1.
Salva Kiir Mayardit
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Salva Kiir Mayardit is a South Sudanese politician who has been President of South Sudan since its independence in 2011. Prior to independence, he was President of the Government of Southern Sudan, as well as First Vice President of Sudan, in the late 1960s, Kiir joined the Anyanya battalion in the First Sudanese Civil War. By the time of the 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement, he was a low-ranking officer. In 1983, when Dr John Garang joined a mutiny he had been sent to put down, Kiir. Dr. Garang De Mabior had advanced knowledge and experience from both the United States and the Sudan. Kiir eventually rose to head the SPLA, the SPLMs military wing when Dr. John Garang was killed in a helicopter crash, rumours to remove Kiir from his post as SPLA Chief of Staff in 2004 nearly caused the organization to split. Following the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement formally ending the war in January 2005, Dr. John Garang was sworn in as the Vice President of the Republic of Sudan. After the death of Dr. John Garang in a crash on 30 July 2005, Kiir was chosen to succeed to the post of First Vice President of Sudan. Kiir was re-elected with 93% of the vote in the 2010 Sudanese election, following his re-election, Omar al-Bashir reappointed Kiir as the First Vice President of Sudan in accordance with the interim constitution. South Sudanese voted overwhelmingly in favour of independence from Sudan in January 2011, on 9 July 2011, South Sudan became an independent state, with Kiir as its first president. His presidency was characterized as a period of reconstruction, albeit one marred by with internal, among these were the Heglig Crisis, which caused a border war with Sudan, and an internal political crisis in which attempts were made to overthrow him. On 18 June 2013, Kiir issued an order lifting the immunity of two ministers in the government pending investigations into an alleged corruption case in which they appeared to be implicated. He also issued an order suspending Cabinet Affairs Minister Deng Alor Kuol, in July 2013, Kiir sacked his entire cabinet, including his vice president, Riek Machar, ostensibly to reduce the size of government. However, Machar said that it was a step towards dictatorship and he also dismissed Taban Deng Gai as Governor of Unity State. Kiir told Radio Netherlands Worldwide that homosexuality is not in the character of Southern Sudanese people and it is not even something that anybody can talk about here in southern Sudan in particular. It is not there and if anybody wants to import or to export it to Sudan, it not get the support and it will always be condemned by everybody. He then went on the refer to homosexuality as a mental disease, after rumors about a planned coup surfaced in Juba in late 2012, Kiir began reorganizing the senior leadership of his government, party and military on an unprecedented scale. In January 2013, he replaced the general of the national police service with a lieutenant from the army
2.
Omar al-Bashir
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Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir is a Sudanese politician, the president of Sudan and head of the National Congress Party. Since then, he has elected three times as President in elections that have been under scrutiny for corruption. In the Darfur region, he oversaw the war in Darfur that has resulted in death tolls that are about 10,000 according to the Sudanese Government, but most sources suggest between 200,000 and 400,000. The civil war has displaced over 2.5 million people out of a population of 6.2 million in Darfur and has created a crisis in the diplomatic relations between Sudan and Chad. The rebels in Darfur lost the support from Libya after the death of Muammar Gaddafi, in July 2008, the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Luis Moreno Ocampo, accused al-Bashir of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes in Darfur. The court issued an arrest warrant for al-Bashir on 4 March 2009 on counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity, however, on 12 July 2010, the Court issued a second warrant containing three separate counts. The new warrant, as with the first, were delivered to the Sudanese government, the indictments do not allege that Bashir personally took part in such activities. Instead, they say, he is suspected of being criminally responsible, some international experts think it is unlikely that Ocampo has enough evidence. The courts decision is opposed by the African Union, League of Arab States, Non-Aligned Movement, Al-Bashir was born in Hosh Bannaga, just north of the capital, Khartoum, to a family of Arab descent. He belongs to Al-Bedairyya Al-Dahmashyya, a Bedouin tribe belonging to the larger Jaalin coalition and he received his primary education there, and his family later moved to Khartoum where he completed his secondary education. Al-Bashir is married to his cousin Fatima Khalid, Al-Bashir does not have any children of his own. Al-Bashir joined the Sudanese Army in 1960, Al-Bashir studied at the Egyptian Military Academy in Cairo and also graduated from the Sudan Military Academy in Khartoum in 1966. He quickly rose through the ranks and became a paratroop officer, later, al-Bashir served in the Egyptian Army during the Yom Kippur War in 1973 against Israel. In 1975, al-Bashir was sent to the United Arab Emirates as the Sudanese military attaché, after his return home al-Bashir was made a garrison commander. In 1981, al-Bashir returned to his background when he became the commander of an armoured parachute brigade. Under al-Bashirs leadership, the new government suspended political parties. He then became Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation, and assumed the posts of chief of state, prime minister, chief of the armed forces, the executive and legislative powers of the council were later given to al-Bashir completely. On 12 December 1999, al-Bashir sent troops and tanks against parliament and ousted Hassan al-Turabi, Al-Bashir was elected president in the 1996 national election and Hassan al-Turabi was elected to a seat in the National Assembly where he served as speaker of the National Assembly during the 1990s
3.
Ali Osman Taha
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Ali Osman Mohammed Taha is a Sudanese politician who was First Vice President of Sudan from July 2011 to December 2013. Previously he was Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1995 to 1998, First Vice President from 1998 to August 2005 and he is a member of the National Congress Party. Taha is a graduate of the Faculty of Law at the University of Khartoum and he then set up a private law practice before being appointed as a judge and then entering politics as a member of Sudans parliament in the 1980s. Taha, along with John Garang, is credited as being the co-architect of Sudans Comprehensive Peace Agreement which brought Africas longest civil war to an end on 9 January 2005. The agreement capped an eight-year process to stop the civil war, starting in December 2003 Taha and Garang met numerous times to finalize the peace agreement. Omar al-Bashir reappointed Taha as Second Vice President in May 2010 in spite of speculations that he would be replaced by a more hard-line NCP member or a Darfurian. Taha is viewed as a figure in the NCP regime. Taha was responsible for handling the Darfur crisis from 2003 to 2004, community leaders in Darfur have reported that Taha holds personal ties with Musa Hilal and was instrumental in releasing Hilal from prison in 2003. Taha apparently assigned Hilal the authority to recruit and command a militia group, Taha was quoted as saying to commanders of the Janjaweed militia, “I don’t want one single village of Zurgas in Darfur. All the Zurga lands are yours. ”In 2005 Taha opposed holding trials outside Sudan after 51 individuals were accused, by a United Nations commission of inquiry, of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Taha argued that doing so would “push things to degenerate rather than help people to reconcile or maintain peace. ”In the same year, in February 2009, Taha reportedly traveled to Turkey seeking the nation’s support to save Sudan’s president, al-Bashir, from trial. Taha is mentioned several times in the application of arrest for President Omar al-Bashir, submitted by Luis Moreno Ocampo, for example, Commissioner Rabeh told Janjaweed militia commanders that the General Commander in Khartoum and Taha ordered the provision of armament for the elimination of zurgas. Zurga is a term for people from African tribes. Vice-President Ali Osman Mohamed Tahas address to the 63rd session of the United Nations General Assembly, September 25,2008
4.
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
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The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was a condominium of the United Kingdom and Egypt in the eastern Sudan region of northern Africa between 1899 and 1956. It attained independence as the Republic of the Sudan, which since 2011 has been split into Sudan, until 1914, Egypt itseslf was nominally part of the Ottoman Empire. During the 19th century, it expanded its control of the Sudan as far south as the Great Lakes region. In 1881 the Mahdist revolt broke out in Sudan and in 1882 the British invaded Egypt, Egypt became a de facto protectorate of Britain and together British and Egyptian forces gradually re-conquered the Sudan. In 1899, they agreed to establish a joint protectorate, Egypt on the basis of its previous claims. Between 1914 and 1922, Egypt and thus the Sudan were formally a part of the British Empire, after Egyptian independence in 1922, Britain gradually assumed more control of the condominium, edging out Egypt almost completely by 1924. Increasing Egyptian dissatisfaction with this arrangement came to a head after the overthrow of the Egyptian monarch in 1952, on 1 January 1956, Egypt and Britain ceded Sudan its independence. In 1820, the army of Egyptian wāli Muhammad Ali Pasha, commanded by his son Ismail Pasha, the region had longstanding linguistic, cultural, religious, and economic ties to Egypt and had been partially under the same government at intermittent periods since the times of the pharaohs. Muhammad Ali was aggressively pursuing a policy of expanding his power with a view to possibly supplanting the Ottoman Empire and this policy was expanded and intensified most notably by Muhammad Alis grandson, Ismail Pasha, under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan was conquered. Ten years later in 1879, the foreign debt of Ismail Pashas government served as the pretext for the Great Powers to force his abdication. The situation was compounded by Tewfiks perceived corruption and mismanagement that ultimately culminated in the Urabi Revolt, with the survival of his throne in dire jeopardy, Tewfik appealed for British assistance. In 1882, at Tewfiks invitation, the British bombarded Alexandria, Egypts and Sudans primary seaport, British forces overthrew the Urabi government in Cairo and proceeded to occupy the rest of Egypt and Sudan in 1882. Though officially the authority of Tewfik had been restored, in reality the British largely took control of Egyptian, Tewfiks acquiescence to British occupation as the price for securing the monarchy was deeply detested by many throughout Egypt and Sudan. With the bulk of British forces stationed in northern Egypt, protecting Cairo, Alexandria, in contrast, the British military presence in Sudan was comparatively limited and eventually revolt broke out. The rebellion in Sudan, led by the Sudanese religious leader Muhammad ibn Abdalla, Abdalla wished not only to expel the British, but to overthrow the monarchy, viewed as secular and Western-leaning, and replace it with a pure Islamic government. Whilst primarily a Sudanese figure, Abdalla even attracted the support of some Egyptian nationalists and caught Tewfik, the revolt culminated in the fall of Khartoum and the death of the British General Charles George Gordon in 1885. Tewfiks forces and those of the United Kingdom were forced to withdraw from almost all of Sudan with Abdalla establishing a theocratic state and this invasion was halted by Tewfiks forces, and was followed later by withdrawal from Ethiopia. Abdullahi wrecked virtually all of the previous Turkish and Fung administrative systems, from 1885 to 1898 the population of Sudan collapsed from eight to three million due to war, famine, disease and persecution
5.
