 13th century onwards, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative centre, the village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as Haga in a charter dating from 1242. In the 15th century, the smarter des Graven hage came into use, literally The Counts Wood, with connotations like The Counts Hedge, s-Gravenhage was officially used for the city from the 17th century onwards. Today, this name is used in some official documents like birth. The city itself uses Den Haag in all its communication and their seat was located in The Hague. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, the absence of city walls proved disastrous, in 1575, the States of Holland even considered demolishing the city but this proposal was abandoned, after mediation by William of Orange. From 1588, The Hague also became the seat of the government of the Dutch Republic, in order for the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, city rights have no place anymore, only in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was a puppet state of the First French Empire, was the settlement granted city rights by Louis Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars, modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to form a buffer against France, as a compromise, Brussels and Amsterdam alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, when the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The growing city annexed the rural municipality of Loosduinen partly in 1903, the city sustained heavy damage during World War II
9.
Jacob de Witt
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Jacob de Witt, heer van Manezee, Melissant and Comstryen was a burgomaster of Dordrecht and the son of a timber merchant. He was also a brother of Andries de Witt and the father of Johan. Jacob was a member of the patrician De Witt family and he studied law at Leiden University and obtained a law degree there. In 1618, he became treasurer of the Synod of Dort and he also served as emissary to Sweden along with Andries Bicker. He was a member of the States of Holland and an opponent of William II, Prince of Orange, stadtholder of Holland, together with the republican-minded brothers Cornelis and Andries de Graeff and their cousins Cornelis and Andries Bicker, De Witt supported the Peace of Münster. In May 1650 they proposed to reduce the size of the army and this dispute led to a coup by William, who tried to seize Amsterdam. On 30 June 1650, William arrested De Witt and the burgomasters of Delft, Hoorn, Medemblik, Haarlem and they were imprisoned in Castle Loevestein. On 17 August they were released after having reversed the reduction of the army size, media related to Jacob de Witt at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Cornelis de Witt
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Cornelis de Witt was a Dutch politician. Cornelis de Witt was a member of the old Dutch patrician family De Witt and he was born on 15 June 1623 in Dordrecht, Holland, Dutch Republic. He was the son of Jacob de Witt and the brother of Johan. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dordrecht and member of the States of Holland and he was afterwards appointed to the important post of ruwaard, who combined the functions of chief of police and prosecuting attorney, of Putten and bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his brother, the Raadpensionaris of Holland Johan de Witt. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the States of Holland to accompany Lieutenant-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter in his famous raid on the Medway, Cornelis de Witt on this occasion distinguished himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De Ruyter in 1672 and took a part in the great battle of Solebay against the united English. Compelled by illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dortrecht that the Orange party were in the ascendant and he was arrested on false accusations of treason, but did not confess despite heavy torture and was ultimately unlawfully condemned to be banished. Both their bodies were mutilated and their hearts were carved out to be exhibited as trophies. Cornelis de Witt was married to Maria van Berckel, the couple had one daughter, Wilhelmina de Witt. She married her first cousin Johan de Witt Jr. secretary of Dordrecht, Cornelis de Witt and his role in Dutch politics was depicted in the 2015 film Michiel de Ruyter. Both brothers play important roles in the novel The Black Tulip by Alexandre Dumas and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. De Witt, Cornelius. Media related to Cornelis de Witt at Wikimedia Commons
11.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
12.
Leiden University
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Leiden University, located in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, the Dutch Royal Family and Leiden University still have a close relationship, Queens Juliana and Beatrix and King Willem-Alexander are all former students. Leiden University has seven faculties, over 50 departments and enjoys an international reputation. Shanghai Jiao Tong Universitys 2011 Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked Leiden University as the 29th best university worldwide, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings consistently rank Leiden University as the best university in Continental Europe for Arts and Humanities. During this time Leiden was home to figures as René Descartes, Rembrandt, Christiaan Huygens, Hugo Grotius, Baruch Spinoza. The university is a member of the Coimbra Group, the Europaeum, Leiden University houses more than 40 national and international research institutes. In 1575, the emerging Dutch Republic did not have any universities in its northern heartland, the only other university in the Habsburg Netherlands was the University of Leuven in southern Leuven, firmly under Spanish control. It is said the choice fell on Leiden as a reward for the defence of Leiden against Spanish attacks in the previous year. Ironically, the name of Philip II of Spain, Williams adversary, appears on the foundation certificate. Philip II replied by forbidding any subject to study in Leiden, renowned philosopher Baruch Spinoza was based close to Leiden during this period and interacted with numerous scholars at the university. At the end of the century, Leiden University again became one of Europes leading universities. At the world’s first university low-temperature laboratory, professor Heike Kamerlingh Onnes achieved temperatures of one degree above absolute zero of −273 degrees Celsius. In 1908 he was also the first to succeed in liquifying helium, Kamerlingh Onnes was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1913. In 2005 the manuscript of Einstein on the theory of the monatomic ideal gas was discovered in one of Leidens libraries. Of the seventy-seven Spinozapremie, nineteen were granted to professors of the Universiteit Leiden, literary historian Frits van Oostrom was the first professor of Leiden to be granted the Spinoza award for his work on developing the NLCM centre into a top research centre. Among other leading professors are Wim Blockmans, professor of Medieval History, the portraits of many famous professors since the earliest days hang in the university aula, one of the most memorable places, as Niebuhr called it, in the history of science. The University Library, which has more than 5 and it houses the largest collections worldwide on Indonesia and the Caribbean. Scholars from all over the world visit Leiden University Library, the oldest in the Netherlands, the anatomical and pathological laboratories of the university are modern, and the museums of geology and mineralogy have been restored
13.
