1.
King's Men (playing company)
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The Kings Men was the acting company to which William Shakespeare belonged for most of his career. Formerly known as The Lord Chamberlains Men during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, they became The Kings Men in 1603 when King James I ascended the throne, the nine cited by name became Grooms of the Chamber. On 15 March 1604, each of the nine men named in the patent was supplied with four and this represented a workload twice as great as was typical under Elizabeth. The Kings Men needed more men and in 1604 the number of sharers was increased from eight or nine, ten, eleven, the new sharers included John Lowin, Alexander Cooke, and Nicholas Tooley. May 1605 brought the death of Augustine Phillips, in his will, Phillips left legacies to Shakespeare, Burbage, and eight other members of the company, plus two apprentices, and £5 to the hired men of the company which I am of. The company gave ten Court performances in the winter of 1605–6 and, unusually, each Court performance earned them £10. They also toured that summer, and were in Oxford at the end of July, nine performances at Court marked the winter of 1606–7, including a performance of 26 December of King Lear, the following winter, 1607–8, saw thirteen Court appearances. From July to December 1608 the theatres were closed due to plague, the Kings Men toured the countryside, they were in Coventry in late October. Sly, however, died soon after, and his share was split among the other six, the acquisition of the Blackfriars represented an enormous advantage for the company. It allowed the company to perform year round instead of only in clement weather, the Blackfriars hall is thought to have been 66 feet by 46 feet, including the stage, its maximum capacity was likely in the hundreds of spectators. This can be compared with the capacity at the Globe Theatre of 2500 to 3000. Yet the ticket prices at the Blackfriars were five to six times higher than those at the Globe, Globe tickets ranged from a penny to sixpence, tickets at the Blackfriars ranged from sixpence to two shillings sixpence. The cheapest admission at the Blackfriars equalled the most expensive at the Globe, adding the Blackfriars to the Globe should have allowed the Kings Men to at least double their income from public performances. 1609 was another year during which the company travelled, although nine plays were still performed at Court. 1610 was a year, with public performances at the Globe — Othello. By this time the company had been augmented by John Underwood and William Ostler, in 1611 Jonsons Catiline was performed, apart from Richard Robinsons substitution for Armin, the cast roster was the same as for Sejanus the previous year. This may have been John Heminges last production, in 1613 hes described as stuttering, Heminges normally received the payments for the companys Court performances, as far back as 1595, he continued to be active in the companys financial affairs even after he left the stage. Between October 1611 and April 1612 the Kings Men performed 22 plays at Court, including The Winters Tale and The Tempest
2.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
3.
Henry Condell
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Henry Condell was an actor in the Kings Men, the playing company for which William Shakespeare wrote. With John Heminges, he was instrumental in preparing and editing the First Folio and it appears that he may have been from East Anglia, as his will mentions my Cosen Gilder late of newe Buckenham’. Henry Condell, presumably their son, was baptized at St Peter on 5 September 1576, traditionally, he is associated with the Harry who appears in the cast list for Richard Tarltons The Seven Deadly Sins, but this identification is little more than conjecture. If the connection is true, then Condell was an actor as early as 1590, acting in Lord Stranges Men alongside John Heminges and Augustine Phillips. Condell was definitely in London by 24 October 1596, when he married, at St Laurence Pountney, Elizabeth Smart and they settled in St Mary Aldermanbury, the parish in which Heminges lived. Condell, like Heminges, served as churchwarden in that church, nine children were baptized there, born between 1599 and 1614, of whom only three survived to adulthood, Elizabeth, who married Herbert Finch, Henry, and William. Details of Condells mature life, as is usual for Renaissance actors, are few and his status within the Lord Chamberlains and Kings companies appears to have been high, in official communications he is generally listed shortly after Burbage and Heminges. Actors wills indicate that he was close to at least some of his colleagues in the company, Shakespeare and Phillips bequeathed him money for mourning rings, Nicholas Tooley and Alexander Cooke named him as trustee for their estates. Condell prospered enough in his profession to purchase a home at Fulham in Middlesex and other property, including an estate called Brockhampton in Snowshill. The indentures recording the latter contain the only known example of Condells signature or handwriting apart from his last will. In addition to Every Man in His Humour and Every Man Out of His Humour, Condell is known to have performed in four more of Jonsons plays, Sejanus, Volpone, The Alchemist and he was the original Cardinal in John Websters The Duchess of Malfi. And he was listed in eight of the cast lists that were added to the second Beaumont and Fletcher folio of 1679 and he signed each of the nine sheets of his last will and testament on 13 December 1627. He died at Fulham aged 51, and was buried at St Mary Aldermanbury on 29 December 1627 and his widow, Elizabeth, was buried there on 3 October 1635. Condell left an estate, including shares in the Globe. Lives of the Original Actors in Shakespeares Plays, a Dictionary of Actors and of Other Persons Associated With the Public Presentation of Plays in England Before 1642. New Haven, Yale University Press,1929
4.
First Folio
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Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies is the 1623 published collection of William Shakespeares plays. Modern scholars commonly refer to it as the First Folio, printed in folio format and containing 36 plays, it was prepared by Shakespeares colleagues John Heminges and Henry Condell. It was dedicated to the pair of brethren William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke and his brother Philip Herbert. The paper industry in England was then in its infancy and the quantity of quality rag paper for the book was imported from France. It is thought that the typesetting and printing of the First Folio was such a job that the Kings Men simply needed the capacities of the Jaggards shop. William Jaggard was old, infirm and blind by 1623, and died a month before the book went on sale, most of the work in the project must have been done by his son Isaac. The First Folios publishing syndicate also included two stationers who owned the rights to some of the plays that had been previously printed, William Aspley. Smethwick had been a partner of another Jaggard, Williams brother John. The printing of the Folio was probably done between February 1622 and early November 1623, the printer originally expected to have the book ready early, since it was listed in the Frankfurt Book Fair catalogue as a book to appear between April and October 1622. The thirty-six plays of the First Folio occur in the order given below, each play is followed by the type of source used, as determined by bibliographical research. Comedies 1 The Tempest * – the play was set into type from a prepared by Ralph Crane. Crane produced a high-quality result, with formal act/scene divisions, frequent use of parentheses and hyphenated forms,2 The Two Gentlemen of Verona * – another transcript by Ralph Crane. 3 The Merry Wives of Windsor – another transcript by Ralph Crane,4 Measure for Measure * – probably another Ralph Crane transcript. 5 The Comedy of Errors * – probably typeset from Shakespeares foul papers,6 Much Ado About Nothing – typeset from a copy of the quarto, lightly annotated. 7 Loves Labours Lost – typeset from a copy of Q1. 8 A Midsummer Nights Dream – typeset from a copy of Q2, well-annotated,9 The Merchant of Venice – typeset from a lightly edited and corrected copy of Q1. 10 As You Like It * – from a quality manuscript,11 The Taming of the Shrew * – typeset from Shakespeares foul papers, somewhat annotated, perhaps as preparation for use as a prompt-book. 12 Alls Well That Ends Well * – probably from Shakespeares foul papers or a manuscript of them,13 Twelfth Night * – typeset either from a prompt-book or a transcript of one
5.