South Sudan
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South Sudan, officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in northeastern Africa that gained its independence from Sudan in 2011. Its current capital is Juba, which is also its largest city and it was planned that the capital city would be changed to the more centrally located Ramciel in the future before civil war broke out. It includes the vast swamp region of the Sudd, formed by the White Nile, following the First Sudanese Civil War, the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was formed in 1972 and lasted until 1983. A second Sudanese civil war soon developed and ended with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, later that year, southern autonomy was restored when an Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan was formed. South Sudan became an independent state on 9 July 2011, following a referendum passed with 98. 83% of the vote. It is a United Nations member state, a state of the African Union, of the East African Community. In July 2012, South Sudan signed the Geneva Conventions, South Sudan has suffered ethnic violence and has been in a civil war since 2013, as of 2016 it has the second highest score on the Fragile States Index. The Nilotic people of South Sudan—the Acholi, Anyuak, Bari, Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Kaligi, Zande, the Azande, Mundu, Avukaya and Baka, who entered South Sudan in the 16th century—established the regions largest state of Equatoria Region. The Dinka are the largest, Nuer the second largest and Azande are the third-largest ethnic group in South Sudan while the Bari are fourth-largest. They are found in the Maridi, Yambio, and Tombura districts in the tropical rainforest belt of Western Equatoria, in the 18th century, the Avungara sib rose to power over the rest of Azande society and this domination continued into the 20th century. The major reasons include the history of British policy preference toward developing the Arab north. After Sudans first independent elections in 1958, the ignoring of the south by Khartoum led to uprisings, revolt. As of 2012, peoples include Acholi, Anyuak, Azande, Baka, Balanda Bviri, Bari, Boya, Didinga, Dinka, Jiye, Kaligi, Kuku, Lotuka, Mundari, Murie, Nilotic, Nuer, Shilluk, Toposa and Zande. Slavery had been an institution of Sudanese life throughout history, the slave trade in the south intensified in the 19th century and continued after the British had suppressed slavery in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Annual Sudanese slave raids into non-Muslim territories resulted in the capture of thousands of southern Sudanese. In the 19th century, the Azande fought the French, the Belgians, Egypt, under the rule of Khedive Ismail Pasha, first attempted to control the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of Equatoria in the southern portion. Egypts first governor was Samuel Baker, commissioned in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874, the Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilized the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile and Wadelai, european colonial maneuverings in the region came to a head in 1898, when the Fashoda Incident occurred at present-day Kodok, Britain and France almost went to war over the region
6.
Sudan
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Sudan, also known as North Sudan since South Sudans independence and officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northern Africa. It is the third largest country in Africa, the River Nile divides the country into eastern and western halves. Before the Sudanese Civil War, South Sudan was part of Sudan, Sudan was home to numerous ancient civilizations, such as the Kingdom of Kush, Kerma, Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria, Meroë and others, most of which flourished along the Nile. During the pre-dynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were identical, by virtue of its proximity to Egypt, the Sudan participated in the wider history of the Near East inasmuch as it was Christianized by the 6th century, and Islamized in the 15th. As a result of Christianization, the Old Nubian language stands as the oldest recorded Nilo-Saharan language, Sudan was the largest country in Africa and the Arab world until 2011, when South Sudan separated into an independent country, following an independence referendum. Sudan is now the third largest country in Africa and also the third largest country in the Arab world and its capital is Khartoum, the political, cultural and commercial centre of the nation. It is a representative democratic federal republic. The politics of Sudan are regulated by an organization called the National Assembly. The Sudanese legal system is based on Islamic law, the countrys place name Sudan is a name given to a geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān, or the lands of the Blacks, during the fifth millennium BC migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed social hierarchy over the centuries become the Kingdom of Kush at 1700 BC. The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centered on the confluences of the Blue Nile and White Nile, and the Atbarah River and it was established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, centered at Napata in its early phase. After King Kashta invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt for a century before being defeated and driven out by the Assyrians. At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what is now known as South Kordofan all the way to the Sinai, pharaoh Piye attempted to expand the empire into the Near East, but was thwarted by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Sennacheribs successor Esarhaddon went further, and invaded Egypt itself, deposing Taharqa, Taharqa fled back to his homeland where he died two years later. Egypt became an Assyrian colony, however, king Tantamani, after succeeding Taharqa, Esarhaddon died while preparing to leave the Assyrian capital of Nineveh in order to eject him. However, his successor Ashurbanipal sent an army into southern Egypt and routed Tantamani. During Classical Antiquity, the Nubian capital was at Meroë, in ancient Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Ethiopia
7.
Sudan People's Liberation Movement
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The Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement is a political party in South Sudan. It was initially founded as the wing of the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army in 1983. On January 9,2005 the SPLA, SPLM and Government of Sudan signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, SPLM then obtained representation in the Government of Sudan, and was the main constituent of the Government of the then semi-autonomous Southern Sudan. When South Sudan became a state on 9 July 2011. SPLM branches in Sudan separated themselves from SPLM, forming the Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement-North, the movement published a manifesto setting out its positions and attracted a group of rebellious south Sudanese soldiers of the Sudanese Army based in Bor, Pochalla, and Ayod. These joined remnants of the Anyanya rebels of the First Sudanese Civil War based in Ethiopia, joseph Oduho was made chairman of the SPLM and Colonel John Garang, a Dinka army officer, was made commander of the SPLA. Later Oduho was deposed by Garang, who made himself leader of the combined movement. It fought against the governments of Gaafar Nimeiry, Sadiq al-Mahdi, sPLA/Ms declared aim was to establish a democratic Sudan with it as the leading party in control of the southern areas. The war has been described in religious and ethnic terms. In early 1991, the SPLA-Nasir faction led by Dr Riek Machar, the attempt failed but led to widespread fighting in the south and the formation of other rebel groups, such as Kerubino Kwanyin Bols SPLA Bahr-al-Ghazal faction. These internal divisions hampered negotiations with the government, SPLA-Nasir renamed itself SPLA-United and then transformed itself, with substantial personnel changes, into the South Sudan Independence Movement/Army. Several smaller factions signed the Khartoum Peace Agreement with the government in April 1997, in July 1992, a government offensive seized southern Sudan, and captured the SPLA headquarters in Torit. The Sudanese government accused Uganda and Eritrea of supporting the SPLA/M, in 2005, a treaty between the SPLA/M and the Sudanese government led to the formal recognition of Southern Sudanese autonomy. SPLM joined the government as part of the 2005 peace agreement, on 11 October 2007, the SPLM withdrew from the government, alleging violations of the peace agreement, this raised concerns about the future of the agreement. In 2012, as a consequence of South Sudanese independence, SPLM became the new countrys governing political party, the Sudan branch separated from the movement and formed SPLM-N to carry out anti-government activities in Sudan. As a result of the South Sudanese Civil War in 2013-2014, the SPLM factionalised into the SPLM-Juba, led by President Salva Kiir, and SPLM-IO, led by former Vice President Riek Machar
8.
Rebecca Nyandeng De Mabior
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Rebecca Nyandeng de Mabior is a South Sudanese politician. She has served as the Minister of Roads and Transport for the government of Southern Sudan. She is the widow of Dr. John Garang de Mabior, the late first Vice-President of Sudan and she is from the Dinka tribe of Twic East County of South Sudan. General Kiir appointed Rebecca Nyandeng De Mabior as the Minister of Roads and she continued to be a strong advocate for the implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed by Dr. John Garang before his death on 30 July 2005. She continued to support the implementation of the process until the South attained independence on 9 July 2011. During that same year when her husband died Madam Rebecca visited the United States of America and she offered a message of appreciation for the American involvement in the quest for peace in South Sudan. In 2009 President Obama continued the efforts with Secretary Clinton and Ambassador Rice to see that the agreement is implemented in Sudan. Madam Rebecca also received an interview by NPR and she spoke of her commitment to the liberation of South Sudan while she also respects the necessity of a united Sudan under the New Sudan Vision created by Dr John Garang in 1983. She visited Grinnell College, the Iowa university where her husband was educated many years before the Second Sudanese Civil War broke out in 1983. Late Dr. John Garang and his wife Rebecca have six children who are supporters of peace. According to the Sudan Tribune, Nyandeng met with South Sudanese president Salva Kiir Mayardit on 22 December 2013 to discuss security in the wake of the 2013 South Sudanese political crisis. Rebecca Nyandeng has expressed dissatisfaction with the way the government of Sudan in Khartoum implements the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, during the years of war, she joined the Southern army known today as Sudan Peoples Liberation Army and the Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement. She is known for her support for the right of self-determination for South Sudan although she has nothing against the united Sudan under a rule of law. Millions of Southern Sudanese have been affected by the war between the North and South Sudan which has a history from the time the British left Sudan in 1956. As a result of war over 2 million lives in South Sudan have been lost, after the arrival of peace in South Sudan, repatriation process is making headlines once in a while by the United Nations
9.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
10.
