1.
John Ericson (actor)
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John Ericson is a German-American film and television actor. Born in Germany with the surname Meibes, Ericson trained at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York and he went on to make a number of films for MGM in quick succession in the 1950s. His first appearance was in Teresa, directed by Fred Zinnemann and he went on to appear in a series of films which included Rhapsody, The Student Prince, Green Fire, and in Bad Day at Black Rock. He co-starred with Barbara Stanwyck in Forty Guns, for the next thirty years his career continued mostly on television. He appeared in the role in The Peter Bartley Story of CBSs fantasy drama. He appeared with Dorothy Malone in the episode Mutiny of CBSs Appointment with Adventure and he made guest appearances in The Restless Gun, and Target, The Corruptors. From 1965–66, he co-starred as the partner of Anne Francis in Honey West and he and Francis had played brother and sister in Bad Day at Black Rock. He has been married twice and has two children from his first marriage to Milly Coury, John Ericson at the Internet Movie Database John Ericson at the Internet Broadway Database
John Ericson (actor)
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from
The Student Prince (1954)
2.
USNS John Ericsson (T-AO-194)
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USNS John Ericsson is a Henry J. Kaiser-class underway replenishment oiler operated by the Military Sealift Command to support ships of the United States Navy. The Henry J. Kaiser-class oilers were preceded by the shorter Cimarron-class fleet replenishment oilers, John Ericsson has an overall length of 206.5 metres. It has a beam of 29.7 metres and a draft of 11 metres, the oiler has a displacement of 41,353 tonnes at full load. It has a capacity of 180,000 imperial barrels of fuel or fuel oil. It can carry a dry load of 690 square metres and can refrigerate 128 pallets of food, the ship is powered by two 10 PC4.2 V570 Colt-Pielstick diesel engines that drive two shafts, this gives a power of 25.6 megawatts. The Henry J. Kaiser-class oilers have maximum speeds of 20 knots and they were built without armaments but can be fitted with close-in weapon systems. The ship has a platform but not any maintenance facilities. It is fitted with five fuelling stations, these can fill two ships at the time and the ship is capable of pumping 900,000 US gallons of diesel or 540,000 US gallons of jet fuel per hour. It has a complement of eighty-nine civilians, twenty-nine spare crew, John Ericsson, the eighth ship of the Henry J. Kaiser class, was laid down at Sun Shipbuilding and Drydock Company at Chester, Pennsylvania, on 15 March 1989 and launched on 21 April 1990. She entered non-commissioned United States Navy service under the control of the Military Sealift Command with a civilian crew on 18 March 1991. John Ericsson serves in the United States Pacific Fleet, in March 2014, she was sent to help with refueling and logistics connected with the USS Pinckneys role in helping the search for missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370. This article includes information collected from the Naval Vessel Register, which, the entry can be found here. NavSource Online, Service Ship Photo Archive, USNS John Ericsson USNS John Ericcson Wildenberg, gray Steel and Black Oil, Fast Tankers and Replenishment at Sea in the U. S. Navy, 1912-1995
USNS John Ericsson (T-AO-194)
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USNS John Ericsson in
Apra Harbor,
Guam
USNS John Ericsson (T-AO-194)
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John Ericsson refueling
guided-missile cruiser USS Cowpens (CG-63) in August 2007.
USNS John Ericsson (T-AO-194)
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John Ericsson refueling
aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN-68) in September 2009.
USNS John Ericsson (T-AO-194)
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John Ericsson (T-AO-194) in
San Francisco Bay
3.
Swedish-American
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Swedish Americans are an American ethnic group of people who have ancestral roots from Sweden. They primarily include the 1.2 million Swedish immigrants during 1885–1915 and they formed tight-knit communities, primarily in the American Midwest, and intermarried with other Swedish-Americans. Historically, Swedish Americans have been concentrated in the Midwest, roughly in the area west and northwest of Chicago, many of them came to Minnesota. A contingent also settled in the woods of northern Maine, the first Swedish Americans were the settlers of New Sweden. A colony established by Queen Christina of Sweden in 1638, it centered around the Delaware Valley including parts of the states of Delaware, New Jersey. New Sweden was incorporated into New Netherland in 1655 and ceased to be a territory of the Realm of Sweden. However, many Swedish and Finnish colonists remained and were allowed some political and cultural autonomy, Swedish Americans usually came through New York City and subsequently settled in the upper Midwest. Most were Lutheran and belonged to synods now associated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, theologically, they were pietistic, politically they often supported progressive causes and prohibition. In the year 1900, Chicago was the city with the second highest number of Swedes after Stockholm, by then, Swedes in Chicago had founded the Evangelical Covenant Church and established such enduring institutions as Swedish Covenant Hospital and North Park University. Many others settled in Minnesota in particular, followed by Wisconsin, as well as New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska and Illinois. Like their Norwegian American and Danish American brethren, many Swedes sought out the agrarian lifestyle they had left behind in Sweden, as many immigrants settled on farms throughout the Midwest. In the east, New England became a destination for many skilled workers and Swedish centers developed in areas such as Jamestown, New York, Providence, Rhode Island. A small Swedish settlement was begun in New Sweden, Maine. 51 Swedish settlers came to the area, led by W. W. Thomas, who called them mina barn i skogen, upon arrival, they knelt in prayer and thanksgiving to God. This area soon expanded and other settlements were named Stockholm, Jemptland, the town of New Sweden, Maine celebrates St. Lucia, Midsummer, and Founders Day. It is a Swedish-American community that continues to honor traditions of the old country, gustaf Adolph Lutheran Church was served by a native of Sweden as recently as 1979-1985 who was known to occasionally conduct special worship services in Swedish. The largest settlement in New England was Worcester, Massachusetts, here, Swedes were drawn to the citys wire and abrasive industries
Swedish-American
Swedish-American
Swedish-American
Swedish-American
4.
Novelty (locomotive)
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Novelty was an early steam locomotive built by John Ericsson and John Braithwaite to take part in the Rainhill Trials in 1829. It was an 0-2-2WT locomotive and is now regarded as the very first tank engine and it had a unique design of boiler and a number of other novel design features. Unfortunately, several of the components had significant design weaknesses which ultimately resulted in its failure at the Trials. During the late 1820s Ericsson and Braithwaite were working together building horse drawn fire engines with steam pumps and these used a boiler designed by Ericsson and were built in the London works of John Braithwaite. These fire engines were known for their ability to steam quickly. Charles Vignoles has also associated with Novelty, but his practical involvement is not known. He may have aligned himself with the engine because of a feud with George Stephenson. This incredibly short space of time has led people to suggest that Novelty is in fact a fire engine. It is more likely that it used many of the parts as their fire engines. Novelty was constructed in the London Workshop belonging to Braithwaite and transported to Liverpool by boat, there was no time to test Novelty in London before transportation, and following test runs at Rainhill before the trials, modifications were carried out with the help of Timothy Hackworth. The boiler used on Novelty was designed by John Ericsson, the design was very scientific for the era but proved to be very hard to build and maintain compared with the boiler design adopted for Rocket and most steam locomotives since. The most prominent feature for the boiler is the copper firebox. Within the vertical vessel was the inner firebox and the space between the two was filled with water, fuel was added from the top, where a tube passed down through the top of the firebox. This firebox construction was not dissimilar to some types of vertical boiler, like George Stephenson, Ericsson understood that a large area was needed to extract heat from the hot gases. This he did in a horizontal tube filled with water which ran under the full length of the engine. It can be seen in the illustration on top of page, sticking out to the right. Within the horizontal section was a tube carrying the hot gases and this ‘S’ shaped tube was also tapered causing the gases to speed up as they cooled down. In practice this tube is almost impossible to clean, the resulting boiler was the shape of a hammer and was required to be fitted to the frame before the footplate, cylinders or blower could be added
Novelty (locomotive)
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Contemporary drawing of Novelty
Novelty (locomotive)
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Replica of the Novelty in the
Transport Museum in
Nuremberg during the exhibition "Adler, Rocket and Co."