Droitwich Spa
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Droitwich Spa is a town in northern Worcestershire, England, on the River Salwarpe. The Spa was added in the 19th century when John Corbett developed the spa facilities. The River Salwarpe running through Droitwich is likely derived from Sal meaning salt, Droitwich is within the Wychavon area – the only Midlands area to be in the Halifax Quality of Life Survey of 2011. On 4 November 2013 Droitwich Spa Town Council made Max Sinclair an honorary Freeman of the town in recognition of the role he played in the restoration of Droitwich Canals. The town is situated on massive deposits of salt, and salt has been extracted there since ancient times, the natural Droitwich brine contains 2½ lbs. of salt per gallon – ten times stronger than sea water and rivalled only by the Dead Sea. During the Roman era the settlement was known as Salinae and was located at the crossroads of several Roman roads, Railway construction in 1847 revealed Roman mosaic pavements, and later excavations unearthed a Roman villa or corridor house some 44 yards long. The flooding was pictured in UK-wide news, having flooded the majority of the heavily subsided high street, many shops in the high street remained closed almost a year later. The flooding crossed from the stream and canal in Vines Park, crossed Roman Way, rock salt and brine was extracted by the Romans and this continued through to the Middle Ages. A salt tax was levied by the king until it was abolished in 1825, a local family named Wintour owned up to 25 salt evaporating pans in the area by the 1600s. Brine rose naturally to the surface at three sites along the River Salwarpe within Vines Park in the centre of Droitwich, unusually the brine was fully saturated with sodium chloride, and was extremely valuable because it was economic to boil, and the yield of salt was high. Because of its value the brine was divided into shares, one share comprising 6,912 gallons which produced eight tons of salt annually in the set boiling period. When it rained, particularly in the winter when brine was not being boiled, originally brine for boiling was extracted with buckets lowered into the pits which were naturally replenished. Upwich, the deepest of the three pits at 30 feet, supplied most of the brine, while the pit at Netherwich was only 18 feet deep. The Middlewich pit, located between the two, was affected by brine extraction at the other two pits and fell into disuse. Steynor in the 17th century discovered the pit and set up business for himself, with this production increased and pumps were used to draw brine, however, as a result parts of the town succumbed to subsidence. In the mid-19th century, Droitwich became famous as a Spa town, the spa water at Droitwich is the warmest in the United Kingdom outside Bath, but it does not meet the most common definition of a hot spring as the water is below standard human body temperature. The original Brine Baths have long closed, but a new brine bath opened to the public for relaxation. But this too was closed in December 2008 due to a dispute between the operator and Wychavon District Council over health and safety inspections
6.
Worcestershire
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Worcestershire is a county in the West Midlands of England. Between 1974 and 1998, it was merged with the county of Herefordshire as Hereford. The cathedral city of Worcester is the largest settlement and county town, other towns in the county include Redditch, Bromsgrove, Stourport-on-Severn, Droitwich, Evesham, Kidderminster, and Malvern. The north-east of Worcestershire includes part of the industrial West Midlands, the county is divided into six administrive districts, Worcester, Redditch, Wychavon, Malvern Hills, Wyre Forest, and Bromsgrove. The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, to the west, the county is bordered by the Malvern Hills and the spa town of Malvern. The south of the county is bordered by Gloucestershire and the edge of the Cotswolds. Two major rivers flow through the county, the Severn and the Avon, Worcestershire was the heartland of the early English kingdom of the Hwicce. It was absorbed by the Kingdom of Mercia during the 7th century and it was a separate ealdormanship briefly in the 10th century before forming part of the Earldom of Mercia in the 11th century. In the years leading up to the Norman conquest, the Church, supported by the cathedral, Evesham Abbey, Pershore Abbey, Malvern Priory, and other religious houses, increasingly dominated the county. The last known Anglo-Saxon sheriff of the county was Cyneweard of Laughern, on 4 August 1265, Simon de Montfort was killed in the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire. In 1642, the Battle of Powick Bridge was the first major skirmish of the English Civil War, during the Middle Ages, much of the countys economy was based on the wool trade. Many areas of its forests, such as Feckenham Forest, Horewell Forest. Droitwich Spa, situated on large deposits of salt, was a centre of production from Roman times. These old industries have declined, to be replaced by other. The county is home to the worlds oldest continually published newspaper. Malvern was one of the centres of the 19th century rise in English spa towns due to Malvern water being believed to be very pure, containing nothing at all. The 2011 census found the population of Worcestershire to be 566,169, while this change is in line with the nationwide trend of White British peoples share of the population shrinking, Worcestershire is still much more ethnically homogeneous than the national average. In 2011 England as a whole was 79. 8% White British, the most notable were Dudley, Evenlode, and the area around Shipston-on-Stour
7.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
8.
Worshipful Company of Grocers
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The Worshipful Company of Grocers is one of the 110 Livery Companies of the City of London and ranks second in order of precedence. Established in 1345, the Grocers comprise one of Londons Great Twelve City Livery Companies, the company was founded in the 14th century by members of the Guild of Pepperers, which dates from 1180. The Company was responsible for maintaining standards for the purity of spices and for the setting of certain weights and its members included Londons pharmacists, who separated forming the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries in 1617. The guild was known as the Company of Grossers from 1373 until 1376 when it was renamed the Company of Grocers of London, in 1428, two years after building its first hall in Old Jewry, the Company was granted a Royal Charter by King Henry VI of England. One of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies, it ranks second in the Companies order of precedence after the Mercers Company, the Companys motto is God Grant Grace. The Company also provides banqueting and conference facilities at Grocers Hall situated in Princes Street, the earliest known Grocers Hall was in Poultry, then known as Conningshop-lane on account of the three conies or rabbits hanging over a poulterers stall in the lane. It was built in 1428 on land owned by Lord Fitzwalter and let out for dinners, funerals, county feasts. The hall was renovated in 1681 by the future Lord Mayor of London. A new hall was built on the site between 1798 and 1802 when part of the garden was sold to the Bank of England for the expansion of nearby Princes Street. However, frequent and extensive repairs were required due to defective foundations in the building, a fifth and final hall was constructed nearby in 1970, also on Princes Street, which remains the Grocers home today. The present Master Grocer for 2014-15 is James Roundell and the Companys Clerk is Brigadier Robert Pridham, reeds Schools Annual Foundation Appeal has been held at Grocers’ Hall for over fifty years. Additionally, in 1876 the Company founded the Grocers Company School, in Hackney, east of the City of London and this was transferred into London County Councils control after that authoritys formation in 1889 and changed its name to Hackney Downs School, it closed in 1995. The Grocers Company now maintains close links with and is the sponsor of Hackneys Mossbourne Academy. The church of St Mary the Virgin at Northill in Bedfordshire shows the Grocers coat of arms on a glass window by John Oliver. The company commissioned the window in 1664, some Account of the Worshipful Company of Grocers of the City of London. 1829 history of the Company by the Governor of the Bank of England, the Grocers Company of the City of London www. liverycompanies. com
9.