Lord of the manor
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In Anglo-Irish history, the lordship of a manor is a lordship emanating from the feudal system of manorialism. The origins of the lordship of manors arose in the Anglo-Saxon system of manorialism, following the Norman conquest, land at the manorial level was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086. The title cannot nowadays be subdivided, Lord Denning, in Corpus Christi College Oxford v Gloucestershire County Council QB360, described the manor thus, In medieval times the manor was the nucleus of English rural life. It was a unit of an extensive area of land. The whole of it was owned originally by the lord of the manor and he lived in the big house called the manor house. Attached to it were many acres of grassland and woodlands called the park and these were the “demesne lands” which were for the personal use of the lord of the manor. Dotted all round were the homes and land occupied by the “tenants of the manor”. The owner of a lordship of the manor can be described as, Lord/Lady of the Manor of, in modern times any person may choose to use a name that is not the property of another. Under English common law a person may choose to be known by any name he sees fit as long as it is not done to commit fraud or evade an obligation, a manorial lordship is not a noble title, but a semi-extinct form of landed property. Lordship in this sense is a synonym for ownership, although this ownership involved a legal jurisdiction in the form of the court baron. Technically, lords of manors are barons, or freemen, however, the style Lord of the Manor of X or Lord of X is, in this sense, more of a description than a title, somewhat similar to the term Laird in Scotland. Fellows of Kings College, Cambridge have given the view that the term indicated wealth and privilege, since 1965 Lords of the Manor have been entitled to compensation in the event of compulsory purchase. Before the Land Registration Act 2002 it was possible for manors to be registered with HM Land Registry. Manorial incidents, which are the rights that a lord of the manor may exercise over other peoples land and this is a separate issue to the registration of lordships of manors, since both registered and unregistered lordships will continue to exist after that date. This issue does not affect the existence of the title of lord of the manor, there have been cases where manors have been sold and the seller has unknowingly parted with rights to unregistered land in England and Wales. In England in the Middle Ages, land was held of the English monarch or ruler by a local supporter. The people who had sworn homage to the lord were known as vassals, vassals were nobles who served loyalty for the king, in return for being given the use of land. The person who held feudal land directly from the king was known as a tenant-in-chief, military service was based upon units of ten knights
14.
Linschoten (village)
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Linschoten is a village in the Dutch province of Utrecht. It is a part of the municipality of Montfoort, and lies about 3 km southeast of Woerden, in 2001, the village of Linschoten had 3588 inhabitants. It had an area of 0.65 km² with 1288 residences. The statistical area Linschoten, which also can include the parts of the village. Mat Herben, politician Rigard van Klooster, – track cyclist and former speed skater
15.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
16.
Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
17.
Proto-globalization
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Proto-globalization or early modern globalization is a period of the history of globalization roughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800, following the period of archaic globalization. The Triangular Trade made it possible for Europe to take advantage of resources within the western hemisphere, the transfer of plant and animal crops and epidemic diseases associated with Alfred Crosbys concept of The Columbian Exchange also played a central role in this process. Proto-globalization trade and communications involved a vast group including European, Muslim, Indian, Southeast Asian and Chinese merchants, Hopkins called the product of the contemporary world and the product of distant past. Before proto-globalization, globalizing networks were the product of great kings and warriors searching for wealth and honor in fabulous lands, by religious wanderers. proto-globalization held on to and matured many aspects of archaic globalization such as the importance of cities, migrants, and specialization of labor. Proto-globalization was also marked by two political and economic developments, the reconfiguration of the state systems, and the growth of finance, services. A number of states at the time began to strengthen their connections between territory, taxation, and sovereignty despite their continuing monopoly of loyalties from their citizens, the process of globalization during this time was heavily focused on material world and the labor needed for its production. The improvement of management also spread to the expansion of transportation which created a complex set of connection between the West and East. The expansion of trade led to the green revolution based on the plantation system. During the pre-modern era early forms of globalization were already beginning to affect a world system, Han Chinas imperialism was a peaceful tributary system, which focused mainly on diplomatic and trade relations. The growth of the Han Empire facilitated trade and cultural exchange with virtually all of the world as reached from Asia. The early Tang dynasty saw China as even more responsive to foreign influence, overseas trade with India and the Middle East grew rapidly, and Chinas East and Southern Coasts, once distant and unimportant regions, gradually became chief areas of foreign trade. During the Song Dynasty Chinas navy became more powerful thanks to improvements in shipbuilding and navigation. Chinas power began to decline in the 16th century when the rulers of the subsequent Ming Dynastyneglected the importance of Chinas trade from sea power, the Ming rulers let Chinas naval dominance and its grip on the Spice trade slacken, and the European powers stepped in. Portugal, with its technological advances in architecture, weaponry, seamanship and navigation, took over the Spice Trade. With this, European Imperialism and the age of European Hegemony was beginning, one of the most significant differences between proto-globalization and archaic globalization was the switch from inter-nation trading of rarities to the trading of commodities. During the 12th and 13th centuries it was common to trade items that were foreign, a popular trade during archaic globalization involved European merchants sailing to areas of India or China in order to purchase luxury items such as porcelain, silk and spices. Traders of the period also traded drugs and certain foods such as sugar cane. While these items were not rarities as such, the drugs and food traded were valued for the health and it was more common during proto-globalization to trade various commodities such as cotton, rice and tobacco
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Dutch Golden Age
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The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first half is characterized by the Eighty Years War which ended in 1648, the Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century. The Netherlandss transition from a possession of the Holy Roman Empire in the 1590s to the foremost maritime, in 1568, the Seven Provinces that later signed the Union of Utrecht started a rebellion against Philip II of Spain that led to the Eighty Years War. Antwerp fell on August 17,1585 after a siege, the United Provinces fought on until the Twelve Years Truce, which did not end the hostilities. Under the terms of the surrender of Antwerp in 1585, the Protestant population were given four years to settle their affairs before leaving the city, similar arrangements were made in other places. Protestants were especially well-represented among the craftsmen and rich merchants of the port cities of Bruges, Ghent. More moved to the north between 1585 and 1630 than Catholics moved in the direction, although there were also many of these. Many of those moving north settled in Amsterdam, transforming what was a port into one of the most important ports. The Pilgrim Fathers also spent time there before their voyage to the New World, Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke contribute part of the Dutch ascendancy to its Calvinistic ethic, which promoted thrift and education. This contributed to the lowest interest rates and the highest literacy rates in Europe, several other factors also contributed to the flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences in the Netherlands during this time. A necessary condition was a supply of energy from windmills and from peat. The invention of the sawmill enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company was founded and it was the first-ever multinational corporation, financed by shares that established the first modern stock exchange. This company received a Dutch monopoly on Asian trade and would keep this for two centuries and it became the worlds largest commercial enterprise of the 17th century. Spices were imported in bulk and brought huge profits, due to the efforts and risks involved and this is remembered to this day in the Dutch word peperduur, meaning something is very expensive, reflecting the prices of spices at the time. To finance the trade within the region, the Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1609. According to Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke, geography favored the Dutch Republic and they write, The foundations were laid by taking advantage of location, midway between the Bay of Biscay and the Baltic. The Dutch share of European shipping tonnage was enormous, well over half during most of the period of their ascendancy, from here the Dutch traded between China and Japan and paid tribute to the Shogun