Novelty (locomotive)
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Section through the boiler, firebox to the right
Novelty (locomotive)
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Cylinder on replica of Novelty
5.
Rainhill Trials
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The Rainhill Trials were an important competition in the early days of steam locomotive railways, run in October 1829 for the nearly completed Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Five engines competed, running back and forth along a length of level track at Rainhill. Stephensons Rocket was the locomotive to complete the trials, and was declared the winner. The Stephensons were accordingly given the contract to produce locomotives for the railway, the Rainhill Trials were arranged as an open contest that would let them see all the locomotive candidates in action, with the choice to follow. Regardless of whether or not locomotives were settled upon, a prize of £500 was offered to the winner of the trials, locomotives that were entered were to be subjected to a variety of tests and conditions. The water in the boiler shall be cold, and there shall be no fuel in the fireplace, the fire in the boiler shall then be lighted, and the quantity of fuel consumed for getting up the steam shall be determined, and the time noted. The Tender Carriage, with the fuel and water, shall be considered to be and those engines which carry their own fuel and water, shall be allowed a proportionate deduction from their load, according to the weight of the Engine. The time of performing every trip shall be noted, as well as the time occupied in getting ready to set out on the second journey. The gauge of the railway to be 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in, ten locomotives were entered, but on the day the competition began —6 October 1829 — only five locomotives actually began the tests, Cycloped, built by Thomas Shaw Brandreth. Novelty, built by John Ericsson and John Braithwaite, Rocket, designed by George and Robert Stephenson, built by Robert Stephenson and Company. Sans Pareil, built by Timothy Hackworth, locomotives were run two or three per day, and several tests for each locomotive were performed over the course of several days. The Rainhill stretch of the Railway was very level for a mile or so, Cycloped was the first to drop out of the competition. Built with legacy technology, it used a walking on a drive belt for power. Damaged en route to the competition, Burstall spent five days repairing it, when it failed to reach the required 10 miles per hour on its first tests the next day, it was withdrawn from the trial. It was granted a £26 consolation prize, Sans Pareil nearly completed the trials, though at first there was some doubt as to whether it would be allowed to compete as it was 300 pounds overweight. However, it did eventually complete eight trips before cracking a cylinder, despite the failure it was purchased by the Liverpool & Manchester, where it served for two years before being leased to the Bolton and Leigh Railway. In complete contrast to Cycloped it was cutting-edge for 1829, lighter and it was accordingly the crowd favourite. Reaching a then-astonishing 28 miles per hour on the first day of competition, nevertheless, it continued its run on the next day, but upon reaching 15 mph the pipe gave way again and damaged the engine severely enough that it had to drop out
Rainhill Trials
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Later conjectural drawing of the Rainhill Trials. In the foreground is Rocket and in the background are Sans Pareil (right) and Novelty.
Rainhill Trials
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Replica of the Novelty in the
Transport Museum in
Nuremberg during the exhibition "Adler, Rocket and Co."
Rainhill Trials
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Replica of the Rocket in its original condition in Nuremberg
Rainhill Trials
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Replica of the Sans Pareil in Nuremberg
6.
Liverpool and Manchester Railway
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The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was a railway opened on 15 September 1830 between the Lancashire towns of Liverpool and Manchester in the United Kingdom. Jervis of the Delaware and Hudson Railway some years later wrote, as opening the epoch of railways which has revolutionised the social and commercial intercourse of the civilized world. Trains were hauled by steam locomotives between the two towns, though private wagons and carriages were allowed. Cable haulage of trains was down the steeply-graded 1. 26-mile Wapping Tunnel to Liverpool Docks from Edge Hill junction. The railway was built to provide faster transport of raw materials, finished goods. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was the first public transport system on land which did not use animal traction power. Up to then, the rail systems for public use had been, Horse-drawn plateways, such as the Lake Lock Railroad, Surrey Iron Railway. Railways that used a mix of steam and horse-drawn traffic, such as the Stockton and Darlington Railway, or a mix of cable and horse haulage, often described as the Grand British Experimental Railway the success or failure of which would decide plans for all future railways. The L&MR was intended to achieve cheap transport of raw materials, finished goods, huge tonnages of textile raw material were imported through Liverpool and carried to the textile mills near the Pennines where water and then steam power enabled the production of the finished cloth. There was support for the railway from the towns at either end, the original promoters are usually acknowledged to be Joseph Sandars, a rich Liverpool corn merchant, and John Kennedy, then owner of the largest spinning mill in Manchester. They were influenced to do this by William James, now something of a forgotten figure, James was a land surveyor who had made a fortune in property speculation. He advocated a national network of railways, based upon what he had seen of the development of colliery lines, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company was founded on 24 May 1823. It was established by Henry Booth, who became its secretary and treasurer, along with merchants from Liverpool. Charles Lawrence was the Chairman, Lister Ellis, Robert Gladstone, John Moss, a bill presented in 1825 to Parliament was rejected, but it passed in May the following year. In Liverpool 172 people took 1,979 shares, in London 96 took 844, the Marquess of Stafford had 1,000, giving 308 shareholders with 4,233 shares. The initial survey for the line was carried out by William James and, Robert Stephenson departed for South America and William James became bankrupt. Consequently, in 1824 George Stephenson was appointed engineer in their place, by this time, he was taking on too much. As Robert was absent, George left checking the survey to subordinates, upon presentation to Parliament in 1825 it was shown to be inaccurate
Liverpool and Manchester Railway
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A lithograph of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway crossing the Bridgewater Canal at Patricroft, by A.B. Clayton.
Liverpool and Manchester Railway
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The L&MR
Liverpool and Manchester Railway
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A replica LMR coach and
Rocket at the
Rocket 150 event
Liverpool and Manchester Railway
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Stephenson's viaduct crosses the Sankey Brook, and the remains of the
Sankey Canal. The viaduct is in use to this day.
7.
George Stephenson
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His rail gauge of 4 feet 8 1⁄2 inches, sometimes called Stephenson gauge, is the standard gauge by name and by convention for most of the worlds railways. George Stephenson was born on 9 June 1781 in Wylam, Northumberland,9 miles west of Newcastle upon Tyne and he was the second child of Robert and Mabel Stephenson, neither of whom could read or write. Robert was the fireman for Wylam Colliery pumping engine, earning a low wage. At 17, Stephenson became an engineman at Water Row Pit in Newburn, George realised the value of education and paid to study at night school to learn reading, writing and arithmetic – he was illiterate until the age of 18. In 1801 he began work at Black Callerton Colliery as a brakesman, in 1802 he married Frances Henderson and moved to Willington Quay, east of Newcastle. There he worked as a brakesman while they lived in one room of a cottage, George made shoes and mended clocks to supplement his income. Their first child Robert was born in 1803, and in 1804 they moved to West Moor and their second child, a daughter was born in July 1805. She was named Frances after her mother, the child died after just 3 weeks and was buried in St Bartholomews Parish Church near Newcastle. In 1806 Georges wife Frances died of consumption and she was buried in the same churchyard as their daughter on the 16th May 1806. George decided to work in Scotland and left Robert with a local woman while he went to work in Montrose. After a few months he returned, probably because his father was blinded in a mining accident and he moved back into a cottage at West Moor and his unmarried sister Eleanor moved in to look after Robert. In 1811 the pumping engine at High Pit, Killingworth was not working properly and he did so with such success that he was promoted to enginewright for the collieries at Killingworth, responsible for maintaining and repairing all the colliery engines. He became an expert in steam-driven machinery, in 1815, aware of the explosions often caused in mines by naked flames, Stephenson began to experiment with a safety lamp that would burn in a gaseous atmosphere without causing an explosion. At the same time, the eminent scientist and Cornishman Humphry Davy was also looking at the problem. Despite his lack of knowledge, Stephenson, by trial and error, devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes. The two designs differed, Davys lamp was surrounded by a screen of gauze, whereas Stephensons prototype lamp had a perforated plate contained in a glass cylinder. Stephenson, having come from the North, spoke with a broad Northumberland accent and not the Language of Parliament, which made him seem lowly. Realizing this, he made a point of educating his son Robert in a school, where he was taught the sciences his father lacked
George Stephenson
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George Stephenson
George Stephenson
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Engineer and inventor
George Stephenson
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Dial Cottage, West Moor, Killingworth
George Stephenson
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Stephenson's safety lamp shown with Davy's lamp on the left
8.