Queen Elizabeth's Men
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Queen Elizabeths Men was a playing company or troupe of actors in English Renaissance theatre. Since the Queen instigated the formation of the company, its inauguration is well documented by Elizabethan standards, at that time the Earl of Sussex, who had been the court official in charge of the Lord Chamberlains Men in its first Elizabethan incorporation, was nearing death. The task of convening the new troupe apparently needed Walsinghams strong arm, other prominent members of the new company were John Singer, William Knell and the inimitable John Bentley. Tarlton quickly became the star of the Queens Men – for a wondrous plentiful pleasant extemporal wit and it has been proposed that Elizabeth had a specific political motive behind the formation of the company. By culling the best players in their troupes to form her own, she slapped down ambitious aristocrats, in the plays they acted, one finds no conflict or disturbance that is not settled in the interests of Tudor conservatism. The political controversies that marked later companies and plays – The Isle of Dogs, The Isle of Gulls, the former was a large open-air venue, but the latter may have been enclosed. The creation of the company took advantage of the growing versatility, the company entertained at Court primarily in the winter, and during the summer they toured the towns of the shires, they may have reached as far as Scotland in 1589. In London they were allowed to perform only at the Bull and Bell Inns – though in later years they may have acted at James Burbages Theatre as well. The size of the new company enabled it to act a new kind of play, when the Queens Men were finally supplanted at Court in the winter of 1591–92, it required an assemblage of personnel from both the Admirals Men and Lord Stranges Men to fill their place. An extreme instance of the phenomenon may be found in the example of the Queens Mens production of The True Tragedy of Richard III. By one reconstruction, four actors were required to play seven roles each, William Knell was killed in 1587 in a sword fight when he got into an argument with another actor of the troupe, one John Towne. Richard Tarlton died in 1588, at a time when Queen Elizabeths Men were facing new competition from the Admirals Men, the character of the troupe also changed around this time, they were joined by John Symons and other acrobats from Lord Stranges Men. And with this different emphasis and orientation, they appear to have lost the high regard they previously enjoyed and they played only once at Court in the 1591 Christmas season, while a combination of Admirals and Lord Stranges Men performed six times in the same period. The disruption of the 1592–93 period, when the London theatres were closed due to bubonic plague, when the actors re-organized themselves in 1594, primarily in the re-formed Lord Chamberlains and Admirals companies, Queen Elizabeths Men were passé. John Singer completed his career with a decade with the Admirals Men. Because of the publication of some of their plays in the early 1590s,4 Volumes, Oxford, Clarendon Press,1923. Third edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1992, the Elizabethan Theatre and The Book of Sir Thomas More. Ithaca, N. Y. Cornell University Press,1987, the Queens Men and Their Plays
10.
Thame
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Thame /teɪm/ is a market town and civil parish in Oxfordshire, about 9 miles east of the city of Oxford and 7 miles southwest of the Buckinghamshire town of Aylesbury. It derives its toponym from the River Thame which flows along the side of the town. The parish includes the hamlet of Moreton south of the town, the 2011 Census recorded the parishs population as 11,561. Thame was founded in the Anglo-Saxon era and was in the kingdom of Wessex, Thame Abbey was founded in 1138 for the Cistercian Order, the abbey church was consecrated in 1145. In the 16th century Dissolution of the Monasteries the abbey was suppressed, Thame Park was built on the site, incorporating parts of the abbey including the early-16th-century abbots house. Its interior is one of the earliest examples of the Italian Renaissance in England, a Georgian west wing was added in the 18th century. In about 1840 parts of the foundations of the church were excavated, it was 77 yards long and 23 yards wide. The earliest feature of the Church of England parish church of Mary the Virgin is the 12th-century base of the font, the fonts octagonal bowl was re-cut in the 13th century. The present church is a building that was built in the 13th century. The chancel is Early English Gothic and was built in about 1220, with six windows in its north wall. Whatever lancet windows may have been in the south wall were replaced with three two-light Decorated Gothic windows with reticulated tracery, and a double piscina was added at the same time. The transepts and tower arches are also early 13th century, the nave has five-bay north and south aisles whose arcades were built in about 1260. The aisles were widened in the 14th century, when they acquired their Decorated Gothic windows, the Decorated Gothic south porch has two storeys and a two-bay quadripartite vault. The Perpendicular Gothic clerestory is 14th or early 15th century, in the 15th century the tower piers were strengthened and the two upper stages of the tower were built. In 1442 the north transept was rebuilt with five-light Perpendicular Gothic north, at about the same time the south transept acquired similar windows and was extended eastwards to form a chapel with a 15th-century piscina. The Perpendicular Gothic nave west window was inserted in 1672–73, making it an example of Gothic survival, in 1838 the north aisle north wall was rebuilt under the direction of George Wilkinson. The tower has a ring of eight bells, all cast by Mears, the Prebendal House is known to have existed by 1234, The Early English Gothic chapel was built in about 1250. The solar is also 13th-century but was enlarged in the 14th, the rest of the Prebendal House dates is 15th centuries
11.
St Mary Aldermanbury
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St. Mary Aldermanbury was a church in the City of London first mentioned in 1181 and destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666. Rebuilt in Portland stone by Christopher Wren, it was gutted by the Blitz in 1940. In 1966 these stones were transported to Fulton, Missouri, by the residents of that town, Churchill had made his Sinews of Peace, Iron Curtain speech in the Westminster College Gymnasium in 1946. The gardens also house a monument to Henry Condell and John Heminges, key figures in the production of the First Folio of William Shakespeares plays, Condell and Heminges lived in the St. Mary Aldermanbury parish and were buried in its churchyard. This monument is topped with a bust of Shakespeare, the remains of the church were designated a Grade II listed building on 5 June 1972. In the 1830s, the notable missionary William Jowett was a lecturer at the church, notable burials in the church included the notorious hanging judge Judge Jeffreys and the Puritan author and minister James Janeway and his father, William. Of the interment of Judge Jeffreys, Leigh Hunt wrote, Jeffreys was taken on the twelfth of September,1688. In 1810, during repairs, the coffin was uncovered for a time. Also buried in the church was the astronomer Thomas Digges, who is believed to be the first person to postulate in print that the universe is infinite. List of demolished buildings and structures in London List of Christopher Wren churches in London Church of St. Mary the Virgin, Aldermanbury - Churchill Memorial - Fulton, Missouri
12.