Grinnell College
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Grinnell College is a private liberal arts college in Grinnell, Iowa, U. S. known for its rigorous academics and tradition of social responsibility. It was founded in 1846, when a group of New England Congregationalists established the Trustees of Iowa College, in 1843, eleven Congregational ministers, all of whom trained at Andover Theological Seminary in Massachusetts, set out to proselytize on the frontier. Each man pledged to gather a church and together the group or band would seek to establish a college, when the group arrived in Iowa later that year, each selected a different town in which to establish a congregation. In 1846, they collectively established Iowa College in Davenport, a few months later, Iowa joined the Union. The first 25 years of Grinnells history saw a change in name, however, Greeley vehemently denied ever saying this to Grinnell, or to anyone. The name of the corporation The Trustees of Iowa College remained, in its early years, the College experienced setbacks. Although two students received bachelor of arts degrees in 1854, within 10 years the Civil War had claimed most of Grinnells students, in 1882, Grinnell College was struck by a tornado — then called a cyclone, after which the college yearbook was named. The storm devastated the campus and destroyed both College buildings, rebuilding began immediately, and the determination to expand wasnt limited to architecture, the curriculum was again extended to include departments in political science and modern languages. Grinnell became known as the center of the Social Gospel reform movement, as Robert Handy writes and its leading figures were Professor George D. Herron and President George A. Gates. Other firsts pointed to the side of college life, the first intercollegiate football and baseball games west of the Mississippi were played in Grinnell. Concern with social issues, educational innovation, and individual expression continue to shape Grinnell, as an example, the school’s 5th year travel-service program, preceded the establishment of the Peace Corps by many years. Other recent innovations include first-year tutorials, cooperative programs, and programs in quantitative studies. In its 2016 edition of Americas Best Colleges, U. S. Grinnell College is located in the town of Grinnell, Iowa, about halfway between Des Moines and Iowa City. The main campus is bounded by 6th Avenue on the south, 10th Avenue on the north, East Street on the east, the 120-acre campus contains sixty-three buildings ranging in style from Collegiate Gothic to Bauhaus. Goodnow Hall and Mears Cottage are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the residential part of campus is divided into three sections, North Campus, East Campus, and South Campus. North and South Campus dormitories are modeled explicitly after the colleges of Oxford. The East Campus dormitories were designed by William Rawn Associates and feature a modern design Upon completion East Campus was awarded LEED certification, the four East Campus dorms are made out of Iowa limestone which helped in securing the LEED certification. All three campuses feature dormitory buildings that are connected by a loggia, a signature of the college
11.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
12.
Iowa State University
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Iowa State University of Science and Technology is a public flagship land-grant and space-grant research university located in Ames, Iowa, United States. Iowa State is classified as a Research University with very high activity by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Iowa State is also a member of the Association of American Universities, Iowa State has also been designated an Innovation and Economic Prosperity University, a designation awarded to only 54 public universities in the U. S. D. Level, plus a degree program in Veterinary Medicine. Iowa State Universitys athletic teams, the Cyclones, compete in Division I of the NCAA and are a member of the Big 12 Conference. The Cyclones field 16 varsity teams and have won numerous NCAA national championships, in 1856, the Iowa General Assembly enacted legislation to establish the Iowa Agricultural College and Model Farm. This institution was established on March 22,1858, by the General Assembly. Story County was chosen as the location on June 21,1859, beating proposals from Johnson, Kossuth, Marshall, the original farm of 648 acres was purchased for a cost of $5,379. Iowa was the first state in the nation to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act of 1862, Iowa subsequently designated Iowa State as the land-grant college on March 29,1864. From the start, Iowa Agricultural College focused on the ideals that higher education should be accessible to all and these ideals are integral to the land-grant university. The institution was coeducational from the first preparatory class admitted in 1868, the formal admitting of students began the following year, and the first graduating class of 1872 consisted of 24 men and two women. The Farm House, the first building on the Iowa State campus, was completed in 1861 before the campus was occupied by students or classrooms. It became the home of the superintendent of the Model Farm and in later years, Iowa States first president, Adonijah Welch, briefly stayed at the Farm House and penned his inaugural speech in a second floor bedroom. The colleges first farm tenants primed the land for agricultural experimentation, the Iowa Experiment Station was one of the universitys prominent features. Practical courses of instruction were taught, including one designed to give a training for the career of a farmer. Courses in mechanical, civil, electrical, and mining engineering were also part of the curriculum, in 1870, President Welch and I. P. Robert, professor of agriculture, held three-day farmers institutes at Cedar Falls, Council Bluffs, Washington, and Muscatine. These became the earliest institutes held off-campus by a land grant institution and were the forerunners of 20th century extension, in 1872, the first courses were given in domestic economy and were taught by Mary B. Iowa State became the first land grant university in the nation to offer training in economy for college credit
13.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
14.
Sudan People's Liberation Army
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The Sudan Peoples Liberation Army is the army of the Republic of South Sudan. The SPLA was founded as a movement in 1983 and was a key participant of the Second Sudanese Civil War. Throughout the war, it was led by John Garang de Mabior, following John Garangs death in 2005, Salva Kiir was named the new Commander-in-Chief of SPLA. As of 2013, the SPLA was estimated to have 210,000 soldiers, the SPLA is divided into divisions of 10, 000-14,000 soldiers. Following South Sudans independence in 2011, the SPLA became the new regular army. In 1983 a number of mutinies broke out in the barracks of the Sudanese army in the southern regions and these mutineers would form the nucleus of SPLA. By June 1983 the majority of mutineers had moved to Ethiopia, the Ethiopian governments decision to support the nascent SPLA was a means of exacting revenge upon the Sudanese government for their support of Eritrean rebels. SPLA was led by Commander-in-Chief John Garang de Mabior, SPLA struggled for a united and secular Sudanese state. Garang stated that the struggle of the South Sudanese was the same as that of marginalized groups in the north, such as the Nuba, until 1985, SPLA directed its public denouncements of the Sudanese government specifically at Nimeiri. During the years followed, SPLA propaganda denounced the Khartoum government as a family affair that played on sectarian tensions. SPLA denounced the introduction of sharia law in September 1983, in the village of Bilpam, the first full-fledged SPLA battalion graduated in 1984. The name Bilpam would carry a symbolic importance for SPLA for years to come. After Bilpam, other SPLA training camps were established at Dimma, Bonga, in the mid-1980s the SPLA armed struggle had blocked the development projects of the Sudanese government, such as the Jonglei Canal and the Bentiu Oil Fields. SPLA launched its first advance in Equatoria in 1985-1986, during this campaign, SPLA were confronted by a number of pro-government militias. The conduct of SPLA forces was chaotic, with atrocities against the civilian population. The SPLA drove out around 35,000 Ugandan refugees back into Uganda, SPLA had a complicated relationship with Anyanya II. Anyanya II forces blocked the expansion of SPLA between 1984 and 1987, as Anyanya II attacked SPLA recruits heading towards the SPLA based in Ethiopia, Anyanya II also attacked civilians believed to be SPLA supporters. The conflict between Anyanya II and SPLA had a dimension, as Anyanya II sought to build an independent South Sudanese state
15.
Second Sudanese Civil War
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The Second Sudanese Civil War was a conflict from 1983 to 2005 between the central Sudanese government and the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army. It was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil War of 1955 to 1972, although it originated in southern Sudan, the civil war spread to the Nuba mountains and Blue Nile. It lasted for 22 years and is one of the longest civil wars on record, the war resulted in the independence of South Sudan six years after the war ended. Roughly two million died as a result of war, famine and disease caused by the conflict. Four million people in southern Sudan were displaced at least once during the war, the civilian death toll is one of the highest of any war since World War II and was marked by a large number of human rights violations. These include slavery and mass killings, the Sudanese war is often characterized as a fight between the central government expanding and dominating peoples of the periphery, raising allegations of marginalization. Kingdoms and great powers based along the Nile River have fought against the people of inland Sudan for centuries, since at least the 17th century, central governments have attempted to regulate and exploit the undeveloped southern and inland Sudan. Douglas Johnson has pointed to an exploitative governance as the root cause, when the British governed Sudan as a colony they administered the northern and southern provinces separately. The south was held to be similar to the other east-African colonies — Kenya, Tanganyika. Northern Arabs were prevented from holding positions of power in the south with its African traditions, however, in 1946, the British gave in to northern pressure to integrate the two areas. Arabic was made the language of administration in the south, the southern elite, trained in English, resented the change as they were kept out of their own government. After decolonization most power was given to the northern elites based in Khartoum, the British moved towards granting Sudan independence, but they failed to give enough power to Southern leaders. Southern Sudanese leaders werent even invited to negotiations during the period in the 1950s. In the post-colonial government of 1953, the Sudanization Committee only included 6 southern leaders, the second war was partially about natural resources. Between the north and the south lie significant oil fields and thus significant foreign interests, the north wanted to control these resources because they are situated on the edge of the Sahara desert, which is unsuitable for agricultural development. Oil revenues make up about 70% of Sudans export earnings, and contribute to the development of the country which, unlike the south, due to numerous tributaries of the Nile river and heavier precipitation in the south of Sudan they have superior water access and fertile land. There has also been a significant amount of death from warring tribes in the south, most of the conflict has been between Nuer and Dinka but other ethnic groups have also been involved. These tribal conflicts have remained after independence, for example, in January 20123,000 Murle people were massacred by the Nuer
16.