USS Princeton (1843)
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The first USS Princeton was a screw steam warship in the United States Navy. Commanded by Captain Robert F. Stockton, Princeton was launched on September 5,1843, the ships reputation in the Navy never recovered from a devastating incident early in her service. Upshur, Secretary of the Navy Thomas Walker Gilmer, and other high-ranking federal officials, President John Tyler, who was aboard but below decks, was not injured. Princeton was laid down on October 20,1842, at the Philadelphia Navy Yard as a 700 long tons corvette, the designer of the ship and main supervisor of construction was the Swedish inventor John Ericsson, who later designed the USS Monitor. The construction was supervised by Captain Stockton who had secured the political support for the construction of the ship. The ship was named after Princeton, New Jersey, site of an American victory in the Revolutionary War, the ship was christened with a bottle of American whiskey and launched on September 5,1843. It was ordered commissioned on September 9,1843, with Captain Stockton in command, Princeton made a trial trip in the Delaware River on October 12,1843. On November 22, Captain Stockton reported Princeton will be ready for sea in a week, on November 28, he dressed ship and received visitors on board for inspection. On November 30, she towed the USS Raritan down the Delaware, Princeton sailed on January 1,1844, for New York, where she received her two big guns, named Peacemaker and Oregon. Princeton was sent to Washington, D. C. in late January, washingtonians displayed great interest in the ship and her guns. She made trial trips with passengers on board down the Potomac River on February 16,18 and 20, after several test runs, the Princeton was considered ready. Princeton included the very first screw propellers powered by an engine mounted entirely below the waterline to avoid the vulnerability of paddle wheels and her two vibrating lever engines were built by Merrick & Towne, and designed by Ericsson. They burned hard coal and drove a six-bladed screw 14 ft in diameter, the engine was small enough to be below the waterline. Ericsson also designed the ships funnel, an improved range-finder. Twelve 42-pound carronades were mounted within the iron hull. Ericsson had designed the ship to mount one long gun, named the Oregon, Captain Stockton wanted his ship to carry two long guns and had the second, named Peacemaker, built in Philadelphia. The two guns fired identical shot, but the Peacemaker was built with older forging technology creating a gun of more impressive appearance. Both guns were mounted onto the Princeton, according to Kilner, the Peacemaker was fired only five times before certifying it as accurate and fully proofed
USS Princeton (1843)
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Lithograph of Princeton, by
Nathaniel Currier, 1844.
USS Princeton (1843)
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US Steam Ship 'Princeton' and "US Ship 'Raritan'
USS Princeton (1843)
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Contemporary lithograph depicting the explosion
9.
Robert Stockton
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Robert Field Stockton was a United States Navy commodore, notable in the capture of California during the Mexican–American War but also for causing the USS Princeton disaster of 1844. He was an innovator and an early advocate for a propeller-driven. Stockton was from a political family and also served as a U. S. Robert F. Stockton was born at Morven, Stockton Street, Princeton, New Jersey, into a political family, senator and Representative, and his grandfather, Judge Richard Stockton was Attorney General for New Jersey and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Robert F. Stockton was of English descent, and his family had been in what is now the United States since the colonial period. Stockton was appointed a midshipman in the U. S. Navy in September 1811, shortly after his 16th birthday, after that conflict, Lieutenant Stockton was assigned to ships operating in the Mediterranean, in the Caribbean and off the coast of West Africa. He was the first naval officer to act against the slave trade, Stockton along with Dr. Eli Ayers of the American Colonization Society negotiated a treaty that led to the founding of the state of Liberia. One source describes that he leveled a pistol at King Peters head, during the later 1820s and into the 1830s, he primarily devoted his attention to business affairs in New Jersey. In addition, Stockton owned and operated the Tellurim gold mine in Orange County, Virginia, the birth of his son John P. Stockton, later also a U. S. Senator representing New Jersey, occurred during this time, in 1835, he purchased a property in Monmouth County, New Jersey, called Sea Girt. In 1838, Stockton resumed active service as a captain. He served in the European area, but took leave in 1840 to undertake political work and this ship became USS Princeton, the Navys first screw-propelled steamer. The ship was designed by John Ericsson, Stockton commanded her when she was completed in 1843. The ship was armed with two long 225 pound wrought iron guns, called the Peacemaker and the Oregon, the explosion killed two cabinet secretaries and several others. Cleared by the court of any wrongdoing in the explosion incident, Stockton carried with him Polks offer to annex Texas, sailing on the Princeton and arriving in Galveston. Stocktons observations while in Texas made him aware of the war with Mexico. No vessel during the Mexican war was more useful than the Princeton in the Gulf of Mexico, the records of the Navy Department showed she performed more service than all the rest of the Gulf squadron put together. He was the driving force in continuing to take possession of Alta California
Robert Stockton
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Robert F. Stockton
Robert Stockton
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Commodore Robert F. Stockton
10.
Cornelius H. DeLamater
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Cornelius Henry DeLamater was an industrialist who owned DeLamater Iron Works in New York City. The steam boilers and machinery for the ironclad USS Monitor was built in DeLamaters foundry during the Civil War, swedish marine engineer and inventor John Ericsson considered DeLamater his closest, most intimate friend. Cornelius H. DeLamater was born on August 30,1821, in Rhinebeck, New York and his father was hired by a very small iron foundry, the Phoenix Iron Works of James Cunningham on West Street, as cashier and confidential advisor. At 16, Cornelius entered the Phoenix Foundry, and at age 20, upon the death of Cunningham, he formed a co-partnership with Peter Hogg under the name Hogg and this firm continued from 1842 to 1857, when Hogg retired from the business. The firm was re-formed as the DeLamater Iron Works, and moved to the foot of West 13th Street on the West side of Manhattan, at an early age, DeLamater developed an unusual ability in solving problems that were then developing in regard to steam engineering and machinery. During the Civil War he worked with Capt, John Ericsson in the development of the ironclads Monitor and Dictator which were constructed in an incredibly short space of time. In time, the DeLamater Iron Works became known as the asylum where inventors and capitalists could go to experiment, the Iron Witch was next constructed, the first iron steamboat. The hot air engine of Capt. Ericsson was first introduced in the ship Ericsson which was entirely by DeLamater. The DeLamater Iron Works was also the place where the first submarine boat, first self-propelled torpedo, first torpedo boat, at the time of his death, the DeLamater Iron Works employed over 1000 men. The DeLamater Estate included everything beyond what is today #325 Asharoken Avenue and this includes the upper half of Asharoken Beach, the Morgan Estate, the Eaton Harbors or Two Acre Zone of Eatons Neck, and the Bevin Road peninsula in Asharoken. The DeLamater Mansion still stands today on the Eatons Neck peninsula, the children and grandchildren of DeLamater also built mansions over time in Eatons Neck and Asharoken that still stand today, namely The Point, The Nest, The Crest, and The Hill. The DeLamaters also renovated two existing structures for family estates, namely Cherry Lawn and Oak Leaf. Eatons Neck John Ericsson Delamater-Bevin Mansion National Register of Historic Places listings in Suffolk County, New York Cornelius H. DeLamater biography Cornelius H. DeLamater at Find a Grave
Cornelius H. DeLamater
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DeLamater-Bevin Mansion
Cornelius H. DeLamater
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Cornelius Henry DeLamater
Cornelius H. DeLamater
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The monument of Cornelius DeLamater in Woodlawn Cemetery
11.