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Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
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Republicanism
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Republicanism is an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty. Many countries are republics in the sense that they are not monarchies, however, this article covers only the ideology of republicanism. This form of government collapsed in the part of the 1st century BCE, giving way to what was a monarchy in form. Republics revived subsequently, with, for example, Renaissance Florence or early modern Britain, the concept of a republic became a powerful force in Britains North American colonies where it led to the American Revolution. In Europe, it gained influence through the French Revolution. In Ancient Greece, several philosophers and historians analysed and described elements we now recognize as classical republicanism, traditionally, the Greek concept of politeia was rendered into Latin as res publica. Consequently, political theory until relatively recently often used republic in the sense of regime. There is no single written expression or definition from this era that exactly corresponds with an understanding of the term republic. However, most of the features of the modern definition are present in the works of Plato, Aristotle. These include theories of mixed government and of civic virtue, for example, in The Republic, Plato places great emphasis on the importance of civic virtue together with personal virtue on the part of the ideal rulers. Indeed, in Book V, Plato asserts that until rulers have the nature of philosophers or philosophers become the rulers, there can be no civic peace or happiness. Aristotle considered Carthage to have been a republic as it had a system similar to that of some of the Greek cities, notably Sparta. Some of this history, composed more than 500 years after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, Polybius exerted a great influence on Cicero as he wrote his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BCE. In one of works, De re publica, Cicero linked the Roman concept of res publica to the Greek politeia. However, the term republic, despite its derivation, is not synonymous with the Roman res publica. This Roman Republic would, by an understanding of the word, still be defined as a true republic. Thus, Enlightenment philosophers saw the Roman Republic as an ideal system, several offices from the republican era, held by individuals, were combined under the control of a single person. These changes became permanent, and gradually conferred sovereignty on the Emperor, ciceros description of the ideal state, in De re publica, does not equate to a modern-day republic, it is more like enlightened absolutism
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House of Orange-Nassau
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Several members of the house served during this war and after as governor or stadtholder during the Dutch Republic. However, in 1815, after a period as a republic. The dynasty was established as a result of the marriage of Henry III of Nassau-Breda from Germany and their son René inherited in 1530 the independent and sovereign Principality of Orange from his mothers brother, Philibert of Châlon. As the first Nassau to be the Prince of Orange, René could have used Orange-Nassau as his new family name, however, his uncle, in his will, had stipulated that René should continue the use of the name Châlon-Orange. History knows him therefore as René of Châlon, after the death of René in 1544 his cousin William of Nassau-Dillenburg inherited all his lands. This William I of Orange, in English better known as William the Silent, the Castle of Nassau was founded around 1100 by Count Dudo-Henry of Laurenburg, the founder of the House of Nassau. In 1120, Dudo-Henrys sons and successors, Counts Robert I and Arnold I of Laurenburg and they renovated and extended the castle complex in 1124. The first man to be called the count of Nassau was Robert I of Nassau, the Nassau family married into the family of the neighboring Counts of Arnstein. His sons Walram and Otto split the Nassau possessions, the descendants of Walram became known as the Walram Line, which became Dukes of Nassau, and in 1890, the Grand Dukes of Luxembourg. This line also included Adolph of Nassau, who was elected King of the Romans in 1292, the descendants of Otto became known as the Ottonian Line, which inherited parts of Nassau County, and properties in France and the Netherlands. The House of Orange-Nassau stems from the younger Ottonian Line, the first of this line to establish himself in the Netherlands was John I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, who married Margareta of the Marck. The real founder of the Nassau fortunes in the Netherlands was Johns son and he became counsellor to the Burgundian Dukes of Brabant, first to Anton of Burgundy, and later to his son Jan IV of Brabant. He also would later serve Philip the Good, in 1403 he married the Dutch noblewoman Johanna van Polanen, and so inherited lands in the Netherlands, with the Barony of Breda as the core of the Dutch possessions and the family fortune. A nobles power was based on his ownership of vast tracts of land. It also helped that much of the lands that the House of Orange and Nassau controlled sat under one of the commercial and mercantile centers of the world (see below under Lands and Titles. The importance of the Nassaus grew throughout the 15th and 16th centuries as they became councilors, generals, Engelbert II of Nassau served Charles the Bold and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, who had married Charless daughter Mary of Burgundy. In 1496 he was appointed stadtholder of Flanders and by 1498 he had been named President of the Grand Conseil, in 1501, Maximilian named him Lieutenant-General of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. From that point forward, Engelbert was the representative of the Habsburg Empire to the region
22.
Classical liberalism
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Classical liberalism was first called that in the early 19th century, but was built on ideas of the previous century. It was a response to urbanization, and to the Industrial Revolution in Europe, notable individuals whose ideas contributed to classical liberalism include John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo. It drew on the economics of Adam Smith and on a belief in natural law, utilitarianism, the term classical liberalism was applied in retrospect to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from the newer social liberalism. These beliefs were complemented by a belief that labourers could be best motivated by financial incentive and they opposed any income or wealth redistribution, which they believed would be dissipated by the lowest orders. Drawing on ideas of Adam Smith, classical liberals believed that it is in the common interest that all individuals be able to secure their own economic self-interest and they were critical of what would come to be the ideas of the welfare state as interfering in a free market. A landlord, a farmer, a manufacturer, a merchant, though they did not employ a single workman. Many workmen could not subsist a week, few could subsist a month, in the long run the workman may be as necessary to his master as his master is to him, but the necessity is not so immediate. The workmen desire to get as much, the masters to give as little as possible, in a free market, both labour and capital would receive the greatest possible reward, while production would be organised efficiently to meet consumer demand. For society to guarantee positive rights requires taxation over and above the minimum needed to enforce negative rights. in the late 19th century, classical liberalism developed into neo-classical liberalism, which argued for government to be as small as possible to allow the exercise of individual freedom. In its most extreme form, neo-classical liberalism advocated Social Darwinism, right-libertarianism is a modern form of neo-classical liberalism. Friedrich Hayek identified two different traditions within classical liberalism, the British tradition and the French tradition, the French tradition included Rousseau, Condorcet, the Encyclopedists and the Physiocrats. This tradition believed in rationalism and sometimes showed hostility to tradition and religion, Hayek also rejected the label laissez faire as originating from the French tradition and alien to the beliefs of Hume and Smith. Classical liberalism in Britain developed from Whiggery and radicalism, and was heavily influenced by French physiocracy. Whiggery had become a dominant ideology following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the origins of rights were seen as being in an ancient constitution, which had existed from time immemorial. These rights, which some Whigs considered to include freedom of the press and they believed that the power of the executive had to be constrained. While they supported limited suffrage, they saw voting as a privilege, British radicals, from the 1790s to the 1820s, concentrated on parliamentary and electoral reform, emphasising natural rights and popular sovereignty. Richard Price and Joseph Priestley adapted the language of Locke to the ideology of radicalism, the radicals saw parliamentary reform as a first step toward dealing with their many grievances, including the treatment of Protestant Dissenters, the slave trade, high prices and high taxes. There was greater unity to classical liberalism ideology than there had been with Whiggery, classical liberals were committed to individualism, liberty and equal rights
23.