Development economics
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Development economics is a branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low-income countries. Development economics involves the creation of theories and methods that aid in the determination of policies and practices, unlike in many other fields of economics, approaches in development economics may incorporate social and political factors to devise particular plans. Also unlike many other fields of economics, there is no consensus on what students should know, different approaches may consider the factors that contribute to economic convergence or non-convergence across households, regions, and countries. The earliest Western theory of development economics was mercantilism, which developed in the 17th century, earlier theories had given little attention to development. For example, Scholasticism the dominant school of thought during medieval feudalism, emphasized reconciliation with Christian theology and ethics, the 16th- and 17th-century School of Salamanca, credited as the earliest modern school of economics, likewise did not address development specifically. Mercantilism held that a nations prosperity depended on its supply of capital and it emphasised the maintenance of a high positive trade balance as a means of accumulating this bullion. To achieve a trade balance, protectionist measures such as tariffs. Mercantilist development theory also advocated colonialism, in France, mercantilist policy is most associated with 17th-century finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, whose policies proved influential in later American development. Mercantilist ideas continue in the theories of nationalism and neomercantilism. A significant difference from mercantilism was the de-emphasis on colonies, in favor of a focus on domestic production, the names most associated with 19th-century economic nationalism are the American Alexander Hamilton, the German-American Friedrich List, and the American Henry Clay. Hamiltons 1791 Report on Manufactures, his opus, is the founding text of the American System. The key authors are Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Kurt Mandelbaum, Ragnar Nurkse, only after the war did economists turn their concerns towards Asia, Africa and Latin America. At the heart of these studies, by such as Simon Kuznets and W. Arthur Lewis was an analysis of not only economic growth. The linear-stages-of-growth model posits that there are a series of five stages of development which all countries must go through during the process of development. Such theories have been criticized for not recognizing that, while necessary and that is to say that this early and simplistic theory failed to account for political, social and institutional obstacles to development. Furthermore, this theory was developed in the years of the Cold War and was largely derived from the successes of the Marshall Plan. This has led to the criticism that the theory assumes that the conditions found in developing countries are the same as those found in post-WWII Europe. There are two forms of structural-change theory, W
17.
Dinka people
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The Dinka people are an ethnic group inhabiting the Bahr el Ghazal region of the Nile basin, Jonglei and parts of southern Kordufan and Upper Nile regions. They number around 4.5 million people according to the 2008 Sudan census, constituting about 18% of the population of the country. Dinka, or as they refer to themselves, Muonyjang and jieng, Dinka are sometimes noted for their height. With the Tutsi of Rwanda, they are believed to be the tallest people in Africa, roberts and Bainbridge reported the average height of 182.6 cm in a sample of 52 Dinka Ageir and 181.3 cm in 227 Dinka Ruweng measured in 1953–1954. However, it seems the stature of todays Dinka males is lower, possibly as a consequence of undernutrition, an anthropometric survey of Dinka men, war refugees in Ethiopia, published in 1995 found a mean height of 176.4 cm. Other studies of comparative historical data and nutrition place the Dinka as the tallest people in the world. The Dinka people have no centralised political authority, instead comprising many independent and their language, called Dinka or thuɔŋjäŋ, is one of the Nilotic languages of the eastern Sudanic language family. The name means people in the Dinka language and it is written using the Latin alphabet with a few additions. The terrain can be divided into four classes, Highlands. Vegetation consists of open thorn woodland and/or open mixed woodland with grasses, toic, land seasonally inundated or saturated by the main rivers and inland water-courses, retaining enough moisture throughout the dry season to support cattle grazing. Ecology of large basin is unique, until recently, wild animals, in other word, there is no such thing as Rek paramount Chief, but Rek paramount chiefs. The number of Dinka sub-divisions is hotly contested as the border or line between group, sub-division and sections is blurred and often difficult to determine. For example, one can divide the Atuot into Apak and Reel, Boor into Athooc and Gok, malual is the largest of those groups, numbering over a million people. The Dinkas migrations are determined by the climate, their agro-pastoral lifestyle responding to the periodic flooding. These rainy season settlements usually contain other permanent structures such as cattle byres and granaries, during dry season, everyone except the aged, ill, and nursing mothers migrates to semi-permanent dwellings in the toic for cattle grazing. The cultivation of sorghum, millet, and other crops begins in the highlands in the rainy season. Cattle are driven to the toic in September and November when the rainfall drops off, the Dinkas pastoral lifestyle is also reflected in their religious beliefs and practices. Since the arrival of Abrahamic religions most revere one God, Nhialic, the sacrificing of oxen by the masters of the fishing spear is a central component of Dinka religious practice
18.
Wau, South Sudan
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Wau is a city in northwestern South Sudan, on the western bank of the Jur River, in Wau County, Wau State. It lies approximately 650 kilometres northwest of Juba, the capital, Wau was initially established as a zariba by slave-traders in the 19th century. During the time of rule, the city became an administrative center Burr and Collins in 1994 described Wau, as follows. It is surrounded by a host of disorganized and diverse peoples and it was and remains a town belonging to no single ethnic group, deriving its importance only from its position as a commercial and administrative center. Located in the midst of the vast Nilotic plain hundreds of miles from nowhere, during the Second Sudanese Civil War, it was a garrison town of the Khartoum-based Sudanese Armed Forces, and was the scene of extensive fighting in the spring of 1998. Battles erupted again in the town in the spring of 2007, in 2010 the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment proposed to reshape the city as a giraffe. In 2016, Wau experienced heavy clashes that displaced much of its Fertit population, the city of Wau is the headquarters of Wau State, in which it lies. It also served as the capital of the erstwhile Western Bahr el Ghazal State, the city is a culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse urban center. Its residents include peoples of Fertit, Dinka, Luo, in 2008, Wau was the third-largest city in South Sudan, by population, behind Juba the capital and Malakal, in Upper Nile State. At that time, the population of the city of Wau was about 128,100. In 2011, the population was estimated at about 151,320. Wau is the terminus of a narrow gauge line of the Sudan Railways. A plan exists, as of 2008, to open a standard gauge line north from Gulu in Uganda to Wau, through trains from Khartoum to Mombasa would be possible only if one of the lines was regauged. Wau Airport - The airport, has a paved runway which measures 2,500 metres in length. The city hosts University of Bahr El-Ghazal and many secondary and primary schools, the Catholic University of South Sudan maintains a campus in the city. Detailed Map of The City of Wau Photos of Wau River Lodge, A Private Establishment
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Rumbek
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Rumbek is the capital of Lakes State, central South Sudan, and the former capital of the country. Rumbek is approximately 377 kilometres by road northwest of Juba, the capital and its coordinates are 6. 81°N29. 68°E /6.81,29.68 and its elevation is 420 metres above sea level. Rumbek is the headquarters of Rumbek Central County and is the capital of Western Lakes State, later, Juba was selected to become the permanent capital. Like most South Sudanese towns, Rumbek suffered significant infrastructural damage during the civil war, in 2004, the United Nations estimated the population of Rumbek County at about 82,500. At that time, the Dinka Agar constituted about 60% of the population, 30% were Dinka Gok, 6% were Bongo, in 2011, the population of the town of Rumbek is estimated at about 32,100. The town of Rumbek is situated on the road from Juba to the southeast to Wau to the northwest. There are two smaller roads out of town, one to Yirol to the east and another to Durbuoni to the north, since 2005, some of the roads have undergone repairs. Rumbek is also served by Rumbek Airport, the main construction contractor in Rumbek, working on both the roads and the airport is Civicon Limited. Human Right Journalist. On 6 May 2013 Mayom was given an awarded by the South Sudan Red Cross for his coverage of the situation in Jonglei state. Mayom was the first journalist to write direct to South Sudanese president Salva Kiir over youth being mistreated in military cell across South Sudan, Rumbek Airport Lakes Bahr el Ghazal Location of Rumbek At GoogleMaps Thousands Celebrate Independence Day In Rumbek Freedom Square The Task of Rebuilding South Sudan
20.