USS Monitor
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USS Monitor was an iron-hulled steamship. Built during the American Civil War, she was the first ironclad warship commissioned by the Union Navy, the unique design of the ship, distinguished by its revolving turret which was designed by American inventor Theodore Timby, was quickly duplicated and established the monitor type of warship. The remainder of the ship was designed by the Swedish-born engineer and inventor John Ericsson, before Monitor could reach Hampton Roads, the Confederate ironclad had destroyed the sail frigates USS Cumberland and USS Congress and had run the steam frigate USS Minnesota aground. A four-hour battle ensued, both ships pounding the other with cannon fire, although neither ship could destroy or seriously damage the other. This was the battle fought between two armored warships and marked a turning point in naval warfare. After the Confederates were forced to destroy Virginia as they withdrew in early May, on her way there she foundered while under tow, during a storm off Cape Hatteras on the last day of the year. Monitors wreck was discovered in 1973 and has been partially salvaged and her guns, gun turret, engine and other relics are on display at the Mariners Museum in Newport News, Virginia. The use of iron plating on the sides of warships was not practical until steam propulsion matured enough to carry its great weight. Developments in gun technology had progressed by the 1840s so that no practical thickness of wood could withstand the power of a shell, since there was no pressing need for such a ship at the time, there was little demand to continue work on the unfinished vessel. It was France that introduced the first operational armored ships as well as the first shell guns, the French followed those ships with the first ocean-going ironclad, the armored frigate Gloire in 1859, and the British responded with HMS Warrior. Northern newspapers published accounts of the Confederates progress in converting the Merrimack to an ironclad. Concealed in her dress was a message from a Union sympathizer who worked in the Navy Yard warning that the former Merrimack, convinced by the papers Mary was carrying he had production of Monitor sped up. Welles later recorded in his memoirs that Mrs. Louveste encountered no small risk in bringing this information, after the United States received word of the construction of Virginia, Congress appropriated $1.5 million on 3 August 1861 to build one or more armored steamships. It also ordered the creation of a board to inquire into the various designs proposed for armored ships, the Union Navy advertised for proposals for iron-clad steam vessels of war on 7 August and Welles appointed three senior officers as the Ironclad Board the following day. Their task was to examine plans for the completion of iron-clad vessels, the two first met on 9 September and again on the following day, after Ericsson had time to evaluate Galenas design. During this second meeting Ericsson showed Bushnell a model of his own design, Bushnell got Ericssons permission to show the model to Welles, who told Bushnell to show it to the board. Upon review of Ericssons unusual design, the board was skeptical, concerned that such a vessel would not float, especially in rough seas, President Lincoln, who had also examined the design, overruled them. Ericsson assured the board his ship would float exclaiming, The sea shall ride over her, on 15 September, after further deliberations, the board accepted Ericssons proposal
USS Monitor
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Model of USS Monitor
USS Monitor
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Statue of John Ericsson in
Battery Park, New York City, with model of Monitor in hand
USS Monitor
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Inboard plans of USS Monitor
See also: Outboard plans
USS Monitor
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Transverse hull section through the turret
12.
CSS Virginia
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Virginia was one of the participants in the Battle of Hampton Roads, opposing the Unions USS Monitor in March 1862. The battle is significant in naval history as the first battle between ironclads. When the Commonwealth of Virginia seceded from the Union in 1861, one of the important federal military bases threatened was Gosport Navy Yard in Portsmouth, accordingly, orders were sent to destroy the base rather than allow it to fall into Confederate hands. On the afternoon of 17 April, the day Virginia seceded, however, the previous night secessionists had sunk lightboats between Craney Island and Sewells Point, blocking the channel. On 20 April, before evacuating the Navy Yard, the U. S. Navy burned Merrimack to the waterline and sank her to preclude capture. When the Confederate government took possession of the fully provisioned yard and this was completed by May 30, and she was towed into the shipyards only graving dock, where the burned structures were removed. The wreck was surveyed and her hull and machinery were discovered to be undamaged. Stephen Mallory, Secretary of the Navy decided to convert the Merrimack into an ironclad, preliminary sketch designs were submitted by Lieutenants John Mercer Brooke and John L. Porter, each of whom envisaged the ship as a casemate ironclad. Brookes general design showed the bow and stern portions submerged, the detailed design work would be completed by Porter, who was a trained naval constructor. The hulls burned timbers were cut down past the original waterline, leaving just enough clearance to accommodate her large. A new fantail and armored casemate were built atop a new deck, and a v-shaped breakwater was added to her bow. This forward and aft deck and fantail were designed to stay submerged and were covered in 4-inch-thick iron plate. It was decided to equip their ironclad with a ram, an anachronism on a 19th century warship, merrimacks steam engines, now part of Virginia, were in poor working order, they had been slated for replacement when the decision was made to abandon the Norfolk naval yard. There were four gun ports on each broadside, their protective iron shutters remained uninstalled during both days of the Battle of Hampton Roads, Virginias battery consisted of four muzzle-loading single-banded Brooke rifles and six smoothbore 9-inch Dahlgren guns salvaged from the old Merrimack. Two of the rifles, the bow and stern guns, were 7-inch caliber. The other two were 6. 4-inch cannon of about 9,100 pounds, one on each broadside. The 9-inch Dahlgrens were mounted three to a side, each weighed approximately 9,200 pounds and could fire a 72. 5-pound shell up to a range of 3,357 yards at an elevation of 15°. Both amidship Dahlgrens nearest the boiler furnaces were fitted-out to fire heated shot, on her upper casemate deck were positioned two anti-boarding/personnel 12-pounder Howitzers
CSS Virginia
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CSS Virginia. The image is captioned Merrimac; see
below.
CSS Virginia
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Cut away view showing the 4 inches (102 mm) of iron armor and 24 inches (610 mm) of wood backing it
CSS Virginia
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Chromolithograph depicting the Battle of Hampton Roads
CSS Virginia
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Anchor of the CSS Virginia at the Museum of the Confederacy
13.