Regenten
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In the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the regenten were the rulers of the Dutch Republic, the leaders of the Dutch cities or the heads of organisations. Though not formally a hereditary class, they were de facto patricians, since the late Middle Ages Dutch cities had been run by the richer merchant families, who gradually formed a closed group. From the latter part of the 17th century the regent families were able to reserve government offices to themselves via quasi-formal contractual arrangements, in practice they could only be dislodged by political upheavals, like the Orangist revolution of 1747 and the Patriot revolt of 1785. The regenten as the ruling class originated in the 13th century. The nobilitys and rulers incomes were often not enough to pay their mercenaries or their own army and they therefore needed financial assistance from the up-and-coming merchant class in the growing towns. This class could thus induce the sovereigns to grant municipal charters and city rights and this newly acquired autonomy brought into being a new group of managers next to the sovereigns deputy, the schout, to run the city. These city councillors were often recruited from the wealthiest citizens, medieval city-dwellers were of the opinion that the vroedschap, from which the magistrates were chosen, had to consist of de weisten, treffelijksten en rijksten van de stadsbevolking. Men of wealth were deemed to be the people most able to guarantee the prosperity of the city, to keep the peace was in their personal interest, and because they were already rich, one could hope that they would not plunder the city coffers. In the first half of the 15th century, the Burgundian dukes tightened their grip on the cities in the county of Holland. Philip the Good promoted the situation in which the regenten could exert a greater control over the city and her inhabitants, the vroedschappen were given the power to co-opt members, instead of using a more open electoral process. Members of a vroedschap were usually appointed for life, or during good behavior, similar developments took place in the other provinces. The vroedschap was the body that nominated candidates for burgemeesters and schepenen in annual or biannual elections and these nominees were usually members of the vroedschap, though this was not a formal requirement for office. Members of the vroedschap were usually also the representatives of the cities that voted in the states of the provinces and these arrangements remained basically in place after the Dutch Revolt. From then on, the regenten were the de facto. Formally, little changed in the arrangements of the republic. Equally, the same 18 cities made up the states held the vote before. What changed after the revolt was the makeup of these institutions. In most cities the old regenten were purged, and replaced with adherents to the new political order, in general, Catholic regenten were replaced with supporters of the New Religion
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Rampjaar
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In Dutch history, the year 1672 was known as the rampjaar, the disaster year. The invading armies quickly defeated the Dutch States Army and conquered part of the Republic, a famous Dutch saying coined that year describes the Dutch people redeloos, its government radeloos, and the country reddeloos, irrational, desperate, and beyond rescue, respectively. Despite the initial shock and successful invasion of the eastern Dutch Republic, the English were defeated by the navy under Michiel de Ruyter in 1674, resulting in the Treaty of Westminster and eventually leading to the Glorious Revolution. The French were pushed back with the help of the Spanish forces in the Spanish Netherlands, the conflict eventually ended with the Treaties of Nijmegen in 1678-9. These tensions had escalated in 1650 when William II, Prince of Orange had tried to conquer Amsterdam, after negotiations he succeeded in removing a number of his adversaries from office. When William died from smallpox later that year, the party came back into power. Johan de Witt was appointed Grand Pensionary of Holland and led the States of Holland, to appease the Orangists, and because of their own business interests, the Dutch Regents tried to keep the peace within Europe. When the Republic fought for its independence from Spain, it had allied with France, in 1648, as part of the Peace of Westphalia, the Republic made peace with Austria and Spain. France had only made peace with Austria and continued fighting Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, a condition of that peace was that Louis XIV would marry Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain. Maria Theresa would also renounce her share of the inheritance in exchange for a large dowry, the dowry, however, was never paid by the Spanish. During the 1650s and 1660s the existing tensions between Dutch trade interests and English trade interests grew, the First Anglo-Dutch War was fought between the republics, resulting in a victory for the English. Oliver Cromwell, who was Lord Protector of England at that time, an English attempt to take over Dutch trade and colonies led to the Second Anglo-Dutch War. After the previous war Johan de Witt had supervised the expansion, First Münster and then England were forced to make peace. While France had helped to put pressure on England and Münster they had not committed a major part of their army or fleet, after the death of Philip IV, Louis XIV claimed part of the inheritance for his wife. According to local law in parts of the Spanish Netherlands daughters of a marriage took precedence before the sons of a later marriage. The way Louis XIV explained this, Maria Theresa, daughter of the first marriage of Philip IV, should inherit the Spanish Netherlands because Philips son and this went against the interests of the Dutch Republic, who preferred having a weak state as their neighbour to the south. Because of this, Johan de Witt allied with the defeated English and Sweden, in secret clauses of the treaty they agreed to use force if Louis XIV would not come to terms with Spain. France made peace with Spain, but because the secret clauses of the Triple Alliance were soon made public, Louis XIV felt insulted by the perfidious Dutch, immediately after the peace agreement, France took steps to isolate the Republic
25.