Lord Chamberlain's Men
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The Lord Chamberlains Men was a company of actors, or a playing company as it would have been known, for which Shakespeare wrote for most of his career. Richard Burbage played most of the roles, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear. Formed at the end of a period of flux in the world of London, it had become, by 1603. It was founded during the reign of Elizabeth I of England in 1594 under the patronage of Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon, then the Lord Chamberlain, who was in charge of court entertainments. After Careys death on 23 July 1596, the company came under the patronage of his son, George Carey, 2nd Baron Hunsdon, when George Carey in turn became Lord Chamberlain on 17 March 1597, it reverted to its previous name. The company became the Kings Men in 1603 when King James ascended the throne, the company held exclusive rights to perform Shakespeares plays. From 1594 the players performed at The Theatre, in Shoreditch, problems with the landlord caused the company to move to the nearby Curtain Theatre in 1597. On the night of 29 December 1598, The Theatre was dismantled by the Burbage brothers, along with William Smith, their financial backer, Peter Street, a carpenter, and ten to twelve workmen. The beams were then carried south of the river to Southwark to form part of their new playhouse, built in 1599, this theatre was destroyed in a fire on 29 June 1613. The Globe was rebuilt by June 1614 and finally closed in 1642, the company also toured Britain, and visited France and Belgium. A modern reconstruction of the original Globe, named Shakespeares Globe, the initial form of the Chamberlains men arose largely from the departure of Edward Alleyn from Lord Stranges Men and the subsequent death of Lord Strange himself, in the spring of 1594. Yet the ultimate success of the company was determined by the Burbage family. James Burbage was the impresario who assembled the company and directed its activities until his death in 1597, his sons Richard and Cuthbert were members of the company, though Cuthbert did not act. This connection with the Burbages makes the Chamberlains Men the central link in a chain that extends from the beginning of theatre in Renaissance London to its end. The original sharers in the Chamberlains were eight, probably the most famous in the mid-1590s was William Kempe, who had been in the company of the Earl of Leicester in the 1580s, and had later joined the Kings Men. Kempe has traditionally viewed as the object of Hamlets complaint about extemporising clowns, whether this association is right or wrong. Another two sharers from Stranges Men had an association with Kempe. Thomas Pope, another Leicesters veteran, retired in 1600 and died in 1603, both Bryan and Pope came to the company from Lord Stranges Men
13.
Privy Council of England
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The Privy Council of England, also known as His Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, was a body of advisers to the sovereign of the Kingdom of England. Its members were often members of the House of Lords. The Privy Council of England was an institution, advising the Sovereign on the exercise of the Royal prerogative. It issued executive orders known as Orders in Council and also had judicial functions, during the reigns of the Norman monarchs, the English Crown was advised by a royal court, which consisted of magnates, clergy and officers of the Crown. This body originally concerned itself with advising the Sovereign on legislation, administration, later, different bodies assuming distinct functions evolved from the court. The courts of law took over the business of dispensing justice, nevertheless, the Council retained the power to hear legal disputes, either in the first instance or on appeal. Furthermore, laws made by the Sovereign on the advice of the Council, powerful Sovereigns often used the body to circumvent the courts and Parliament. During Henry VIIIs reign, the Sovereign, on the advice of the Council, was allowed to enact laws by mere proclamation, the legislative pre-eminence of Parliament was not restored until after Henry VIIIs death. Though the royal Council retained legislative and judicial responsibilities, it became an administrative body. The Council consisted of forty members in 1553, but the Sovereign relied on a smaller committee, the Council developed significantly during the reign of Elizabeth I, gaining political experience, so that there were real differences between the Privy Council of the 1560s and that of the 1600s. By the end of the English Civil War, the monarchy, House of Lords, the remaining house of Parliament, the House of Commons, instituted a Council of State to execute laws and to direct administrative policy. The forty-one members of the Council were elected by the Commons, the body was headed by Oliver Cromwell, in 1653, however, Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the Council was reduced to between thirteen and twenty-one members, all elected by the Commons. In 1657, the Commons granted Cromwell even greater powers, some of which were reminiscent of those enjoyed by monarchs, the Council became known as the Protectors Privy Council, its members were appointed by the Lord Protector, subject to Parliaments approval. In 1659, shortly before the restoration of the monarchy, the Protectors Council was abolished, charles II restored the royal Privy Council, but he, like previous Stuart monarchs, chose to rely on a small committee of advisers. The Acts of Union 1707 united England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain, during the reign of Elizabeth I, the Council is recorded under the title The Queens Majesties most Honourable Privy-Council. The Sovereign, when acting on the Councils advice, was known as the King-in-Council or Queen-in-Council, the members of the Council were collectively known as The Lords of His Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, or sometimes The Lords and others of. ). The chief officer of the body was the Lord President of the Council, another important official was the Clerk, whose signature was appended to all orders made. Membership was generally for life, although the death of a monarch brought an immediate dissolution of the Council, the Privy Council of England was one of the four principal councils of the Sovereign
14.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
15.
Richard Burbage
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Richard Burbage is considered the first great actor of English theatre. He is one of the most famous actors of the Globe Theatre of his time, in addition to being a stage actor he was also a theatre owner, entrepreneur and painter. He was the brother of Cuthbert Burbage. They were both actors in drama, Burbage was a business associate and friend to William Shakespeare. The son of James Burbage, a joiner who became a theatrical impresario, Burbage was a popular actor by his early 20s. He excelled in plays with the theme of tragedies and his early acting career is poorly documented. As many young actors of his time, he may have played the part of women in productions before taking any of the roles he is known for. It has been suggested that he spent time working with the Earl of Leicesters company and he played the title role in the first performances of many of Shakespeares plays, including Hamlet, Othello, Richard III, and King Lear. But he was in demand and also appeared in the plays of many of the great contemporary writers, such as Ben Jonson, John Marston, John Webster and Beaumont. Burbages power and scope as an actor is revealed in the size of the roles he played. He was a box office draw. Of the hundreds of plays and thousands of roles for actors that date from the 1580–1610 era and his acting style is closely compared with the method that actors use today called method acting, it would be another four centuries before this came into popularity. He was described as being short and stout, but said to be an impressive figure, Burbage was baptised at St Stephen in London on 7 July 1568. He was the son to his parents, followed by three younger sisters, Alice, Joane, and Ellen. His father brought Burbage to the theatre and became the greatest influence for his career and it gave him a great starting advantage in the theatre world by being the son of a builder and owner of the first successful permanent playhouse. After the death of their father in February 1597, Richard, the Blackfriars Theatre they kept but leased to lawyer and impresario Henry Evans, who used it for a troupe of child actors. The other, called simply The Theatre, was dismantled when they could not resolve terms for a new lease with Giles Allen, the landowner. The beams, posts, and other remnants of The Theatre were moved to a new location on the side of the Thames River
16.