Nils Ericson
–
Friherre Nils Ericson was a Swedish mechanical engineer. He became a prominent Swedish canal and railway builder, born Nils Ericsson, he was raised to the untitled nobility by king Oscar I of Sweden in 1854, and with this he reverted to a spelling of his surname with only one s. In 1859 he was made a Friherre, the 403rd such elevation to Swedens titled nobility, John and Nils were born in Långbanshyttan, Värmland, Sweden and received no formal education, but were taught the rudiments of mechanics from an early age by their father, Olof Ericsson. Olof worked as the superintendent of a mine in Värmland until he lost money in speculations and had to move his family to Forsvik, Västergötland, there Olaf became a director of blastings during the excavation of Swedens Göta Canal. In 1823 Nils Ericson joined the Engineering corps of the Swedish Army as a second lieutenant, in 1833 he married a daughter of Count von Schwerin in Östergötland. Between 1830 and 1850 Nils Ericson planned and directed the construction of the canals at Stallbacka, Säffle, Karlstad and he also led the construction of the Saimaa Canal in Finland, the reconstruction of the Trollhätte Canal in Trollhättan Municipality and the floodgate at Stockholm. In 1845, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, after 1850 he was primarily occupied with the design and construction of the Swedish state-owned railway system. At the same time he led the planning of the Dalsland Canal while construction there was being led by his son Werner, Sweden started building railways later than many other European countries, having hesitated under heavy debate for several years because of the costs and other issues. Following the Riksdags decision in 1854, Erikson was chosen to lead the project of building the main lines, there was also a decision that, for military reasons, the railways should avoid the coasts as much as possible. His proposal was that the line between Gothenburg and Stockholm should run south of Lake Mälaren to avoid competition with shipping, ericsons proposal also included the railway between Stockholm and Ånge and Stambanan genom övre Norrland which runs between Bräcke and Boden. A railway between Oslo and Laxå was also planned, to connect with Västra stambanan, the first parts of the Västra and Södra lines were opened in 1856. Ericson resigned in 1862 when all of Västra stambanan opened, nordvästra stambanan was opened in 1871, Östra stambanan in 1874, Norra stambanan in 1881 and Stambanan genom övre Norrland opened in 1894. When Ericson resigned in 1862 his authority was divided between two agencies until the formation of Kungliga Järnvägsstyrelsen in 1888, Ericson died in Stockholm in 1870, aged 68, and lies buried in Stockholms Northern Cemetery. A bronze statue of Ericson stands on the forecourt outside Stockholms central railway station, the Nils Ericson Terminal bus station next to the central railway station in Gothenburg is named after him. History of rail transport in Sweden List of Swedish noble families Church, the Life of John Ericsson, Vol.1. Nils Ericson Biography Swedish Nils Ericson at Find-A-Grave
Nils Ericson
–
Statue of Nils Ericson in front of
Stockholm Central Station
Nils Ericson
–
Late portrait of Nils Ericson, painted by
Uno Troili.
14.
Mining
–
Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
Mining
–
Surface
coal mining
Mining
–
Chalcolithic copper mine in
Timna Valley,
Negev Desert
Mining
–
Ancient Roman development of the
Dolaucothi Gold Mines, Wales
Mining
–
Agricola, author of
De Re Metallica
15.
Surveyor (surveying)
–
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor, Surveyors work with elements of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics, engineering, metrology, programming languages and the law. Surveying has been an element in the development of the environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it and it is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in other scientific disciplines. Basic surveyance has occurred since humans built the first large structures, the prehistoric monument at Stonehenge was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry. In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c.2700 BC, the Groma instrument originated in Mesopotamia. The mathematician Liu Hui described ways of measuring distant objects in his work Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, the Romans recognized land surveyors as a profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, Roman surveyors were known as Gromatici. In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a village or parish and this was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible, in England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1086. It recorded the names of all the owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land. It did not include maps showing exact locations, abel Foullon described a plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument. Gunters chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter and it enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes. Leonard Digges described a Theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book A geometric practice named Pantometria, joshua Habermel created a theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725, in the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse Ramsden introduced the first precision theodolite in 1787 and it was an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes
Surveyor (surveying)
–
A surveyor at work with an infrared reflector used for distance measurement.
Surveyor (surveying)
–
Table of Surveying, 1728
Cyclopaedia
Surveyor (surveying)
–
A map of India showing the Great Trigonometrical Survey, produced in 1870
Surveyor (surveying)
–
A German engineer surveying during the
First World War, 1918
16.
Surveying
–
Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them. A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor, Surveyors work with elements of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics, engineering, metrology, programming languages and the law. Surveying has been an element in the development of the environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it and it is also used in transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in other scientific disciplines. Basic surveyance has occurred since humans built the first large structures, the prehistoric monument at Stonehenge was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry. In ancient Egypt, a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the floods of the Nile River. The almost perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c.2700 BC, the Groma instrument originated in Mesopotamia. The mathematician Liu Hui described ways of measuring distant objects in his work Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, the Romans recognized land surveyors as a profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, Roman surveyors were known as Gromatici. In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a village or parish and this was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of the boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible, in England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1086. It recorded the names of all the owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land. It did not include maps showing exact locations, abel Foullon described a plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument. Gunters chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter and it enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes. Leonard Digges described a Theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book A geometric practice named Pantometria, joshua Habermel created a theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725, in the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse Ramsden introduced the first precision theodolite in 1787 and it was an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes
Surveying
–
A surveyor at work with an infrared reflector used for distance measurement.
Surveying
–
Table of Surveying, 1728
Cyclopaedia
Surveying
–
A map of India showing the Great Trigonometrical Survey, produced in 1870
Surveying
–
A German engineer surveying during the
First World War, 1918
17.
Swedish army
–
The Swedish Army is a branch of the Swedish Armed Forces in which its main responsibility is land operations. The peace-time organization of the Swedish Army is divided into a number of regiments for the different branches, the number of active regiments has been reduced since the end of the Cold War. The regiment forms training organisations that train the various battalions of the army, the Swedish Armed Forces recently underwent a transformation from conscription-based recruitment to a professional defense organisation. This is part of a goal to abandon the mass army from the Cold War and develop an army better suited to modern maneuver warfare. The battalion is the unit but all units are completely modular. There are a total of 6 permanent staffs under the central command capable of handling large battlegroups,4 regional staffs and 2 brigade staffs, until 1975 the Swedish monarch was the formal head of the army. In 1937, the staff agency Chief of the Army was created to lead the army in peace time, following a larger reorganization of the Swedish Armed Forces in 1994, CA ceased to exist as an independent agency. Instead, the post Chief of Army Staff was created at the newly instituted Swedish Armed Forces Headquarters. In 1998, the Swedish Armed Forces was again reorganized, most of the duties of the Chief of Army Staff were transferred to the newly instituted post of Inspector General of the Army. The post is similar to that of the Inspector General of the Swedish Navy, in 2014, the Chief of Army position was reinstated. This plan, however, was considered by the Supreme Commander to be due to the economic situation at the time. In 2013, the Armed Forces issued a statement saying that the reorganisation would only suffice for a defense of Swedish territory for one week. The force was to include the following units, In addition, the Territorial Defense Forces/Home Guard consists of 40 battalions with a total of 22000 men. Many of the soldiers have served abroad in the missions of the regular army. From 1942 onwards, the Swedish government embarked upon a massive and ambitious militarization program in which conscription was strictly enforced and compulsory service was extended for three years. From 1950 until around 1976 the size of the army was at an average of 250000 soldiers with a peak of 400000 active duty soldiers during the late 1950s, the compulsory service period included 2 months of basic training and 3 months of advanced occupational training. The rules were enforced, but dodging the draft was punishable with a year of imprisonment. Only in 1976-77 was there a change in policy where the service period of all conscripts was reduced and equalized at 14 months
Swedish army
–
Maj. Gen. Anders Brännström is the current Chief of the Swedish Army.
Swedish army
–
Coat of arms of The Swedish Army
Swedish army
–
Swedish soldiers during a training exercise.
18.