William III of England
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It is a coincidence that his regnal number was the same for both Orange and England. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II and he is informally known by sections of the population in Northern Ireland and Scotland as King Billy. William inherited the principality of Orange from his father, William II and his mother Mary, Princess Royal, was the daughter of King Charles I of England. In 1677, he married his fifteen-year-old first cousin, Mary, a Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France, Louis XIV, in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith, in 1685, his Catholic father-in-law, James, Duke of York, became king of England, Ireland and Scotland. Jamess reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain, William, supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. On 5 November 1688, he landed at the southern English port of Brixham, James was deposed and William and Mary became joint sovereigns in his place. They reigned together until her death on 28 December 1694, after which William ruled as sole monarch, Williams reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him to take the British crowns when many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James. Williams victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is still commemorated by the Orange Order and his reign in Britain marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centred rule of the House of Hanover. William III was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650, baptised William Henry, he was the only child of stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, eight days before William was born, his father died of smallpox, thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth. Immediately, a conflict ensued between his mother the Princess Royal and William IIs mother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder. William II had appointed his wife as his sons guardian in his will, however, Williams mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society. Williams education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, some of English descent, including Walburg Howard, from April 1656, the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius. The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince dOrange, in these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange. From early 1659, William spent seven years at the University of Leiden for a formal education, under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius. While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft, William had a personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck, and a new governor, Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein
26.
De Witt (family)
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De Witt is the name of an old Dutch patrician and regenten family. Originally from Dordrecht, the genealogy of the family begins with Jan de Witte, the family have played an important role during the Dutch Golden Age. They were at the centre of Dordrecht and Holland oligarchy from the end of the 16th century until 1672, during the Dutch Golden Age, the republican De Witt family opposed the royalists associated with the House of Orange-Nassau. With other republican political leaders at Dordrecht, such as the Van Slingelandts, and at Amsterdam with the Bicker and De Graeff families and they sought full sovereignty for individual regions, so that the Republic of the United Seven Netherlands would not yield to authoritarianism. Instead of a sovereigns, political and military power would be entrusted to the States General, from 1650 into the 1670s, the De Witts played leading roles in Dutch government. Republicans called this era the Ware Vrijheid, the First Stadtholderless Period, the De Witt family lost its leadership role in Rampjaar 1672, when Orangists resumed leadership and murdered brothers Johan and Cornelis de Witt. A. Van, De geslachten De Witt te Dordrecht en te Amsterdam in, tijdschrift op het gebied van geslacht-, wapen- en zegelkunde jrg. Panhusen, Luc De Ware Vrijheid, De levens van Johan en Cornelis de Witt, Atlas Rowen, De landsadvocaten en raadpensionarissen der Staten van Holland en West-Friesland 1480–1795. Deel III in, Jaarboek Centraal Bureau Voor Genealogie, the Dutch Republic – Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall – 1477–1806 Clarendon Press, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-820734-4
27.
Holland
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Holland is a region and former province on the western coast of the Netherlands. The name Holland is also used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. From the 10th to the 16th century, Holland proper was a political region within the Holy Roman Empire as a county ruled by the Counts of Holland. By the 17th century, Holland had risen to become a maritime and economic power, the name Holland first appeared in sources in 866 for the region around Haarlem, and by 1064 was being used as the name of the entire county. By this time, the inhabitants of Holland were referring to themselves as Hollanders, Holland is derived from the Middle Dutch term holtland. This spelling variation remained in use until around the 14th century, a popular folk etymology holds that Holland is derived from hol land and was inspired by the low-lying geography of Holland. The proper name of the area in both Dutch and English is Holland, Holland is a part of the Netherlands. Holland is informally used in English and other languages, including sometimes the Dutch language itself, the people of Holland are referred to as Hollanders in both Dutch and English. Today this refers specifically to people from the current provinces of North Holland, strictly speaking, the term Hollanders does not refer to people from the other provinces in the Netherlands, but colloquially Hollanders is sometimes used in this wider sense. In Dutch, the Dutch word Hollands is the form for Holland. In English, Dutch refers to the Netherlands as a whole, the word Hollandish is no longer in common use. Hollandic is the name give to the dialect spoken in Holland, and is occasionally also used by historians. Initially, Holland was a corner of the Holy Roman Empire. Gradually, its importance increased until it began to have a decisive. Until the start of the 12th century, the inhabitants of the area that became Holland were known as Frisians, the area was initially part of Frisia. At the end of the 9th century, West-Frisia became a county in the Holy Roman Empire. The first Count known about with certainty was Dirk I, who ruled from 896 to 931 and he was succeeded by a long line of counts in the House of Holland. When John I, count of Holland, died childless in 1299, by the time of William V the count of Holland was also the count of Hainaut and Zealand
28.
Jacob Cats
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Jacob Cats was a Dutch poet, humorist, jurist and politician. He is most famous for his emblem books, having lost his mother at an early age, and being adopted with his three brothers by an uncle, Cats was sent to school at Breda. He then studied law at Rotterdam and at Paris, and, returning to Holland, he settled at the Hague and his pleading in defence of a person accused of witchcraft brought him many clients and some reputation. He had a love affair about this time, which was broken off on the very eve of marriage by his catching a tertian fever which defied all attempts at cure for some two years. For medical advice and change of air Cats went to England and he returned to Zeeland to die, but was cured mysteriously with the powder of a travelling doctor. He married in 1602 a lady of property, Elisabeth van Valkenburg, and thenceforward lived at Grijpskerke in Zeeland. In 1621, on the expiration of the truce with Spain. He was made pensionary of Middelburg, and two years afterwards of Dordrecht, in 1627 Cats came to England on a mission to Charles I, who made him a knight. Here he lived from this time till his death, occupied in the composition of his autobiography and he became famous in his own lifetime from his moralistic Emblem books, most notably Sinne en Minnebeelden, for which Adrian van der Venne cut the plates. He died on 12 September 1660, and was buried by torchlight and he is still spoken of as Father Cats by his countrymen. He was, however, intimate with Constantijn Huygens, whose opinions were more nearly in agreement with his own. His diffuseness and the character of his matter and diction, have, however, come to be regarded as difficulties in the way of study. A statue to him was erected at Brouwershaven in 1829, see Jacob Cats, Alle de wercken, so ouden als nieuwe, published by Jan Jacobsz. Schipper, Amsterdam 1655, or, Jacob Cats, Complete works, later editions by van Vloten, Pigott, Moral Emblems, with Aphorisms, etc. from Jacob Cats, witsen Geijsbeek, Het Leven en de Verdiensten van Jacob Cats. Southey has a complimentary reference to Cats in his Epistle to Allan Cunningham. Emblemata or Minnebeelden with Maegdenplicht Selfstryt Houwelick Proteus Ofte Minne-Beelden Verandert In Sinne-Beelden, even today many of his coined phrases are still colloquialisms in everyday Dutch. Many of Cats moral poems were set to music, a selection of these, Klagende Maeghden en andere liederen, was recorded in 2008 by the Utrecht ensemble Camerata Trajectina. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Cats
29.