Mourning ring
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A mourning ring is a finger ring worn in memory of someone who has died. It often bears the name and date of death of the person and they were usually paid for by the person commemorated, or their heirs, and often specified, along with the list of intended recipients, in wills. Stones mounted on the rings were usually black, where it could be afforded jet was the preferred option, otherwise cheaper black materials such as black enamel or vulcanite were used. White enamel was used on occasion particularly where the deceased was a child and it also saw some use when the person being mourned had not married. In some cases a lock of hair of the person would be incorporated into the ring. The use of hair in mourning rings was not as widespread as it might have been due to concerns that the hair of the deceased would be substituted with other hair. The use of mourning rings dates back to at least the 14th century, by the mid-18th century jewelers had started to advertise the speed with which such rings could be made. The style largely settled upon was a small stone with details of the decedent recorded in enamel on the hoop. Use of mourning rings resurfaced in the 1930s and 1940s in the United States, the rings were made of bakelite and mounted a small picture of the person being mourned. Mourning rings have sometimes made to mark occasions other than a persons death. In 1793 one was made for William Skirving after he was sentenced to penal transportation,1836, bequeathing 16 rings Sir Anthony Browne Col. Nicholas Spencer William Shakespeare
17.
Charles William Wallace
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Charles William Wallace was an American scholar and researcher, famed for his discoveries in the field of English Renaissance theatre. Wallace was born in Hopkins, Missouri to Thomas Dickay Wallace, intending to be a teacher, he graduated from Western Normal College, Shenandoah, Iowa, and taught briefly in country schoolhouses before becoming a professor of Latin and English at his alma mater. He also founded and directed a school for the state university in Nebraska. He earned a degree from the University of Nebraska. He was an instructor at the University of Nebraska in 1901 and he married Hulda Alfreda Berggren in 1893. From 1907 through 1916, he and his wife conducted a survey at the Public Record Office in London. The Wallaces discovered the court papers of the dispute between Alleyn and the owners of The Theatre, an account of which he published as The First London Theatre. The Wallaces work provided a vastly improved comprehension of the role of the companies in English Renaissance drama. Wallaces dedication to his research took an unusual, perhaps unique form, in order to further work
18.
Southwark
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Southwark is a district of Central London and part of the London Borough of Southwark. Situated 1.5 miles east of Charing Cross, it one of the oldest parts of London. It historically formed an ancient borough in the county of Surrey, made up of a number of parishes, as an inner district of London, Southwark experienced rapid depopulation during the late-19th and early-20th centuries. It is now at a stage of regeneration and is the county town of Greater London which is the location of the City Hall offices of the Greater London Authority. Southwark had a population of 30,119 in 2011, Southwark is recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book as Sudweca. The name means southern defensive work and is formed from the Old English sūth, the southern location is in reference to the City of London to the north, Southwark being at the southern end of London Bridge. The ancient borough of Southwark was also simply as The Borough—or Borough—and this name. Southwark was also referred to as the Ward of Bridge Without when administered by the City. Southwark is on a marshy area south of the River Thames. Recent excavation has revealed prehistoric activity including evidence of ploughing, burial mounds. The area was originally a series of islands in the River Thames and this formed the best place to bridge the Thames and the area became an important part of Londinium owing its importance to its position as the endpoint of the Roman London Bridge. Two Roman roads, Stane Street and Watling Street, met at Southwark in what is now Borough High Street, archaeological work at Tabard Street in 2004 discovered a plaque with the earliest reference to London from the Roman period on it. Londinium was abandoned at the end of the Roman occupation in the fifth century. Archaeologically, evidence of settlement is replaced by a largely featureless soil called the Dark Earth which probably represents an urban area abandoned, Southwark appears to recover only during the time of King Alfred and his successors. Sometime about 886 AD, the burh of Southwark was created and it was probably fortified to defend the bridge and hence the re-emerging City of London to the north. He failed to force the bridge during the Norman conquest of England, Southwark appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as held by several Surrey manors. Southwarks value to the King was £16, much of Southwark was originally owned by the church—the greatest reminder of monastic London is Southwark Cathedral, originally the priory of St Mary Overie. During the early Middle Ages, Southwark developed and was one of the four Surrey towns which returned Members of Parliament for the first commons assembly in 1295
19.
Ben Jonson
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Benjamin Jonson was an English playwright, poet, actor, and literary critic of the 17th century, whose artistry exerted a lasting impact upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours, Ben Jonson said that his family originally came from the folk of the Anglo-Scottish border country, which genealogy is attested by the three spindles in the Jonson family coat of arms. One spindle is a heraldic device shared with the Border-country Johnstone family of Annandale. Jonsons clergyman father died two months before his birth, his mother married a master bricklayer two years later, Jonson attended school in St. Martins Lane. Later, a family friend paid for his studies at Westminster School, on leaving Westminster School, Jonson was to have attended the University of Cambridge, to continue his book learning but did not, because of his unwilled apprenticeship to his bricklayer stepfather. According to the churchman and historian Thomas Fuller, Jonson at this time built a wall in Lincolns Inn. After having been a bricklayer, Ben Jonson went to the Netherlands. After his military activity on the Continent, Jonson returned to England and worked as an actor, as an actor, Jonson was the protagonist “Hieronimo” in the play The Spanish Tragedy, by Thomas Kyd, the first revenge tragedy in English literature. Regarding his marriage Jonson described his wife to William Drummond as a shrew, concerning the family of Anne Lewis and Ben Jonson, the St. Martins Church registers indicate that Mary Jonson, their eldest daughter, died in November 1593, at six months of age. Moreover,32 years later, a son, also named Benjamin Jonson. By summer 1597, Jonson had an engagement in the Admirals Men, then performing under Philip Henslowes management at The Rose. John Aubrey reports, on authority, that Jonson was not successful as an actor, whatever his skills as an actor. By this time Jonson had begun to write plays for the Admirals Men. None of his early tragedies survive, however, an undated comedy, The Case is Altered, may be his earliest surviving play. In 1597 a play which he co-wrote with Thomas Nashe, The Isle of Dogs, was suppressed after causing great offence, arrest warrants for Jonson and Nashe were issued by Queen Elizabeth Is so-called interrogator, Richard Topcliffe. Jonson was jailed in Marshalsea Prison and charged with Leude and mutynous behaviour, two of the actors, Gabriel Spenser and Robert Shaw, were also imprisoned. A year later, Jonson was again imprisoned, this time in Newgate Prison. While in jail Jonson converted to Catholicism, possibly through the influence of fellow-prisoner Father Thomas Wright, in 1598 Jonson produced his first great success, Every Man in His Humour, capitalising on the vogue for humorous plays which George Chapman had begun with An Humorous Days Mirth
20.