Second Lieutenant
–
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces, comparable to NATO OF-1b rank. Like the United Kingdom, the rank of second lieutenant replaced the rank of ensign, the rank of second lieutenant was phased out in the Australian Regular Army in 1986. The Canadian Forces adopted the rank insignia of a single gold ring around the service dress uniform cuff for both army and air personnel upon unification in 1968 until the late 2000s. For a time, naval personnel used this rank but reverted to the Royal Canadian Navy rank of acting sub-lieutenant, currently, the Canadian Army insignia for second lieutenant is a pip and the Royal Canadian Air Force insignia for lieutenant is one thick braid. The equivalent rank for the Royal Canadian Navy is acting sub-lieutenant, also known as an Ensign in the Foot Guards units. The insignia consists of a bar in accordance with the color of the ceremonial uniform buttons. For cavalry or forest rangers, ceremonial dress buttons were silver, as was the horn on the forest commissioned officers képi. The insignia consists of a silver star. Officers holding this rank should be addressed as Kyrie Anthypolochage by their subordinates, in Indonesia, Second lieutenant is known as Letnan Dua which is the most junior ranked officer in the Indonesian Military. Cadets who graduate from the Indonesian Military Academy achieve this rank as young officers, senior Non-commissioned officers promoted to becoming commissioned officers go to the Officers Candidate School in Bandung for achieving the Second Lieutenant rank. The Lieutenant rank has two levels, which are Second lieutenant and First lieutenant, lieutenants in Indonesia usually command a Platoon level of troops and are referred to as Danton abbreviated from Komandan Pleton in Indonesian. Since 1951 in the Israel Defense Forces (סגן-משנה (סגמ segen mishne has been equivalent to a second lieutenant, from 1948 –1951 the corresponding rank was that of a segen, which since 1951 has been equivalent to lieutenant. Segen mishne means junior lieutenant and segen literally translates as assistant, typically it is the rank of a platoon commander. Note that the IDF uses this rank across all three of its services, the equivalent rank in Norway is fenrik. This is the first rank, where they are commanding officer, Fenriks are usually former experienced sergeants but to become a fenrik one has to go through officers training and education. Fenriks fill roles as second in command within a platoon, Fenriks are in some cases executive officers. Most fenriks have finished the War Academy as well, and are fully trained officers, to qualify for the Military Academy, Fenriks are required to do minimum 6 months service in international missions, before or after graduation. The Pakistan Army follows the British pattern of ranks, a second lieutenant is represented by one metal pip on each shoulder in case of khaki uniform and one four quadric printed star on the chest in case of camouflage combat dress
Second Lieutenant
–
Army
19.
Heat engine
–
In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a system that converts heat or thermal energy—and chemical energy—to mechanical energy, which can then be used to do mechanical work. It does this by bringing a working substance from a higher temperature to a lower state temperature. A heat source generates thermal energy that brings the working substance to the high temperature state, the working substance generates work in the working body of the engine while transferring heat to the colder sink until it reaches a low temperature state. During this process some of the energy is converted into work by exploiting the properties of the working substance. The working substance can be any system with a heat capacity. During this process, a lot of heat is lost to the surroundings, in general an engine converts energy to mechanical work. Heat engines distinguish themselves from other types of engines by the fact that their efficiency is limited by Carnots theorem. Since the heat source that supplies energy to the engine can thus be powered by virtually any kind of energy. Heat engines are often confused with the cycles they attempt to implement, typically, the term engine is used for a physical device and cycle for the model. In thermodynamics, heat engines are often modeled using an engineering model such as the Otto cycle. The theoretical model can be refined and augmented with data from an operating engine. Since very few implementations of heat engines exactly match their underlying thermodynamic cycles. In general terms, the larger the difference in temperature between the hot source and the sink, the larger is the potential thermal efficiency of the cycle. The efficiency of heat engines proposed or used today has a large range. 25% for most automotive gasoline engines 49% for a supercritical coal-fired power station such as the Avedøre Power Station, all these processes gain their efficiency from the temperature drop across them. Significant energy may be used for equipment, such as pumps. Heat engines can be characterized by their power, which is typically given in kilowatts per litre of engine displacement. The result offers an approximation of the power output of an engine
Heat engine
–
Figure 1: Heat engine diagram
20.
Birch
–
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in northern temperate, Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of northern temperate and boreal climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined and they often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. The bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels and its decided color gives the common names gray, white, black, silver and yellow birch to different species. The buds form early and are grown by midsummer, all are lateral, no terminal bud is formed. The wood of all the species is close-grained with satiny texture, staminate aments are pendulous, clustered or solitary in the axils of the last leaves of the branch of the year or near the ends of the short lateral branchlets of the year. They form in autumn and remain rigid during the winter. The scales of the staminate aments when mature are broadly ovate, rounded, yellow or orange color below the middle, each scale bears two bractlets and three sterile flowers, each flower consisting of a sessile, membranaceous, usually two-lobed, calyx. Each calyx bears four short filaments with one-celled anthers or strictly, the pistillate aments are erect or pendulous, solitary, terminal on the two-leaved lateral spur-like branchlets of the year. The pistillate scales are oblong-ovate, three-lobed, pale yellow green often tinged with red and these scales bear two or three fertile flowers, each flower consisting of a naked ovary. The ovary is compressed, two-celled, and crowned with two styles, the ovule is solitary. Each scale bear a small, winged nut that is oval. Betula species are organised into five subgenera, pendula and B. pubescens confused, though they are distinct species with different chromosome numbers. This root is derived from *bʰreh₁ǵ- ‘to shine’, in reference to the birchs white bark. The Proto-Germanic rune berkanan is named after the birch, the generic name betula is from Latin, which is a diminutive borrowed from Gaulish betua
Birch
–
Birch
Birch
–
The front and rear sides of a piece of birch
bark
Birch
–
Birch trees near stream in
Hankasalmi, Finland
Birch
–
A stand of birch trees
21.
William IV of the United Kingdom
–
William IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death. The third son of George III and younger brother and successor to George IV, he was the last king, William served in the Royal Navy in his youth and was, both during his reign and afterwards, nicknamed the Sailor King. He served in North America and the Caribbean, in 1789, he was created Duke of Clarence and St Andrews. Since his two brothers died without leaving legitimate issue, he inherited the throne when he was 64 years old. Although William did not engage in politics as much as his brother or his father, through his brother, the Viceroy of Hanover, he granted his German kingdom a short-lived liberal constitution. William was succeeded in the United Kingdom by his niece, Victoria, William was born in the early hours of the morning on 21 August 1765 at Buckingham House, the third child and son of King George III and Queen Charlotte. He had two brothers, George and Frederick, and was not expected to inherit the Crown. He was baptised in the Great Council Chamber of St Jamess Palace on 20 September 1765 and his godparents were his paternal uncles, the Duke of Gloucester and Prince Henry, and his paternal aunt, Princess Augusta, then hereditary duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He spent most of his life in Richmond and at Kew Palace. At the age of thirteen, he joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman and his experiences in the navy seem to have been little different from those of other midshipmen, though in contrast to other sailors he was accompanied on board ships by a tutor. He did his share of the cooking and got arrested with his shipmates after a brawl in Gibraltar. He served in New York during the American War of Independence, I am fully persuaded, that it is unnecessary to caution you against offering insult or indignity to the persons of the Prince or Admiral. The plot did not come to fruition, the British heard of it and assigned guards to William and he became a lieutenant in 1785 and captain of HMS Pegasus the following year. The two were friends, and dined together almost nightly. At Nelsons wedding, William insisted on giving the bride away and he was given command of the frigate HMS Andromeda in 1788, and was promoted to rear-admiral in command of HMS Valiant the following year. William sought to be made a duke like his brothers, and to receive a similar parliamentary grant. To put pressure on him, William threatened to stand for the House of Commons for the constituency of Totnes in Devon, Williams political record was inconsistent and, like many politicians of the time, cannot be certainly ascribed to a single party. William ceased his active service in the Royal Navy in 1790, the following year he spoke in favour of the war, expecting a command after his change of heart, none came
William IV of the United Kingdom
–
Portrait by Sir
Martin Archer Shee, 1833
William IV of the United Kingdom
–
William aged thirteen (left) and his younger brother
Edward, painted by
Benjamin West, 1778
William IV of the United Kingdom
–
William in dress uniform painted by Sir Martin Archer Shee, c.1800
William IV of the United Kingdom
–
Mrs. Jordan in the Character of Hypolita,
mezzotint by John Jones of London, 1791, after a painting by
John Hoppner
22.