Gerardus Vossius
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Gerrit Janszoon Vos, often known by his Latin name Gerardus Vossius, was a Dutch classical scholar and theologian. In 1600 he was rector of the latin school in Dordrecht. From 1614 to 1619 he was director of the college at Leiden University. In the meantime, he was gaining a reputation as a scholar, not only in the Netherlands. But in spite of the moderation of his views and his abstention from controversy, he came under suspicion of heresy, and escaped expulsion from his office only by resignation. The year before he had published his ‘Historia Pelagiana a history of the Pelagian controversies, in 1622, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and chronology, and subsequently of Greek, in the university. D. He was on terms with Thomas Farnaby, and Farnabys ‘Latin Grammar’ is based to a certain extent upon that which Vossius wrote for the Elzevir press in 1629. He got permission from Charles I to return to the Low Countries, in 1632 he left Leiden to take the post of professor of history in the newly founded Athenaeum Illustre at Amsterdam, which he held till his death. His son Isaac, after a career of scholarship in Sweden and he was the author of De septuaginta interpretibus, De poematum cantu et viribus rhythmi, and Variarum observationum liber. Others, His son Dionysius Vossius died 1633 or 1640 and he made notes on the work of Moses Maimonides. His third son Gerrit Vossius died 1640 and he was an editor of Velleius Paterculus. He made a chronicle of Holland, Francis Vossius was Gerardus Vossiuss brother. A person also called Gerardus Vossius, a Roman Catholic who made annotated Latin translations of Gregory Thaumaturgus and Cicero, Vossius was amongst the first to treat theological dogmas and the non-Christian religions from the historical point of view. His collected works were published at Amsterdam, in rhetoric, his works enjoyed a wide circulation, being used as textbooks. He supported Aristotles definitions, and opposed Ramism, with the major influences being Aristotle and Cicero, he also cited Hermogenes, Menander Rhetor, Bartholomeus Keckermann and Nicolas Caussin. Jean-Pierre Nicéron, Mémoires pour servir de lhistoire des hommes illustres, Vossius Vossius, Gerhard Johannes, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie,40, Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot,1896, pp. 367–370 C. S. M. Rademaker ss. cc. Life and Works of Gerardus Joannes Vossius, G. J. Vossius, chisholm, Hugh, ed. Vossius, Gerhard Johann. Reynolds, Francis J. ed. Voss, Gerhard Johann, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Vossius, Isaac
30.
Roman Republic
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It was during this period that Romes control expanded from the citys immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, by the following century, it included North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar. The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation, Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. Over time, the laws that gave exclusive rights to Romes highest offices were repealed or weakened. The leaders of the Republic developed a tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military. Many of Romes legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states, the exact causes and motivations for Romes military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism and they argue that Romes expansion was driven by short-term defensive and inter-state factors, and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, with some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened and thus able to resist Romanizing influences. It was also able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome and this growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance-seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city-states seeking membership within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this, it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire and this shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal. In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance-seeking, in the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance-seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. This had some important similarities to the events in Italy centuries earlier, with some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city-states and kingdoms until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control
31.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
32.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
33.
Doctorate
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There are a variety of doctoral degrees, with the most common being the Doctor of Philosophy, which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to the scientific disciplines. The term doctor derives from the Latin docere meaning to teach, the doctorate appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin at a university. Its roots can be traced to the church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles, church fathers. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the Catholic church, the Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access—at that time largely free of charge—of all able applicants. This right remained a bone of contention between the authorities and universities that were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. The right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach, according to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum of the Middle Ages included only theology, law, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century. The term philosophy does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning. In most of Europe, all fields were traditionally known as philosophy, the doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. D. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild, the traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of Masters of Arts was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms master and doctor were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the masters degree, University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, for instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread, universities shift to research-oriented education increased the doctorates importance. Today, a doctorate or its equivalent is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward, the first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M. D. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine during the 19th century, the MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style Ph. D. was first awarded in the U. S. in 1861, in the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates, introduced from 1882 onwards. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, following the MD, the next professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor, was established by Chicago University in 1902
34.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
35.
Frans van Schooten
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Franciscus van Schooten was a Dutch mathematician who is most known for popularizing the analytic geometry of René Descartes. Van Schootens father was a professor of mathematics at the University of Leiden, having Christiaan Huygens, Johann van Waveren Hudde, Van Schooten met Descartes in 1632 and read his Géométrie while it was still unpublished. Finding it hard to understand, he went to France to study the works of important mathematicians of his time, such as François Viète. When Frans van Schooten returned to his home in Leiden in 1646, he inherited his fathers position and one of his most important pupils, Huygens. Over the next decade he enlisted the aid of other mathematicians of the time, de Beaune, Hudde, Heuraet, de Witt and this edition and its extensive commentaries was far more influential than the 1649 edition. It was this edition that Gottfried Leibniz and Isaac Newton knew, Van Schooten was one of the first to suggest, in exercises published in 1657, that these ideas be extended to three-dimensional space. Van Schootens efforts also made Leiden the centre of the community for a short period in the middle of the seventeenth century. Some Contemporaries of Descartes, Fermat, Pascal and Huygens, Van Schooten, robertson, Edmund F. Frans van Schooten, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews. An e-textbook developed from Frans van Schooten 1646 by dbook
36.