Sejanus His Fall
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Sejanus His Fall, a 1603 play by Ben Jonson, is a tragedy about Lucius Aelius Seianus, the favourite of the Roman emperor Tiberius. Sejanus His Fall was performed at court in 1603, and at the Globe Theatre in 1604, the latter performance was a failure. According to Jonson, an unnamed co-author had good share in the version of the play as it was acted on the public stage, for reasons unknown the play was accused of promoting popery and treason. Jonson was questioned, but no action was taken, Jonson published the play in a revised version, replacing the contributions of his co-author with his own words. The published version was accompanied by copious marginal notes citing its historical sources, in quarto in 1605, Sejanus His Fall was first performed by the Kings Men in 1603, probably at court in the winter of that year. In 1604 it was produced at the Globe Theatre, the plays reception in 1603 is unrecorded, but the 1604 performance at the Globe was hissed off the stage. According to Park Honan, Shakespeares own later Roman works carefully avoided Sejanuss clotted style, lack of irony and it is not known which parts were played by which actors. David Grote argues that the published list probably mixes two separate productions, as Lowin did not join the Kings Men until after the first production. Phillips, who had been playing dissolute men for some time, still, with Shakespeare as Tiberius, there is a very large role for an indignant speechmaker, Arruntius, that would have taken advantage of Phillipss rhetorical skills. Grote further suggests that the other members of the company, Samuel Crosse, William Sly, and Robert Armin, played the roles of Lepidus, Terentius. From 1604 on, there is no record of a performance of Sejanus His Fall until 1928, according to the plays modern editor Philip Ayres, Poel cut the play by roughly a quarter to get away from the literary 1605 published version to the hidden stage play. The play was entered in the Stationers Register by Edward Blount on 2 November 1604, on 6 August 1605 Blount transferred his copyright to Thomas Thorpe, who published it in quarto that year, printed by George Eld. A1616 edition in folio features Jonsons Epistle to Lord Aubigny, what led to these accusations is unknown. It might have something in the text or the performance of the play. Nor is it known exactly when this accusation was made, though it is likely to have been in the period of James Is reign. However, according to Jonson expert James Loxley, no action was taken, there have been several theories about what may have led to the accusation. One theory is that the fall of Sejanus was thought to mirror that of the Earl of Essex, who had been executed in 1601. Another writer, Samuel Daniel was brought before the Privy Council in 1604 because his play Philotas was thought to be a reflection of the matter of the dead Earl of Essex
21.
Every Man in His Humour
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Every Man in His Humour is a 1598 play by the English playwright Ben Jonson helped out by Jason Simons. The play belongs to the subgenre of the comedy, in which each major character is dominated by an over-riding humour or obsession. All the available evidence indicates that the play was performed by the Lord Chamberlains Men in 1598 at the Curtain Theatre, the play was also acted at Court on 2 February 1605. A theatre legend first recorded in 1709 by Nicholas Rowe has it that Shakespeare advocated production of the play at a point when the company was about to reject it. While this legend is unverifiable, it is all but certain, based on the playlist published in the folio, that Shakespeare played the part of Knowell and this is consistent with Shakespeares habit of playing older characters, such as Adam in As You Like It. It is thought that this entry was an attempt to block publication of the four plays, if so, the attempt failed, since the latter three plays appeared in print soon after. Every Man In was re-registered ten days later, on 14 August 1600, by the booksellers Cuthbert Burby and Walter Burre, in the 1601 Quarto version, the play was set in Florence, Italy. Gerard Langbaine reports that the play was revived by the Kings Company in 1675, the play remained vivid enough in memory for John Rich to revive it at Lincolns Inn Fields in 1725. However, it was not until David Garrick revived the play with substantial alterations in 1751 that the play regained currency on the English stage. The scene was a favourite, praised by Arthur Murphy and others, Kitely became one of Garricks signature roles, the play declined in popularity in the last quarter of the century, in large part because it was seen as a Garrick vehicle. George Frederick Cooke revived the play at Covent Garden, elizabeth Inchbald lauded the performance, calling Cookes Kitely the equal of Garricks. Cooke had mixed success with the play, though, it failed in Edinburgh in 1808, after 1803, Cooke may have alternated with Kemble in the title role for productions at Covent Garden. Thereafter, the play has been subject to tentative revivals, none of which have established it as viable for modern repertory, edmund Kean played Kitely in an unsuccessful 1816 production, his performance was praised by William Hazlitt. William Charles Macready essayed the role at the Haymarket Theatre in 1838, Robert Browning attended and approved the performance, perhaps the most unusual revival occurred in 1845, when Charles Dickens and his friends mounted a benefit production. Aided by Macready, Dickens took the faintly Dickensian role of Bobadill, George Cruikshank was Cob, the production went off well enough to be repeated three or four times over the next two years. Bulwer-Lytton wrote a poem as prologue for an 1847 production, in addition to Browning, Tennyson, Ben Iden Payne produced the play in Manchester in 1909, and again in Stratford for the Jonson tercentenary in 1937. The later production received much more favourable reviews, John Caird directed the play during the inaugural season of the Swan Theatre in 1986. In general outline, this play follows Latin models quite closely and these types are clearly slightly Anglicized versions of ancient types of Greek New Comedy, namely the senex, the son, and the slave
22.
Folio
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The term folio, from the Latin folium, has three interconnected but distinct meanings in the world of books and printing. It is firstly a term for a method of arranging sheets of paper into book form, folding the sheet only once. Secondly, it is a term for a sheet, leaf or page in manuscripts and old books, and thirdly, an approximate term for the size of a book. Each leaf of a folio book thus is one half the size of the original sheet, ordinarily, additional printed folio sheets would be inserted inside one another to form a group or gathering of leaves prior to binding the book. Means the first side of the 26th leaf in a book, other common book formats are quarto and octavo, which are both also printing formats, involving two and three folds in the sheet respectively. Famous folios include the Gutenberg Bible, printed in about 1455, each leaf of a folio book thus is one half the size of the original sheet. This contrasts with a quarto, folding each sheet twice, and octavo, there are variations in how folios are produced. For example, bibliographers call a book printed as a folio, but bound in gatherings of 8 leaves each, a folio in 8s. The Gutenberg Bible was printed in about 1455 as a folio, in four pages of text were printed on each sheet of paper. The page size is 12 x 17.5 inches, a folio size. Several such folded conjugate pairs of leaves were inserted inside one another to produce the sections or gatherings, Shakespeares First Folio edition is printed as a folio and has a page height of 12.5 inches, making it a rather small folio size. Folios were a common format of books printed in the period, although the earliest printed book. In the discussion of manuscripts, a means a leaf with two pages, the recto being the first the reader encounters, and the verso the second. When this page is turned over f1 v. is on the left and f2 r. on the right of the opening, in the discussion of two-columned manuscripts, a/b/c/d can denote the left and right-hand columns of recto and verso pages. In the discussion of three-columned manuscripts, notation may make use of folio number + recto/verso + column a/b/c. The actual size of a folio book depends on the size of the sheet of paper on which it was printed. Historically, printers used a range of such as, Double Elephant Folio, Atlas Folio, Elephant Folio, Royal Folio, Medium Folio. From the mid-nineteenth century, technology permitted the manufacture of large sheets or rolls of paper on which books were printed, as a result, it may be impossible to determine the actual format
23.