Tanzania
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Tanzania /ˌtænzəˈniːə/, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in Eastern Africa within the African Great Lakes region. Parts of the country are in Southern Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, Africas highest mountain, is in northeastern Tanzania. Tanzanias population of 51.82 million is diverse, composed of ethnic, linguistic. Dar es Salaam, the capital, retains most government offices and is the countrys largest city, principal port. Tanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi party in power, from its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were last held in October 2015, the CCM holds approximately 75% of the seats in the assembly. Prehistoric population migrations include Southern Cushitic speakers, who are ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge and who moved south from Ethiopia into Tanzania. Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago. These movements took place at about the time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria. They brought with them the west African planting tradition and the staple of yams. They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania, European colonialism began in mainland Tanzania during the late 19th century when Germany formed German East Africa, which gave way to British rule following World War I. The mainland was governed as Tanganyika, with the Zanzibar Archipelago remaining a separate colonial jurisdiction, following their respective independence in 1961 and 1963, the two entities merged in April 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Tanzania is mountainous and densely forested in the northeast, where Mount Kilimanjaro is located, three of Africas Great Lakes are partly within Tanzania. To the north and west lie Lake Victoria, Africas largest lake, and Lake Tanganyika, the eastern shore is hot and humid, with the Zanzibar Archipelago just offshore. The Menai Bay Conservation Area is Zanzibars largest marine protected area, over 100 different languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa. Among the languages spoken in Tanzania are all four of Africas language families, Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, Swahili and English are Tanzanias official languages. In connection with his Ujamaa social policies, President Nyerere encouraged the use of Swahili, approximately 10% of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90% speak it as a second language. Most Tanzanians thus speak both Swahili and a language, many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, also speaking English
21.
Iowa
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Iowa is a U. S. state in the Midwestern United States, bordered by the Mississippi River on the east and the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west. Surrounding states include Wisconsin and Illinois to the east, Missouri to the south, Nebraska and South Dakota to the west, in colonial times, Iowa was a part of French Louisiana and Spanish Louisiana, its state flag is patterned after the flag of France. After the Louisiana Purchase, people laid the foundation for an economy in the heart of the Corn Belt. Iowa is the 26th most extensive in area and the 30th most populous of the 50 United States. Its capital and largest city by population is Des Moines, Iowa has been listed as one of the safest states in which to live. Its nickname is the Hawkeye State, Iowa derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many Native American tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa is bordered by the Mississippi River on the east, the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west, Iowa is the only state whose east and west borders are formed entirely by rivers. Iowa has 99 counties, but 100 county seats because Lee County has two, the state capital, Des Moines, is in Polk County. Iowas bedrock geology generally increases in age from west to east, in northwest Iowa, Cretaceous bedrock can be 74 million years old, in eastern Iowa Cambrian bedrock dates to c.500 million years ago. Iowa is generally not flat, most of the consists of rolling hills. Iowa can be divided into eight landforms based on glaciation, soils, topography, Loess hills lie along the western border of the state, some of which are several hundred feet thick. Northeast Iowa along the Mississippi River is part of the Driftless Zone, consisting of steep hills, several natural lakes exist, most notably Spirit Lake, West Okoboji Lake, and East Okoboji Lake in northwest Iowa. To the east lies Clear Lake, man-made lakes include Lake Odessa, Saylorville Lake, Lake Red Rock, Coralville Lake, Lake MacBride, and Rathbun Lake. The states northwest area has remnants of the once common wetlands. Iowas natural vegetation is tallgrass prairie and savanna in areas, with dense forest and wetlands in flood plains and protected river valleys. Most of Iowa is used for agriculture, crops cover 60% of the state, grasslands cover 30%, as of 2005 Iowa ranked 49th of U. S. states in public land holdings. Endangered or threatened plants include western prairie fringed orchid, eastern prairie fringed orchid, Meads milkweed, prairie bush clover, the explosion in the number of high-density livestock facilities in Iowa has led to increased rural water contamination and a decline in air quality. Iowa has a continental climate throughout the state
22.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
23.
Agricultural economics
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Agronomics was a branch of economics that specifically dealt with land usage. It focused on maximizing the crop yield while maintaining a good soil ecosystem, throughout the 20th century the discipline expanded and the current scope of the discipline is much broader. Agricultural economics today includes a variety of applied areas, having considerable overlap with conventional economics, Agricultural economists have made substantial contributions to research in economics, econometrics, development economics, and environmental economics. Agricultural economics influences food policy, agricultural policy, and environmental policy, Economics has been defined as the study of resource allocation under scarcity. Agronomics, or the application of methods to optimizing the decisions made by agricultural producers. The field of economics can be traced out to works on land economics. Henry Charles Taylor was the greatest contributor with the establishment of the Department of Agricultural Economics at Wisconsin in 1909, another contributor,1979 Nobel Economics Prize winner Theodore Schultz, was among the first to examine development economics as a problem related directly to agriculture. The discipline was closely linked to applications of mathematical statistics and made early. The farm sector is frequently cited as a example of the perfect competition economic paradigm. In Asia, agricultural economics was offered first by the University of the Philippines Los Baños Department of Agricultural Economics in 1919, in addition to economists long-standing emphasis on the effects of prices and incomes, researchers in this field have studied how information and quality attributes influence consumer behavior. Agricultural economics research has addressed diminishing returns in agricultural production, as well as farmers costs, much research has applied economic theory to farm-level decisions. Development economics is concerned with the improvement of living conditions in low-income countries. The International Association of Agricultural Economists is a professional association. The association publishes the journal Agricultural Economics, there also is a European Association of Agricultural Economists, an African Association of Agricultural Economists and an Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society. Substantial work in agricultural economics internationally is conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute, the AAEA publishes the American Journal of Agricultural Economics and Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy. Careers in agricultural economics require at least a degree. A2011 study by the Georgetown Center on Education and the Workforce rated agricultural economics tied for 8th out of 171 fields in terms of employability, evenson, Robert E. and Prabhu Pingali. Agrarian law Agrarian reform Agribusiness Agricultural value chain C. S, agency for International Development, Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture, and Trade U. S
24.
University of Dar es Salaam
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The University of Dar es Salaam is a public university in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. It was established in 1961 as a college of the University of London. The university became an affiliate of the University of East Africa in 1963, in 1970, UEA split into three independent universities, Makerere University in Uganda, the University of Nairobi in Kenya, and the University of Dar es Salaam. In 2012, the University Ranking by Academic Performance Center ranked the University of Dar es Salaam as the 1, 618th best university in the world. In 2013, AcademyRank ranked the university as the 2, 965th best university worldwide but the best of the 16 ranked in Tanzania, with the Sokoine University of Agriculture in second place. In 2012, the Scimago Institutions Rankings placed the university in 3, 021st place worldwide, 57th in Africa and this ranking is based on the total number of documents published in scholarly journals indexed in the Scopus database by Elsevier. Based solely on the universitys excellence rate, the university was ranked 16th out of 62 universities in Africa in 2011 and this rate indicates which percentage of an institutions scientific output is included into the set formed by the 10% of the most cited papers in their respective scientific fields. It is a measure of high quality output of research institutions, the university has five campuses in and around the city of Dar es Salaam and operates academically through ten faculties, some of which are exclusive to specific campuses. The faculty of humanities and social sciences is active in the Mkwawa University College of Education campus and also in the Dar es Salaam University College of Education. The main campus, called Mlimani, is located 13 kilometers west of Dar es Salaam city center and is home to the faculties of education, arts and social science. In addition, four specialist faculties – informatics and virtual education, law, commerce and management, the Institute of Journalism and Mass Communication provides the university with its fifth campus. Nkrumah Hall, a building on the Mlimani campus, is featured on the back of the Tanzanian 500 shilling bill, helleiner is a well-known Canadian international economist who spent his professional career at the University of Dar es Salaam Francis Matambalya. Prof. Francis Matambalya is a well known African scholar in the area of International Trade. Apart from the University of Dar es Salaam, he has worked at Bonn University in Germany, and been a scholar at a number of the Universities in Europe. In 2010, he took up the position of a Lead Researcher on International Trade at the Nordic Africa Institute in Uppsala, amongst his outstanding recent publications are, African Industrial Development and EU Cooperation, Prospects for a Reengineered Partnership. Molly Mahood, Professor of English from 1954 to 1963 Walter Rodney Guyanese scholar and politician, the late Rodney held a PhD in African History in 1966 at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the age of 24. Justinian F. Rweyemamu was a Harvard Graduate and Tanzania’s first major economics scholar, considered by many as one of the most outstanding representatives of the post-independence African scholars, he was also a pan-Africanist, political strategist, and international civil servant. He holds a BSc in Economics from the London School of Economics and he completed his PhD in international relations, again at the London School of Economics, in 1969
25.