Stadtholder
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In the Low Countries, stadtholder, literally steward, designated a medieval official and then a national leader. For the last half century of its existence, it became a hereditary role. His son, Prince William V, was the last stadtholder of the republic, whose own son, King William I, became the first king of the Netherlands. The Dutch Monarchy is thus descended from the first stadtholder of the young Republic, William of Orange, the title stadtholder is roughly comparable to Englands historic title Lord Lieutenant. Its component parts literally translate as place holder, or as a cognate, stead holder. Note, however, that is not the word for the rank of lieutenant. Stadtholders in the Middle Ages were appointed by feudal lords to represent them in their absence, if a lord had several dominions, some of these could be ruled by a permanent stadtholder, to whom was delegated the full authority of the lord. A stadtholder was thus more powerful than a governor, who had limited authority. The local rulers of the independent provinces of the Low Countries made extensive use of stadtholders, in the 15th century the Dukes of Burgundy acquired most of the Low Countries, and these Burgundian Netherlands mostly each had their own stadtholder. Only the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and two smaller territories remained outside his domains, stadtholders continued to be appointed to represent Charles and King Philip II, his son and successor in Spain and the Low Countries. Due to the centralist and absolutist policies of Philip, the power of the stadtholders strongly diminished. The stadtholder no longer represented the lord but became the highest executive official, although each province could assign its own stadtholder, most stadtholders held appointments from several provinces at the same time. As these councils themselves appointed most members of the states, the stadtholder could very indirectly influence the general policy, in the army, he could appoint officers by himself, in the navy only affirm appointments of the five admiralty councils. Legal powers of the stadtholder were thus limited, and by law he was a mere official. His real powers, however, were greater, especially given the martial law atmosphere of the permanent Eighty Years War. Maurice of Orange after 1618 ruled as a dictator. The leader of the Dutch Revolt was William the Silent, he had been appointed stadtholder in 1572 by the first province to rebel and his personal influence and reputation was subsequently associated with the office and transferred to members of his house. Maurice in 1618 and William III of Orange from 1672 replaced entire city councils with their partisans to increase their power, by intimidation, the stadtholders tried to extend their right of affirmation
37.
William II, Prince of Orange
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William II was sovereign Prince of Orange and stadtholder of the United Provinces of the Netherlands from 14 March 1647 until his death three years later. His only child, also named William, would go on to reign as William III of England and Ireland, William II, Prince of Orange, was the son of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. Frederick Henry was the youngest son of William the Silent, his half brother Maurits of Nassau was stadtholder. On 2 May 1641, William married Mary, Princess Royal, eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, the Netherlands at this time was engaged in the Eighty Years War against Spain for its independence. Under Frederick Henry, the Netherlands had largely won the war, a separate peace furthermore violated the alliance with France formed in 1635. However, the States of six provinces voted to accept it, secretly, William opened his own negotiations with France with the goal of extending his own territory under a more centralized government. In addition, he worked for the restoration of his exiled brother-in-law, Charles II, in 1650 William II became involved in a bitter quarrel with the province of Holland and the powerful Regents of Amsterdam, Andries Bicker and his cousin Cornelis de Graeff. With the Peace of Münster, the Regents wanted to reduce the army and that would also diminish Williams authority. William imprisoned eight members of the States of Holland in the castle of Loevestein, in addition, he sent his cousin, Willem Frederik of Nassau-Dietz with an army of 10,000 men to seize Amsterdam by force. Bad weather foiled this campaign, but Amsterdam did give in, William served as stadtholder for only three years, until he died of smallpox in 1650. His only son William was born one week after his death and this was the beginning of the First Stadtholderless Period. His son succeeded him in 1672 as stadtholder and later, in 1689, also became King of England. William II used the arms during his time as prince of Orange, Stadholder or Holland, etc. and Captain-General, Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press,1988, Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange, the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press,2003, Herbert H. Rowen, John de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland, 1625-1672. Herbert H. Rowen, John de Witt, Statesman of the True Freedom, petrus Johannes Blok, History of the people of the Netherlands. New York, G. P. Putnams sons,1898, pieter Geyl, Orange and Stuart, 1641-1672. Israel, The Dutch Republic, Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 Oxford University Press,1995
38.
States of Holland and West Friesland
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The States of Holland and West Frisia were the representation of the two Estates to the court of the Count of Holland. After the United Provinces were formed — and there no longer was a count, more powerful cities were allowed to send more representatives — Amsterdam had a delegation of four — but these then together had only one vote. All members of the States were appointed officials, including the Lands Advocate or Grand Pensionary, the Lands Advocate or Grand Pensionary was nearly always a previous pensionary of a city. Very important matters, such as taxation, had to be decided on unanimously but normally decisions were made by majority. He had literally both the first — as representing the nobility vote — and the last say in a meeting, since the death of Johan van Oldebarnevelt any Prince of Orange also being stadtholder indirectly had much power over the States. He had the right to appoint the mayors of all cities, mayors of cities with city rights chose the officials who served as representatives in the States of Holland. The States of Holland were disbanded during the reforms by the Batavian Republic, the States of Holland should not be confused with the States-General, or Staten-Generaal, the confederate government of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands as a whole. Each of the Netherlands had its own States and Holland was just one of seven, nevertheless this province was so dominant that a politician controlling the States of Holland by being Lands Advocate of Holland or Grand Pensionary, in fact controlled the Republic. Johan de Witt is a case in point, and Johan van Oldebarnevelt another famous example, first mentioned in 1428, the States of Holland continued to exist until 1795 when the Batavian Republic was established under French rule
39.
Jan Bicker
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Bicker was a merchant, a mayor and a member of the Bicker family, an influential patrician family from Amsterdam. The son of Gerrit Bicker, he was a shipbuilder and merchant in Amsterdam and his trade mainly was focussed on the Levant. Jan Bicker was the inspector of the ropes, and in 1647 he became Schepen. His brothers Cornelis and Andries Bicker were influential merchants and burgemeesters of the city and his older brother Jacob was lord of Engelenburg. When stadtholder William II attacked the city in 1650, one of his demands was that the Bickers voluntarily resigned their positions, the brothers were never burgemeester at the same time, but they had made agreements about an alliance, the so-called Bickerse ligue. After William II died in that year, the Bickers regained their position during the First Stadtholderless Period. When Andries died, Jan was given the position of burgemeester, Bicker was married to Agneta de Graeff van Polsbroek, a sister of Cornelis de Graeff. Three daughters were born from this marriage, Geertrui, Wendela, geertruid married Jean Deutz, Wendela married Johan de Witt and Jacoba was the wife of her cousin Pieter de Graeff. De Bickers were part of the staatsgezinde partij and opponents of the stadtholders, Jan Bickers son in law, the influential Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt practically controlled the Republic during the First Stadtholderless Period from 1650-1672. Several ownerships of Jan Bicker, amongst which the countryhouse De Eult in Baarn, Jan Bicker was for his time a wealthy man. Aside from Baarn he also had countryhouses in Beverwijk, Akerendam, within the city of Amsterdam, Jan Bicker owned almost an entire island, called the Bickerseiland. He bought the island in 1631 and had a house with a high tower built there so that he could see his ships arrive
40.