Volpone
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Volpone is a comedy play by English playwright Ben Jonson first produced in 1605-06, drawing on elements of city comedy and beast fable. A merciless satire of greed and lust, it remains Jonsons most-performed play, probably partly based on Sir Henry Wotton, and partly on the traveller, Anthony Shirley. In their turns, each man arrives to Volpone’s house bearing a gift, intent upon having his name inscribed to the will of Volpone. To Volpone, Mosca mentions that Corvino has a beautiful wife, disguised as Scoto the Mountebank, Volpone goes to see Celia. Corvino drives away Scoto, who then becomes insistent that he must possess Celia as his own, Mosca deceives Corvino into believing that the moribund Volpone will be cured of his illness if he lies in bed beside a young woman. Believing that Volpone has been rendered impotent by his illness, Corvino offers his wife in order that, just before Corvino and Celia are due to arrive at Volpones house, Corbaccio’s son Bonario arrives to catch his father in the act of disinheriting him. Mosca guides Bonario to a sideroom, and Volpone and Celia are left alone, upon failing to seduce Celia with fantastic promises of luxury and wealth, Volpone attempts to rape her. Bonario comes forward to rescue Celia, there are episodes involving the English travellers Sir and Lady Politic Would-Be and Peregrine. Sir Politic constantly talks of plots and his business plans. Mosca co-ordinates a mix-up between them which leaves Peregrine, a more sophisticated traveller, feeling offended and he humiliates Sir Politick by telling him he is to be arrested for sedition and making him hide inside a giant tortoise shell. The play appeared in quarto in early 1607, printed by George Eld for publisher Thomas Thorpe. The quarto contains Jonsons dedication to Oxford and Cambridge, as well as a number of commendatory verses, in English and Latin, by fellow-poets such as Francis Beaumont. Its next appearance was in the folio of 1616, and the latter, presumably having been subject to Jonsons careful review, the play premiered at the Globe Theatre in Spring 1606. It was performed by the Kings Men, but casting is uncertain, John Lowin may have performed the title role, as he is associated with the role in James Wrights Historia Histrionica. William Gifford hypothesized that Alexander Cooke may have played Lady Would-be, either that summer or the next, an outbreak of plague closed the London theatres, and the company performed the play at Oxford and Cambridge. Jonson may have added the first acts satire on Pythagoras for these audiences, the play certainly remained in the Kings Mens repertoire throughout the period. It was performed for Charles in 1624 while he was still Prince of Wales, in 1630, after the Restoration, the play enjoyed a lengthy prominence, John Genest records over fifty performances before 1770. John Evelyn saw it performed at the court of Charles II on 16 October 1662, when the theatres reopened, the play was owned by the Kings Men of Thomas Killigrew, it was performed at Drury Lane in 1663
24.
Nathan Field
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Nathan Field was an English dramatist. His father was the Puritan preacher John Field, and his brother Theophilus Field became the Bishop of Llandaff, another brother named Nathaniel, often confused with the actor, became a printer. Nathan presumably did not intend a career in the theater, he was a student of Richard Mulcaster at St. Pauls School in the late 1590s and he remained in this profession for the remainder of his life, later adding to it the profession of playwright. John Field was buried on 26 March 1588, when John Field died, he left seven children, of whom the eldest was only seventeen. He left all his property to his wife, Joan, the first child was a daughter, Dorcas, baptized on 7 May 1570. The first son was baptized on 4 January 1572 and was named for his father, Theophilus was baptized on 22 January 1574, Jonathan on 13 May 1577, Nathaniel on 13 June 1581, Elizabeth on 2 February 1583 and Nathan on 17 October 1587. We know nothing of the life of John Field, junior, Jonathan Field, who died in 1640. He married and in his will all his possessions to his wife. He died on 2 June 1636 and was buried in Hereford Cathedral, as a member of the Children of the Queens Revels, Field acted in the innovative drama staged at Blackfriars in the first years of the 17th century. Cast lists associate him with Ben Jonsons Cynthias Revels and The Poetaster, later in the decade, he performed in Epicoene and, perhaps, played Humphrey in Francis Beaumonts The Knight of the Burning Pestle. During the same years, he wrote verses for Jonsons Volpone and Catiline. Field stayed with a company until 1613, his twenty-sixth year. He appears to be the one of the boy actors of 1600 to remain with the Blackfriars troupe when, in 1609, Philip Rosseter. In this company, he performed in the theater in Whitefriars and, frequently, at court, in such as Beaumont. From the latter years of this come the first of his plays, A Woman is a Weathercock. In 1613, Rosseter combined his company with the Lady Elizabeths Men, performing at the Swan Theatre and Hope Theatre, Field acted in Thomas Middletons A Chaste Maid in Cheapside and Jonsons Bartholomew Fair. For the latter play, in which he may have performed as Cokes or Littlewit and this period ended when Henslowe died, Rosseter abandoned his plans, and Lady Elizabeths Men briefly merged and then separated from Prince Charless Men, thereafter touring in the country. For Field, the period had a more satisfactory end, by late 1616
25.
Edmond Malone
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Edmond Malone was an Irish Shakespearean scholar and editor of the works of William Shakespeare. Assured of an income after the death of his father in 1774, Malone was able to give up his law practice for at first political and he went to London, where he frequented literary and artistic circles. He regularly visited Samuel Johnson and was of assistance to James Boswell in revising and proofreading his Life. He was friendly with Sir Joshua Reynolds, and sat for a now in the National Portrait Gallery. He was one of Reynolds executors, and published a collection of his works with a memoir. Horace Walpole, Edmund Burke, George Canning, Oliver Goldsmith, Lord Charlemont and his refusal to alter some of his notes to Isaac Reeds edition of 1785, which disagreed with Steevenss, resulted in a quarrel with the latter. Malone was also a figure in the refutation of the claim that the Ireland Shakespeare forgeries were authentic works of the playwright. He had two sisters, Henrietta and Catherine, and a brother, Richard. Edmond Malone Sr. was a lawyer and politician, educated at Oxford University and the Inner Temple in London, and called to the Bar in England in 1730. But in 1740, a year before Edmond Jr. was born, his practice in England failed and he took up residence with his wife on the familys country estate, Shinglas, in County Westmeath, and began a more successful legal practice there. Malone excelled at his studies, a student, naturally diligent, consistently at the top of his class. In the very first examination, of four in the year, he shared top honours with James Drought and John Kearney. As an undergraduate he wrote poetry and literary history. Of the latter, an example is a prose translation of Oedipus Rex by Sophocles with annotations. His studies were interrupted when, in the summer of 1759, he, catherines health had been deteriorating for some time and she now had increasing difficulty walking. After a short stay in Highgate she moved to the Roman Baths at Bath in Somerset, Malone and his father returned to Ireland in October, too late to resume the winter term, so he elected to stay at Shinglas until the new year and study on his own. Not wishing to leave his father solitary, he nearly did not return to Trinity, Malones final examination at Trinity was in the Michaelmas term in 1761, and he received his BA degree at the following Commencement on 23 February 1762. As only one of three, he achieved the top mark, the decision to study law was an obvious choice, his father, uncle, and grandfather had all been Irish Barristers
26.