Yoweri Museveni
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Yoweri Kaguta Museveni is a Ugandan politician who has been president of Uganda since 29 January 1986. His tenure has also included one of the most effective national responses to HIV/AIDS in Africa, in the mid to late 1990s, Museveni was celebrated by the west as part of a new generation of African leaders. His presidency has been marred, however, by involvement in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Rebellion in the north by the Lords Resistance Army caused a humanitarian emergency. Born on 15 September 1944 in Ntungamo, Uganda Protectorate, Museveni gets his name from his father, Amos Kaguta. Kaguta is also the father of Musevenis brother Caleb Akandwanaho, popularly known in Uganda as Salim Saleh, Museveni attended Kyamate Elementary School, Mbarara High School, and Ntare School. In 1967, he went to the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania, there, he studied economics and political science and became a Marxist, involving himself in radical pan-African politics. Studying under the leftist Walter Rodney, among others, Museveni wrote a university thesis on the applicability of Frantz Fanons ideas on revolutionary violence to post-colonial Africa, the exile forces opposed to Amin invaded Uganda from Tanzania in September 1972 and were repelled, suffering heavy losses. In October, Tanzania and Uganda signed the Mogadishu Agreement that denied the rebels the use of Tanzanian soil for aggression against Uganda, Museveni broke away from the mainstream opposition and formed the Front for National Salvation in 1973. In August of the year, he married Janet Kataha. Museveni returned with his supporters to their strongholds in the Bantu-dominated south. They then planned a rebellion against the second Obote regime and its armed forces, the insurgency began with an attack on an army installation in the central Mubende district on 6 February 1981. The PRA later merged with former president Yusufu Lules fighting group, the Uganda Freedom Fighters, to create the National Resistance Army with its political wing, two other rebel groups, the Uganda National Rescue Front and the Former Uganda National Army, engaged Obotes forces. The FUNA was formed in the West Nile sub-region from the remnants of Amins supporters, the Central Intelligence Agencys World Factbook estimates that the Obote regime was responsible for more 100,000 civilian deaths across Uganda. On 27 July 1985, subfactionalism within the Uganda Peoples Congress government led to a military coup against Obote by his former army commander, Lieutenant-General Tito Okello. Despite these reservations, however, the NRM/NRA eventually agreed to peace talks presided over by a Kenyan delegation headed by President Daniel arap Moi, the talks, which lasted from 26 August to 17 December, were notoriously acrimonious and the resultant ceasefire broke down almost immediately. While involved in the negotiations, Museveni was courting General Mobutu Sésé Seko of Zaire to forestall the involvement of Zairean forces in support of Okellos military junta. On 20 January 1986, however, several hundred troops loyal to Amin were accompanied into Ugandan territory by the Zairean military, the forces intervened following secret training in Zaire and an appeal from Okello ten days previously
26.
Gordon Muortat Mayen
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Gordon Muortat Mayen Maborjok was a South Sudanese veteran politician and a struggler for the rights and freedom of the South Sudanese people. He was the President of the Nile Provisional Government which led Anyanya I, Muortat also served as Vice-President of the Southern Front and Foreign Minister in the Southern Sudan Provisional Government. Gordon Muortat Mayen was born in 1922 at Karagok village 10 miles South East of Rumbek and his father was a local chief of Patiop Clan of the Agar Dinka. Muortat was educated at Akot elementary from 1936-1942 and he then attended Loka Nugent Junior Secondary School in Western Equatoria from 1942-1945. In 1951 he was among the first Southern Sudanese to graduate from Sudan Police College and was commissioned to police inspector where he rose through the ranks to become Chief Inspector of Police. In 1957, Muortat was denied a transfer to the Southern Sudan, so he resigned his position and he was appointed assistant district commissioner and served in many places in the Bahr el-Ghazal and Upper Nile provinces. In 1965, under the government of Prime Minister Sirr Al-Khatim Al-Khalifa, Muortat was appointed to be Minister of Works. However, when Prime Minister Muhammad Ahmad Mahjub came to office, in 1964, Gordon Muortat became one of the founders of the Southern Front, a political party that would represent the rights of the people of Southern Sudan. He headed the Southern Front delegation in the Round Table Conference between the South and North in 1965 and is remembered for demanding that the South be given the right to self-determination. He held this view due to the fact that Southern Sudanese were not involved in the politics which led to the independence of the Sudan from the colonial power in 1956. This view was shared by other members of the Southern Front, namely Clement Mboro, Bona Malwal. After the collapse of the SSPG due to political wrangling, the second Anya-Nya One government. Gordon Muortat Mayen was elected unanimously as president, with his fighting a fully fledged war against the north. During this time, Southern Sudan was renamed the Nile Republic with its citizens being referred to as Nileans. The name Southern Sudan was rejected by Muortat and his government due to the name being just a reference to a zone which has little relevance to the people of the Southern Sudan. Dr. John Garang de Mabior, future leader of the SPLA, was one of the batches of Muortats soldiers sent to Israel for military training under the NPG. The NPG was dissolved in 1970, after the failure to restore Israeli arms shipments to their forces. At the time, Andrew Makur Thou, commander of the Anyanya forces under the NPG was willing to continue to fight under Muortats leadership and quell the coup attempt, however Gordon Muortat declined
27.
Captain (armed forces)
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The army rank of captain is a commissioned officer rank historically corresponding to the command of a company of soldiers. The rank is used by some air forces and marine forces. Today, a captain is typically either the commander or second-in-command of a company or artillery battery, in the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, a captain may also command a company, or be the second-in-command of a battalion. In NATO countries, the rank of captain is described by the code OF-2 and is one rank above an OF-1, the rank of captain is generally considered to be the highest rank a soldier can achieve while remaining in the field. The rank of captain should not be confused with the rank of captain or with the British-influenced air force rank of group captain. The term ultimately goes back to Late Latin capitaneus meaning chief, prominent, in Middle English adopted as capitayn in the 14th century, the military rank of captain was in use from the 1560s, referring to an officer who commands a company. The naval sense, an officer who commands a man-of-war, is earlier, from the 1550s. He would in turn receive money from another nobleman to serve as his lieutenant, the funding to provide for the troops came from the monarch or his government, the captain had to be responsible for it. If he was not, or was otherwise court-martialed, he would be dismissed, otherwise, the only pension for the captain was selling the right to another nobleman when he was ready to retire. In most countries, the air force is the junior service, many, such as the United States Air Force, use a rank structure and insignia similar to those of the army. However, the United Kingdoms Royal Air Force, many other Commonwealth air forces, a group captain is OF-5 and was derived from the naval rank of captain. In the unified system of the Canadian Forces, the air force rank titles are pearl grey, a variety of images illustrative of different forces insignia for captain are shown below, Captain Captain Senior captain Staff captain
28.
Colonel
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Colonel is a senior military officer rank below the general officer ranks. However, in small military forces, such as those of Iceland or the Vatican. It is also used in police forces and paramilitary organizations. Historically, in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of a regiment in an army, the rank of colonel is typically above the rank of lieutenant colonel. The rank above colonel is typically called brigadier, brigade general or brigadier general, equivalent naval ranks may be called captain or ship-of-the-line captain. In the Commonwealth air force rank system, the equivalent rank is group captain, the word colonel derives from the same root as the word column and means of a column, and, by implication, commander of a column. The word colonel is therefore linked to the column in a similar way that brigadier is linked to brigade. By the end of the medieval period, a group of companies was referred to as a column of an army. Since the word is believed to derive from sixteenth-century Italian, it was presumably first used by Italian city states in that century. The first use of colonel as a rank in an army was in the French National Legions created by King Francis I by his decree of 1534. Building on the reforms of Louis XIIs decree of 1509. Each colonel commanded a legion with a strength of six thousand men. With the shift from primarily mercenary to primarily national armies in the course of the seventeenth century, the Spanish equivalent rank of coronel was used by the Spanish tercios in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, nicknamed the Great Captain, divided his armies in coronelías or colonelcies, however, the Spanish word probably derives from a different origin, in that it appears to designate an officer of the crown, rather than an officer of the column. This makes the Spanish word coronel probably cognate with the English word coroner and this regiment, or governance, was to some extent embodied in a contract and set of written rules, also referred to as the colonels regiment or standing regulation. By extension, the group of companies subject to a colonels regiment came to be referred to as his regiment as well, the position, however, was primarily contractual and it became progressively more of a functionless sinecure. By the late 19th century, colonel was a military rank though still held typically by an officer in command of a regiment or equivalent unit. As European military influence expanded throughout the world, the rank of colonel became adopted by every nation
29.
United States Army Infantry School
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The United States Army Infantry School is located at Fort Benning, Georgia, is a school dedicated to training infantrymen for service in the United States Army. Infantry officers who have completed commissioning and the Basic Officer Leadership Course then attend the Infantry Officer Basic Leadership Course in 2nd battalion and this is a course of instruction, as the name implies, in basic infantry skills, including marksmanship, machine gunnery, tactics, and planning. The brigade also conducts specialized training for soldiers in Basic Airborne, Pathfinder, the Chief of Infantry is the proponent of the school and its commandant. Basic Officer Leaders Course United States Army branch insignia Coats of arms of U. S, Infantry Regiments Guidon Combat Infantryman Badge Blue Infantry Cord Infantry School homepage U. S. Army Infantry School Official site of the Infantry Training Brigade
30.