Steam
–
Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils. Steam is invisible, however, steam often refers to wet steam, at lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 °C at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam, piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the worlds electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure. Steam explosions have been responsible for many accidents, and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster. Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high temperature all of the water evaporates. Superheated steam is steam at a higher than its boiling point for the pressure. Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/steam and are used by engineers and scientists in design. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article. Steam charts are used for analysing thermodynamic cycles. In agriculture, steam is used for sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents. Steams capacity to transfer heat is used in the home, for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing. About 90% of all electricity is generated using steam as the working fluid, in electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The worlds biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, in other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a reservoir for thermal energy because of waters high heat of vaporization
Steam
–
Liquid phase eruption of
Castle Geyser in
Yellowstone Park
Steam
–
Fireless steam locomotive Despite the resemblance to a boiler, note the lack of a chimney and also how the cylinders are at the cab end, not the chimney end.
23.
Oxygen
–
Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
Oxygen
–
Spectral lines of oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen
–
A trickle of liquid oxygen is deflected by a magnetic field, illustrating its paramagnetic property
Oxygen
–
Oxygen discharge (spectrum) tube. The green color is similar to the color of an
"aurora borealis"
24.
John Braithwaite (engineer)
–
John Braithwaite, the younger was an English engineer who invented the first steam fire engine. He also co-designed the first locomotive to cover a mile in less than a minute, Braithwaite was third son of John Braithwaite the elder. In June 1818 his father died, leaving the business to his sons Francis, Francis died in 1823, and John Braithwaite carried on the business alone. He added to the business the making of high-pressure steam-engines, in 1817 he reported before the House of Commons upon the Norwich steamboat explosion, and in 1820 he ventilated the House of Lords by means of air-pumps. In 1822 he made the engine, and in 1823 cast the statue of the Duke of Kent by sculptor Sebastian Gahagan that was erected in Portland Place. He was introduced to George and Robert Stephenson in 1827, and about the time became acquainted with Captain John Ericsson. In 1829 Braithwaite and Ericsson constructed for the Rainhill experiments the locomotive engine and this engine was the first that ever ran a mile within a minute. At this time Braithwaite manufactured the first practical steam fire-engine, which was destroyed by a London mob. He, however, soon constructed four others of larger dimensions, in 1833 he built the caloric engine in conjunction with Captain Ericsson. In 1834 the Eastern Counties Railway was projected and laid out by him in conjunction with Mr. Charles Blacker Vignoles, the act of incorporation was passed in 1836, and he was soon after appointed engineer-in-chief for its construction. He adopted a 5 ft gauge, and upon that gauge the line was constructed as far as Colchester, on the recommendation of Robert Stephenson it was subsequently altered to the national gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. In after years Braithwaite advocated a still narrower gauge and he ceased to be officially connected with the Eastern Counties Railway on 28 May 1843. Whilst engineer to that company he introduced on the works the American excavating machine and he was joint founder of the Railway Times, which he started with Joseph Clinton Robertson as editor in 1837, and he continued sole proprietor till 1845. Braithwaite had, in 1844, a share in a patent for extracting oil from shale, and works were erected near Weymouth which. The experiment was abandoned on account of the deficiency of water in the canals and the completion of the railway system, which diverted the paying traffic. From that year he was engaged in chamber practice, and acted as consulting engineer, advising on most of the important mechanical questions of the day for patents. John died suddenly at 8 Clifton Gardens, Paddington, on 25 September 1870, to this work Sir J. Ross published a reply in the same year. Guideway Steam Agriculture, by P. A. Halkett, with a Report by J. Braithwaite 1857 Fatigue This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Boase
John Braithwaite (engineer)
–
John Braithwaite
John Braithwaite (engineer)
–
Modern replica of
Novelty, with a descendant of Braithwaite aboard
John Braithwaite (engineer)
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Drawing of a steam locomotive named after
William IV
John Braithwaite (engineer)
–
1906 horse-drawn steam fire engine in England. The water is pumped onto the fire by a double-acting onboard steam engine.
25.
Robert Stephenson
–
Robert Stephenson FRS was an early railway and civil engineer. The only son of George Stephenson, the Father of Railways, Robert has been called the greatest engineer of the 19th century. Robert was born in Willington Quay, Northumberland, to George and Frances née Henderson, before moved to Killingworth. Robert attended the middle-class Percy Street Academy in Newcastle and at the age of fifteen was apprenticed to the mining engineer Nicholas Wood and he left before he had completed his three years to help his father survey the Stockton and Darlington Railway. Robert spent six months at Edinburgh University before working for three years as an engineer in Colombia. When he returned his father was building the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and he was appointed chief engineer of the London and Birmingham Railway in 1833 with a salary of £1,500 per annum. By 1850 Robert had been involved in the construction of a third of the railway system. He designed the High Level Bridge and Royal Border Bridge on the East Coast Main Line and he eventually worked on 160 commissions from 60 companies, building railways in other countries such as Belgium, Norway, Egypt and France. In 1829 Robert married Frances Sanderson who died in 1842, the couple had no children, in 1847 he was elected Member of Parliament for Whitby, and held the seat until his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1849 and he served as President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers and Institution of Civil Engineers. Roberts death was widely mourned, and his funeral cortège was given permission by Queen Victoria to pass through Hyde Park and he is buried in Westminster Abbey. Robert Stephenson was born on 16 October 1803, at Willington Quay, east of Newcastle upon Tyne, to George Stephenson and Frances née Henderson and she was twelve years older than George, and when they met was working as a servant where George was lodging. Fanny was suffering from tuberculosis, so George would take care of his son in the evening, in autumn 1804 George became a brakesman at the West Moor Pit and the family moved to two rooms in a cottage at Killingworth. On 13 July 1805 Fanny gave birth to a daughter who lived for three weeks, Fannys health deteriorated and she died on 14 May 1806. George employed a housekeeper to look after his son and went away for three months to look after a Watt engine in Montrose, Scotland and he returned to find his housekeeper had married his brother Robert. He moved back into the cottage with his son and briefly employed another housekeeper before his sister Eleanor moved in, known to Robert as Aunt Nelly, Eleanor had been engaged to be married before travelling to London to work in domestic service. However, returning to get married Eleanors ship was delayed by poor winds, Eleanor attended the local Methodist church, whereas George would not regularly attend church, preferring on Sundays to work on engineering problems and meet his friends. Robert was first sent to a village school 1½ miles away in Long Benton, on his way to school, he would carry picks to the smiths at Long Benton to be sharpened
Robert Stephenson
–
Robert Stephenson in 1856
Robert Stephenson
–
Dial Cottage, Killingworth, where Robert grew up
Robert Stephenson
–
The opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825
Robert Stephenson
–
Robert's cottage at Santa Ana
26.