Agneta de Graeff van Polsbroek
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Agneta de Graeff van Polsbroek, was a patrician woman from the Dutch Golden Age. She became famous as the mother-in-law of Johan de Witt, Agneta was born as the oldest daughter of Jacob Dircksz de Graeff and Aeltje Boelens Loen. In 1625 she was married to Jan Bicker, the couple had two daughters, Wendela Bicker and Jacoba Bicker, the first married Johan de Witt and the second married her cousin Pieter de Graeff. The couple lived at their country houses De Eult at Baarn, Akerendam, between the city of Amsterdam they owned a cityhause at Herengracht and an island, called Bickerseiland. In 1663/64 Agneta was painted by Wallerant Vaillant and her tomb chapel is located at the Westerkerk. Graeff, P. de Genealogie van de familie De Graeff van Polsbroek, bruijn, J. H. de Genealogie van het geslacht De Graeff van Polsbroek 1529/1827, met bijlagen. De landsadvocaten en raadpensionarissen der Staten van Holland en West-Friesland 1480–1795, deel III in, Jaarboek Centraal Bureau Voor Genealogie
41.
Andries de Graeff
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Free Imperial Knight Andries de Graeff was a very powerful member of the Amsterdam branch of the De Graeff - family during the Dutch Golden Age. He became a mayor of Amsterdam and a powerful Amsterdam regent after the death of his older brother Cornelis de Graeff, like him and their father Jacob Dircksz de Graeff he opposed the house of Orange. In the mid-17th century he controlled the finances and politics, Andries de Graeff followed in his fathers and brothers footsteps and, between 1657 and 1672, was appointed mayor some seven times. De Graeff was a member of a family of regents who belonged to the political movement also referred to as the ‘state oriented’. Andries was called the last regent and mayor from the dynastie of the Graven, together with his broether Cornelis De Graeff became an illustrious Patron and Art collector. Andries de Graeff was born in Amsterdam, the son of Jacob Dircksz de Graeff. His older sister Agneta who married Johan Bicker, was the mother of Johan de Witts wife Wendela Bicker, after he has been finished his study in Poitiers he was married to his niece Elisabeth Bicker van Swieten, daughter of the Amsterdam Mayor Cornelis Bicker van Swieten. Both his brother Cornelis and Andries were very critical of the Orange family’s influence, together with the Republican political leader Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt, the De Graeff brothers strived for the abolition of stadtholdership. They desired the full sovereignty of the regions in a form in which the Republic of the United Seven Netherlands was not ruled by a single person. Instead of a sovereign the political and military power was lodged with the States General, during the two decades the De Graeff family had a leading role in the Amsterdam administration, the city was at the peak of its political power. This period was referred to by Republicans as the ‘Ware Vrijheid’. It was the First Stadtholderless Period which lasted from 1650 to 1672, during these twenty years, the regents from Holland and in particular those of Amsterdam, controlled the republic. The city was flush with self-confidence and liked to compare itself to the famous Republic of Rome, even without a stadtholder, things seemed to be going well for the Republic and its regents both politically and economically. Andries de Graeff was from 1646 a member of the vroedschap, between 1650 and 1657 he was advisor of finances and finance minister of Holland at Den Haag. In 1650 he started his career as advisor in the ministerium of finances in Den Haag, after he became a minister he went back to Amsterdam, and took place as a sort of chairing mayor of this city. After the death of his brother Cornelis, De Graeff became the leader of the republicans. He held this position until the rampjaar and he also became an advisor of the Admiralty of Amsterdam and in 1661 he was made an advisor of the States of Holland and West Friesland. In 1660 the Dutch Gift was organized by the regents, especially Andries, in 1667 De Graeff was one of the sponsors of the Perpetual Edict, that was a resolution of the States of Holland in which they abolished the office of Stadtholder in the province of Holland
42.
Andries Bicker
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He controlled the citys politics in close cooperation with his uncle Jacob Dircksz de Graeff and his brother Cornelis Bicker. In 1646, seven members of the Bicker family, called the Bickers league, the Bickers provided silver and ships to Spain, and were very much interested in ending the Eighty Years War. This brought them in conflict with the stadtholder, some provinces, like Zeeland and Utrecht, Andries became a member of the vroedschap in 1616, in 1620 schepen of Amsterdam and in 1627, just over forty, mayor of Amsterdam. He came to the fore through his knowledge and moderation, in 1627, he was delegated to go to Sweden and Poland, to close negotiations between these two countries, mediate a peace and at the same time set up new Baltic trade agreements. In 1631 he was the owner of a few plots in Spanderswoud in s-Graveland, the Bicker family also had concerns in peat-digging in Drenthe. At the solemn entry of Maria de Medici into Amsterdam in 1638, he, in 1643, he went with Jacob de Witt to Sweden to mediate between Sweden and Denmark. Andries Bicker opposed the stadtholder Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, who intended the centralize the five admiralties, to regain power William went on the march towards Dordrecht and Amsterdam with an army. His troops got lost in a fog and were discovered by the postal courier on Hamburg, who also warned Andries son Gerard. The mayors of Amsterdam had the guard called out, the bridges raised, the gates closed. Andries Bicker was purged from the vroedschap, as was his brother Cornelis, henceforth, it was the equally republican-minded brothers Cornelis and Andries de Graeff, and their following, who dominated Amsterdam. His niece Wendela Bicker married the powerful raadspensionaris Johan de Witt, captain Bickers Company by Joachim von Sandrart Famous portrait of his son Gerard Bicker by Van der Helst Pictures of Dutch voyage to Guinea, Argentina and Brazil
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