Fort Benning
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Fort Benning is a United States Army base straddling the Alabama-Georgia border next to Columbus, Georgia. Fort Benning supports more than 120,000 active-duty military, family members, reserve component soldiers, retirees and it is a power projection platform, and possesses the capability to deploy combat-ready forces by air, rail, and highway. It is named after Henry L. Benning, a general in the Confederate States Army during the Civil War. Since 1918, Fort Benning has served as the Home of the Infantry, included in this transformation was the move of the Armor School from Fort Knox to Fort Benning. On December 26,1918, a portion of the Camp Polk tank school was transferred to Camp Benning to work in conjunction with the Infantry school, Camp Benning tank troops were moved to Camp Meade from February 19–21,1919. By the fall of 1920, more than 350 officers,7,000 troops and 650 student officers lived at Camp Benning, the post was renamed to Fort Benning in 1922, after Henry L. Benning, a general in the army of the Confederate States of America. During Wells tenure, the post developed recreational facilities such as Doughboy Stadium, Gowdy Field, Doughboy Stadium was erected as a memorial by soldiers to their fallen comrades of World War I. One of the Doughboys original coaches was a captain named Dwight D. Eisenhower. Lt. Col George C. Marshall was appointed assistant commandant of the post in 1927, Marshall, who later became the Army Chief of Staff during World War II, was appalled by the high casualties of World War I caused, he thought, by insufficient training. He was determined to prevent a lack of preparation from costing more lives in future conflicts and he and his subordinates revamped the education system at Fort Benning. The changes he fostered are still known as the Benning Revolution, later in his life, Marshall went on to author the Marshall Plan for reviving postwar Europe and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953. During World War II Fort Benning had 197,159 acres with billeting space for 3,970 officers and 94,873 enlisted persons. The battalion, later expanded to become the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion, was trained at Fort Benning but did not deploy overseas, during this period, the specialized duties of the Triple Nickel were primarily in a firefighting role, with over one thousand parachute jumps as smoke jumpers. The 555th was deployed to the Pacific Northwest of the United States in response to the concern that forest fires were being set by the Japanese military using long-range incendiary balloons, the 82nd Armored Reconnaissance Battalion was activated July 15,1940, and trained at the Fort. The 17th Armored Engineer Battalion became active and started training July 15,1940, the Airborne School on Main Post has three 249-foot drop towers called Free Towers. They are used to train paratroopers, the towers were modeled after the parachute towers at the 1939 Worlds Fair in New York. Only three towers stand today, the tower was toppled by a tornado on March 14,1954. During the spring of 1962 General Herbert B, continental Army Command, directed that all instruction at the Infantry School after July 1 reflect Reorganization Objective Army Division structures
31.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
32.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
33.
Omdurman
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Omdurman is the largest city in Sudan and Khartoum State, lying on the western banks of the River Nile, opposite the capital, Khartoum. Omdurman has a population of 2,395,159 and is the centre of commerce. With Khartoum and Khartoum North or Bahri, it forms the cultural and industrial heart of the nation, the name Omdurman literally translates as Mother of Durmān, but who she was or might have been is not known. There are unattested legends of a known as Umm Durmān who lived in an area at the confluence of the White and Blue Niles. In 1884, Muḥammad Aḥmad, the Mahdi, made his headquarters in the village of Omdurman. The conflicts that followed over the fifteen years have become known as the Mahdist War. Following the defeat of the defenders of Khartoum in 1885. The city, now the location of the tomb of the Mahdi, however, in the Battle of Omdurman in 1898, Lord Kitchener decisively defeated the Mahdist forces and killed the Khalifa, ensuring British control over the Sudan. In the battle Omdurman, the British army faced Sudanese defenders consisting of over 52,000 poorly armed desert tribesmen dervishes, in space of five hours the battle was over. The Sudanese defenders suffered over 93 percent casualty with at least 10,000 killed, by contrast there were fewer than four hundred casualties on the British side with forty-eight British soldiers lost their life. Then, General Kitchener proceeded to order the destruction of the Mahdis tomb, Kitchener restored Khartoum as the capital and, from 1899 until 1956 Sudan was jointly governed by Great Britain and Egypt. Although most of the city was destroyed in the battle, the Mahdis tomb was restored and refurbished, on 10 May 2008 the Darfur rebel group of the Justice and Equality Movement moved into the city where they engaged in heavy fighting with Sudanese government forces. Their goal was to topple Omar Hassan al-Bashirs government, Omdurman features a hot desert climate, with only the months of July and August seeing significant precipitation. Khartoum averages a little over 155 millimetres of precipitation per year, based on annual mean temperatures, Omdurman is one of the hottest major cities in the world. Temperatures may exceed 53 °C in mid-summer. It has dry winters and its average annual high temperature is 37.1 °C, with six months of the year seeing an average monthly high temperature of at least 38 °C. Furthermore, throughout the year, none of its average high temperatures falls below 30 °C. This is something not seen in major cities with hot desert climates such as Riyadh or Baghdad or Phoenix. Although its diurnal temperature variation is fair enough temperatures cool off during the night, the city literally does not experience seasons, just like most parts of the Arabian peninsula and north-eastern Africa where its either hot or very hot all year long
34.
Khartoum
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Khartoum is the capital and second largest city of Sudan and the state of Khartoum. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile, flowing north from Lake Victoria, the location where the two Niles meet is known as al-Mogran. The main Nile continues to north towards Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. The origin of the word, Khartoum, is uncertain, one theory argues that khartoum is derived from Arabic khurṭūm, probably referring to the narrow strip of land extending between the Blue and White Niles. Some scholars speculate that the word derives from the Nubian word, Agartum, other Beja scholars suggest Khartoum is derived from the Beja word, Hartoom. Additionally, the dream interpreting magicians in Genesis 41,8 are referred to as חַרְטֻמֵּ֥י, suggesting that in ancient times the word already existed. In 1821, Khartoum was established 24 kilometres north of the ancient city of Soba, by Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Egypts ruler, Muhammad Ali Pasha, who had just incorporated Sudan into his realm. Originally, Khartoum served as an outpost for the Egyptian Army and it also became a focal point for the slave trade. Later, it became the center of Sudan and official capital. On 13 March 1884, troops loyal to the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad started a siege of Khartoum, the siege ended in a massacre of the Anglo-Egyptian garrison. On 26 January 1885, the damaged city fell to the Mahdists. On 2 September 1898, Omdurman was the scene of the bloody Battle of Omdurman, in 1973, the city was the site of an anomalous hostage crisis in which members of Black September held 10 hostages at the Saudi Arabian embassy, five of them diplomats. The US ambassador, the US deputy ambassador, and the Belgian chargé daffaires were murdered, a 1973 United States Department of State document, declassified in 2006, concluded, The Khartoum operation was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval of Yasser Arafat. In 1977, the first oil pipeline between Khartoum and the Port of Sudan was completed, throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Khartoum was the destination for hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing conflicts in neighboring nations such as Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Uganda. Many Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees assimilated into society, while others settled in large slums at the outskirts of the city, since the mid-1980s, large numbers of refugees from South Sudan and Darfur fleeing the violence of the Second Sudanese Civil War and Darfur conflict have settled around Khartoum. In 1991, Osama bin Laden purchased a house in the affluent al-Riyadh neighborhood of the city and he lived there until 1996, when he was banished from the country. The destruction of the factory produced diplomatic tension between the U. S. and Sudan, the factory ruins are now a tourist attraction. The sudden death of SPLA head and vice-president of Sudan, John Garang, the riots finally died down after Southern Sudanese politicians and tribal leaders sent strong messages to the rioters
35.
Sharia
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Sharia, Sharia law, or Islamic law is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran. In Arabic, the term refers to Gods divine law and is contrasted with fiqh. The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists, traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia, the Quran, sunnah, qiyas, and ijma. Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two branches of law, ʿibādāt and muʿāmalāt, which together comprise a wide range of topics. Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories, mandatory, recommended, permitted, abhorred, thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God’s will. Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists, ottoman rulers achieved additional control over the legal system by promulgating their own legal code and turning muftis into state employees. Non-Muslim communities had legal autonomy, except in cases of interconfessional disputes, in the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education in the Muslim world were brought in line with European practice. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for full implementation of sharia, including reinstatement of hudud corporal punishments, in some cases, this resulted in traditionalist legal reform, while other countries witnessed juridical reinterpretation of sharia advocated by progressive reformers. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world, attempts to impose it on non-Muslims have caused intercommunal violence in Nigeria and may have contributed to the breakup of Sudan. Some Muslim-minority countries in Asia, Africa and Europe recognize the use of sharia-based family laws for their Muslim populations, there are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and womens rights. The word sharīʿah is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the Middle East to designate a prophetic religion in its totality, for example, sharīʿat Mūsā means law or religion of Moses and sharīʿatu-nā can mean our religion in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse, šarīʿah refers to regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word means simply justice, and they will consider any law that promotes justice, Muslims of different perspectives agree in their respect for the abstract notion of sharia, but they differ in how they understand the practical implications of the term. Classical sharia, the body of rules and principles elaborated by Islamic jurists during the first centuries of Islam, historical sharia, the body of rules and interpretations developed throughout Islamic history, ranging from personal beliefs to state legislation and varying across an ideological spectrum. Classical sharia has often served as a point of reference for these variants, Contemporary sharia, the full spectrum of rules and interpretations that are developed and practiced at present
36.