Argyll Rooms
–
The Argyll Rooms was an entertainment venue on Little Argyll Street, Regent Street, London, England, opened in 1806. It was rebuilt in 1818 due to the design of Regent Street and it burned down in 1830, but was rebuilt, but later mainly occupied by shops. It was the home of the Philharmonic Society of London from its inception in 1813 until 1830, the Argyll Rooms should not be confused with the Argyle Subscription Rooms, later part of the London Trocadero. These rooms were open as a hall from 1849 to 1878 and were notorious as a haven for prostitutes. Originally, the mansion of John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll stood on the east side of King Street, in 1736, the center part of the mansion was demolished to build Little Argyll Street, leaving only the recently constructed north and south wings. The north wing was occupied by Robert Raymond, 2nd Baron Raymond. At Jolliffes death, his son Hylton sold the building to Lt. -Col, henry Francis Greville for the low price of £70. Greville altered and added to it, and in 1806 opened it up as the Argyll Rooms, the place was the site of the meetings of a fashionable association termed the Pic-Nics, which organized events including burlettas, vaudevilles and ballets on a small scale. In 1807, the Lord Chamberlain granted Greville an annual license to host music, dancing, burlettas, the license was renewed the next year, but afterwards, the license was confined to music and dancing. Greville went abroad in 1812 and had to hand over the Argyll Rooms to his debtor Stephen Slade, Slade ran the rooms for several years, letting them for concerts and other entertainments. During his management one of the events there was a reading by Sarah Siddons, on 10 February 1813, of Shakespeares Macbeth, for the benefit of the widow of Andrew Cherry, dramatist, in this way, the Prince Regent could promote classical music and his own reputation. In 1818, Slade was forced to sell by the Regent Street commissioners. Slade was awarded by a jury £23,000 as compensation, the new building was designed by Nash, on the side next Regent Street was a balcony supported by eight caryatids. The group by whom it was erected were 21 of the prominent London musicians in London and this organization occupied, for the purposes of its trade, the southwestern angle of the new building, circular with a domed roof. They then fell out, and ultimately Hawes, by an act of bankruptcy, forced a dissolution of the partnership, during the Philharmonic Societys tenure of the rooms, a period of about seventeen years, many events of great interest to musicians occurred there. There, on 6 March and 10 April 1820, Louis Spohr appeared, first as violinist and last as conductor, there also on 18 June 1820, at his benefit concert, his first wife made her only appearance in England as a harpist. There, on 11 June 1821, Ignaz Moscheles made his first appearance in England, in 1823, the twelve-year-old Franz Liszt played there. On 21 March 1825, the British première of Beethovens Symphony No.9 was presented by the Philharmonic Society there conducted by Sir George Smart
Argyll Rooms
–
Engraving of
Regent Street in 1825, with the Argyll Rooms on the right. Print made by
Charles Heath, after
William Westall.
Argyll Rooms
–
Etching by
Theodore Lane of a masquerade in the Argyll Rooms
27.
John Franklin
–
Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin KCH FRGS RN was an English Royal Navy officer and explorer of the Arctic. Franklin also served as Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemens Land from 1837 to 1843 and he disappeared on his last expedition, attempting to chart and navigate a section of the Northwest Passage in the Canadian Arctic. The icebound ships were abandoned and the crew perished from starvation, hypothermia, tuberculosis, lead poisoning. Franklin was born in Spilsby, Lincolnshire, in 1786 and educated at King Edward VI Grammar School and he was the ninth of twelve children born to Hannah Weekes and Willingham Franklin, the descendant of a long line of country gentlemen. One of Johns sisters, Sarah, was the mother of Emily Tennyson and his father initially opposed Franklins interest in a career at sea and reluctantly allowed him to go on a trial voyage with a merchant ship. This confirmed his decision, so when he was 14, his father secured him a Royal Navy appointment on HMS Polyphemus. He also accompanied Captain Dance on the East India Companys ship the Earl Camden, in 1819, Franklin was chosen to lead an expedition overland from Hudson Bay to chart the north coast of Canada eastwards from the mouth of the Coppermine River. On his 1819 expedition, Franklin fell into the Hayes River at Robinson Falls and was rescued by a member of his expedition about 90 metres downstream, between 1819 and 1822, he lost 11 of the 20 men in his party. Most died of starvation, but there were also at least one murder, the survivors were forced to eat lichen and even attempted to eat their own leather boots. This gained Franklin the nickname of the man who ate his boots, in 1823, after returning to England, Sir John Franklin married the poet Eleanor Anne Porden. Their daughter, Eleanor Isabella, was born the following year, Eleanor died of tuberculosis in 1825. In 1825 he left for his second Canadian and third Arctic expedition, with him was John Richardson who would follow the coast east from the Mackenzie to the mouth of the Coppermine River. At the same time, William Edward Parry would try to sail west from the Atlantic, supplies were better organized this time, in part because they were managed by Peter Warren Dease of the Hudsons Bay Company. He erected a flagpole with buried letters for Parry and he returned to winter at Fort Franklin on the Great Bear Lake. Next summer he went downriver and found the ocean frozen and he worked his way west for several hundred miles and gave up on 16 August 1826 at Return Reef when he was about 150 miles east of Beecheys Point Barrow. He reached safety at Fort Franklin on 21 September and he left Fort Franklin on 20 February 1827 and spent the rest of the winter and spring at Fort Chipewyan, Alberta. He reached Liverpool on the first of September 1827, richardsons eastward journey was more successful. On 5 November 1828, he married Jane Griffin, a friend of his first wife, on 29 April 1829, he was knighted by George IV and the same year awarded the first Gold Medal of the Société de Géographie of France
John Franklin
–
Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin
KCH FRGS RN
John Franklin
–
Sketch of the statue at Spilsby prior to installation (1861)
John Franklin
–
Statue of John Franklin in his home town of
Spilsby
John Franklin
–
Statue of John Franklin in London
28.
Propeller
–
A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the blade, and a fluid is accelerated behind the blade. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost, the principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in parts of Europe. For example, propelling a canoe with a paddle using a pitch stroke or side slipping a canoe with a scull involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called lu, was used by the 3rd century AD. In sculling, a blade is moved through an arc. The innovation introduced with the propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats and it was probably an application of spiral movement in space to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, in 1784, J. P. Paucton proposed a gyrocopter-like aircraft using similar screws for both lift and propulsion. At about the time, James Watt proposed using screws to propel boats. This was not his own invention, though, Toogood and Hays had patented it a century earlier, by 1827, Czech-Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat and his ship Civetta with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots. This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw-type propeller, after a new steam engine had an accident his experiments were banned by the Austro-Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire, but before this he received an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the burned coal
Propeller
–
Propeller on a modern mid-sized merchant vessel. The propeller rotates clockwise to propel the ship forward when viewed from astern (right of picture), the person in the picture has his hand on the propeller's trailing edge
Propeller
–
Archimedes' screw.
Propeller
–
Propellers of the
RMS Olympic, a sister ship to the
RMS Titanic.
Propeller
–
Smith's original 1836 patent for a screw propeller of two full turns. He would later revise the patent, reducing the length to one turn.
29.
Admiralty
–
The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
Admiralty
–
Board of admiralty about 1810.
Admiralty
Admiralty
–
The Admiralty complex in 1794. The colours indicate departments or residences for the several Lords of the Admiralty. The pale coloured extension behind the small courtyard on the left is Admiralty House.
Admiralty
–
Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) in 1760 before addition of the Adam screen
"Sketch of John Ericsson". Popular Science Monthly. 44. November 1893.
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