Animism
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Animism is the worlds oldest religion. Animism teaches that objects, places, and creatures all possess distinctive spiritual qualities, potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and perhaps even words—as animate and alive. Animism is the oldest known type of system in the world that even predates paganism. It is still practiced in a variety of forms in traditional societies. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples spiritual or supernatural perspectives. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century by Sir Edward Tylor, Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the world also consider themselves animists. Earlier anthropological perspectives – since termed the old animism – were concerned with knowledge surrounding what is alive, the old animism assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between persons and things. Critics of the old animism have accused it of preserving colonialist and dualist worldviews, according to Tylor, animism often includes an idea of pervading life and will in nature, i. e. a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as fetishism, thus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religion grew. The earliest known usage in English appeared in 1819, Tylors definition of animism was a part of a growing international debate on the nature of primitive society by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science – anthropology and their religion was animism – the belief that natural species and objects had souls. With the development of property, these descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of developed religions, in 1869, the Edinburgh lawyer, John Ferguson McLellan, argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named Totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended of the species as their totemic animal. Subsequent debate by the armchair anthropologists remained focused on totemism rather than animism, indeed, anthropologists have commonly avoided the issue of Animism and even the term itself rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic, stewart Guthrie saw animism – or attribution as he preferred it – as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats
37.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
38.
Mengistu Haile Mariam
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Mengistu Haile Mariam is an Ethiopian politician who was the leader of Ethiopia from 1977 to 1991. He was the chairman of the Derg, the Communist military junta that governed Ethiopia, from 1977 to 1987, and the President of the Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from 1987 to 1991. The Derg took power in the Ethiopian Revolution following the overthrow of Emperor Haile Selassie I in 1974, the Ogaden War of 1977-1978 over a disputed border region with Somalia was notable for the prominent role of Mengistus Soviet and Cuban allies in securing an Ethiopian victory. The catestrophic famine of 1983-1985 is what brought his regime the most international attention, Mengistu left for Zimbabwe in May 1991 after the National Shengo dissolved itself and called for a transitional government. His departure brought an end to the Ethiopian Civil War. Mengistu Haile Mariam still lives in Harare, Zimbabwe, and remains there despite an Ethiopian court verdict finding him guilty in absentia of genocide, estimates of the number of deaths for which he was responsible range from 500,000 to over 2,000,000. Mengistus Oromo father, Haile Mariam Wolde Ayana, was born in Furii,80 km west of Addis Ababa and he later became an enlisted man in the Ethiopian army. Afenegus Eshete Geda was the half-brother of Dejazmach Kebede Tessemas wife, Woizero Yitateku Kidane and these rumors of Mengistu being the grandson of Dejazmach Kebede are widely believed, but have never been confirmed by either Mengistu himself or by the late noblemans family. Mengistu was born on 21 May 1937 in Addis Ababa and his mother died during childbirth when Mengistu was only 8 years old. After the death of his mother, Mengistu and his two siblings went to live with their grandmother for a few years and he then came back to live with his father and soon after joined the army at a very young age. Mengistus father was proud of his sons achievements, though some people believe the Ethiopian popular account that states that his family was far from proud of his political accomplishments. Mengistu graduated from the Holetta Military Academy, one of the two important military academies of Ethiopia, at the time, the Ordnance group was offered military technical training support in the US. Despite his disapproval of Mengistus insubordination and disrespect, the General was obliged to him and Mengistu went for a six-month training program in Maryland. Returning after his training, he was expected to command the Ordnance Sub-division in Harar, years later, Mengistu would murder General Haile Baykedagn along with the 60 ministers and generals. Mengistu experienced racial discrimination, which led him to a later strong anti-American sentiment He equated racial discrimination in the United States with the discrimination in Ethiopia. Let it be clear to everybody that I shall soon make these ignoramuses stoop, professor Bahru Zewde notes that Mengistu was distinguished by a special ability to size up situations and persons. Emperor Haile Selassies government, having lost the confidence of the Ethiopian public following a famine in Wello province, was overthrown in Ethiopian revolution of 1974. As a result, power came into the hands of a committee of low ranking officers and enlisted soldiers led by Atnafu Abate and it is rumored that Mengistu smothered the Emperor using a pillow case, but Mengistu has denied these rumors
39.
Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
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The Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front is the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia. During this period, the Derg was responsible for the deaths of tens of thousands of opponents without trial, in the early 1990s, following the collapse of the Mengistu government, the EPRDF gained support from the United States. Michael Johns, an Africa expert with the Heritage Foundation, wrote in 1991 that there are some modestly encouraging signs that the front intends to abandon Mengistus autocratic practices. Observers have had concerns since then about the EPRDFs treatment of the opposition, the EPRDF won 472 of the 527 seats in the House of Peoples Representatives in the 2000 elections. The results of the 2005 elections were not accepted by all parties, the disagreements led to a prolonged crisis and public unrest which resulted in the death of 193 Ethiopians, including civilians and police officers. The ruling front claimed to have won 499 of the 527 seats, the opposition, which claimed widespread fraud and intimidation, declared that the two major opposition coalitions together would form a majority coalition. Though one of the opposition parties carried Ethiopias capital Addis Ababa by a landslide. The opposition made spectacular gains in the election, which caught all observers, early results from the polls showed the opposition on course to sweep to power with a substantial majority. However, the National Election Board, appointed by the Prime Minister, there was a break in the chain of control of ballot boxes. When the counting resumed, and the coalition declared it had won. The EPRDF is led by a Council as well as an Executive Committee, the four member parties have the same organizational structure. Government and party structures are closely intertwined, minor claims and disputes at the kebele level are adjudicated by social courts based in these Kebeles. Local prisons and in some places local-level militia are used to execute the laws, the other five regions of Ethiopia are governed by parties which were either created or heavily influenced by the EPRDF. One of the earliest was the Afar Peoples Democratic Organization in the Afar Region, in the Somali Region, the Somali Peoples Democratic Party was founded in 1998 after relations with the Ogaden National Liberation Front soured. In the Harari Region there is the Harari National League, while in the Gambela there is the Gambela Peoples Democratic Movement, in Benishangul-Gumuz Region, the Benishangul-Gumuz Peoples Democratic Unity Front predominates. The Ethiopian opposition are referred to by the EPRDF as enemies, the peasantry are considered the main class in Ethiopia, since they form a majority of the population, and they are considered the pillar of Revolutionary Democracy. Upon seizing power, the front was suspicious of the bourgeoisie class. Despite this, the front believed it could win over the petite bourgeoisie through economic incentives, importantly, if members of the petite bourgeoisie class oppose the EPRDF, the front will empty their belly and pocket
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Riek Machar
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Riek Machar Teny Dhurgon is a South Sudanese politician who served as the inaugural Vice President of South Sudan, from its independence in 2011 until his dismissal in 2013. Between April and July 2016 Machar served as the First Vice President of South Sudan and he now leads the rebel faction opposing Salva Kiir known as SPLM-IO. Machar obtained a PhD in strategic planning in 1984 and then joined the rebel Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement/Army during the Second Sudanese Civil War, Riek fell out with the SPLM/A leader John Garang in 1991 and formed a splinter group, the SPLM/A-Nasir. In 1997 Riek made a treaty with the Government of Sudan, in 2000 he left the SSDF and formed a new militia, the Sudan Peoples Defense Forces/Democratic Front, and in 2002 rejoined the SPLA as a senior commander. After the death of John Garang in July 2005, Riek Machar became vice-president of the autonomous Southern Sudan and he became vice-president of South Sudan on 9 July 2011 when the country became independent, but was dismissed from office by President Salva Kiir Mayardit on 23 July 2016. Riek Machar Teny Dhurgon was born in Leer, Unity State in 1953 and he was brought up as a member of the Presbyterian church. Machar belongs to the Dok section of the Nuer people and he trained as an engineer at Khartoum University, and obtained a PhD in Philosophy and strategic planning from the University of Bradford in 1984. Machar has been called a tuut dhoali/Doth in English, which may be translated adult boy, meaning uninitiated and he has tried to transcend tribal divisions, and at one time attempted to ban initiation marks. However, in his struggle with John Garang he exploited ethnic rivalries between the Nuer and Dinka people, Machar married Emma McCune, a British aid worker. She died in a car accident in Nairobi in 1993 at the age of 29, Machars second wife, Angelina Teny, is one of the leading women politicians in South Sudan. She was state minister of Energy and Mining in the transitional government, Machar was a rebel leader with the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army/Movement headed by John Garang from 1984 until he fell out with Garang in 1991. As Zonal Commander of Western Upper Nile, in 1986 he entered into an agreement with Baggara chiefs, Machar led forces that attacked and overran Melut in 1989. That year he was able to visit his family, which was based in Britain, in 1990 Machar was based at Leer. Later he was appointed SPLA Regional Commander for a region that extended from the Ethiopian border in the east to Renk in the north and to Ayod, Machar disagreed with the SPLA leader John Garang over objectives. Where John Garang at first wanted a secular and democratic but united Sudan in which the southerners would have full representation, in August 1991 Riek Machar, Lam Akol and Gordon Kong announced that John Garang had been ejected from the SPLM. Kong Chuol is from the Eastern Jikany Nuer and Lam Akol is from the Shilluk people, the breakaway faction, based in Nasir until 1995 and then in Waat and Ayod, was called the SPLM/A-Nasir faction from 1991 to 1993. As part of SPLA-Nasir, he was involved in the Bor massacre, the Bul Nuer Anyanya-2 militia at Mayom under Paulino Matip and the Lou Nuer Anyanya-2 militia at Doleib Hill under Yohannes Yual declared for Riek. Kerubino Kuanyin and Faustino Atem Gualdit, Dinkas from Bahr el-Ghazal, had been among the founders of the SPLM but had fallen out with John Garang and had been jailed