Falstaff
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Sir John Falstaff is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare. In the plays Henry IV, Part 1 and Part 2, he is a companion to Prince Hal, in The Merry Wives of Windsor, he is the buffoonish suitor of two married women. Though primarily a figure, Falstaff still embodies a kind of depth common to Shakespeares major characters. A fat, vain, boastful, and cowardly knight, he spends most of his time drinking at the Boars Head Inn with petty criminals, Falstaff leads the apparently wayward Prince Hal into trouble, and is ultimately repudiated after Hal becomes king. Falstaff has since appeared in media, notably in operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Otto Nicolai. The operas focus on his role in The Merry Wives of Windsor, while the film adapts from the Henriad, Welles, who played Falstaff in his film, considered the character to be Shakespeares greatest creation. Falstaff appears in three of Shakespeares plays, Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2 and his death is mentioned in Henry V but he has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage. However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into King Henry Vs character. The most notable examples in cinema are Laurence Oliviers 1944 version and Kenneth Branaghs 1989 film, the character is known to have been very popular with audiences at the time, and for many years afterwards. According to Leonard Digges, writing shortly after Shakespeares death, while many plays could not get good audiences, but let Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, adding to King Henrys troubles is the behaviour of his son and heir, the Prince of Wales. Hal has forsaken the Royal Court to waste his time in taverns with low companions and this makes him an object of scorn to the nobles and calls into question his royal worthiness. Hals chief friend and foil in living the low life is Sir John Falstaff, fat, old, drunk, and corrupt as he is, he has a charisma and a zest for life that captivates the Prince. The play features three groups of characters that interact slightly at first, and then together in the Battle of Shrewsbury. First there is King Henry himself and his immediate council and he is the engine of the play, but usually in the background. Next there is the group of rebels, energetically embodied in Henry Percy and including his father, the Scottish Earl of Douglas, Edmund Mortimer and the Welshman Owen Glendower also join. Finally, at the centre of the play are the young Prince Hal and his companions Falstaff, Poins, Bardolph, streetwise and pound-foolish, these rogues manage to paint over this grim history in the colours of comedy. Meanwhile, Henrys son Hal is joking, drinking, and thieving with Falstaff and he likes Falstaff but makes no pretense at being like him. Hal believes that this change of manner will amount to a greater reward and acknowledgment of prince-ship
27.
Alexander Pope
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Alexander Pope was an 18th-century English poet. He is best known for his verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the second-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations after Shakespeare, Alexander Pope was born to Alexander Pope Senior, a linen merchant of Plough Court, Lombard Street, London, and his wife Edith, who were both Catholics. Ediths sister Christiana was the wife of the miniature painter Samuel Cooper. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, and went to Twyford School in about 1698/99 and he then went to two Catholic schools in London. Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas, in 1700, his family moved to a small estate at Popeswood in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest. This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles of either London or Westminster, Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. He also studied languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, at Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll, was twenty years older than the poet and had many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the ageing playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet and he also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends. From the age of 12, he suffered health problems, such as Potts disease. His tuberculosis infection caused other problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes. He grew to a height of only 1.37 m. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic, although he never married, he had many female friends to whom he wrote witty letters. Allegedly, his lifelong friend Martha Blount was his lover, in May,1709, Popes Pastorals was published in the sixth part of Tonsons Poetical Miscellanies. This brought Pope instant fame, and was followed by An Essay on Criticism, published in May 1711, around 1711, Pope made friends with Tory writers John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Thomas Parnell and John Arbuthnot, who together formed the satirical Scriblerus Club. The aim of the club was to satirise ignorance and pedantry in the form of the fictional scholar Martinus Scriblerus and he also made friends with Whig writers Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. In March 1713, Windsor Forest was published to great acclaim, during Popes friendship with Joseph Addison, he contributed to Addisons play Cato, as well as writing for The Guardian and The Spectator
28.
Globe Theatre
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The Globe Theatre was a theatre in London associated with William Shakespeare. A second Globe Theatre was built on the site by June 1614. A modern reconstruction of the Globe, named Shakespeares Globe, opened in 1997 approximately 750 feet from the site of the original theatre, from 1909, the current Gielgud Theatre was called Globe Theatre, until it was renamed in 1994. The shape of the foundations is now replicated on the surface, as the majority of the foundations lies beneath 67—70 Anchor Terrace, a listed building, no further excavations have been permitted. The Globe was owned by actors who were shareholders in the Lord Chamberlains Men. 5%. These initial proportions changed over time as new sharers were added, Shakespeares share diminished from 1/8 to 1/14, or roughly 7%, over the course of his career. The Globe was built in 1599 using timber from a theatre, The Theatre. The Burbages originally had a 21-year lease of the site on which the theatre was built, however, the landlord, Giles Allen, claimed that the building had become his with the expiry of the lease. While only a hundred yards from the shore of the Thames. The new theatre was larger than the building it replaced, with the older timbers being reused as part of the new structure and he suggests that a Swiss tourists account of a performance of Julius Caesar witnessed on 21 September 1599 describes the more likely first production. The first performance for which a record remains was Jonsons Every Man out of His Humour—with its first scene welcoming the gracious. On 29 June 1613 the Globe Theatre went up in flames during a performance of Henry VIII, a theatrical cannon, set off during the performance, misfired, igniting the wooden beams and thatching. According to one of the few surviving documents of the event, no-one was severely injured in the event. It was rebuilt in the following year, like all the other theatres in London, the Globe was closed down by the Puritans in 1642. It was pulled down in 1644-45, the cited document dating the act to 15 April 1644 has been identified as a probable forgery—to make room for tenements. A modern reconstruction of the theatre, named Shakespeares Globe, opened in 1997 and it is an academic approximation of the original design, based on available evidence of the 1599 and 1614 buildings, and is located approximately 750 feet from the site of the original theatre. The Globes actual dimensions are unknown, but its shape and size can be approximated from scholarly inquiry over the last two centuries, the evidence suggests that it was a three-storey, open-air amphitheatre approximately 100 feet in diameter that could house up to 3,000 spectators. The Globe is shown as round on Wenceslas Hollars sketch of the building, however, in 1988–89, the uncovering of a small part of the Globes foundation suggested that it was a polygon of 20 sides
29.
Blackfriars, London
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Blackfriars is an area of central London, which lies in the south-west corner of the City of London. Edward I gave permission to rebuild Londons city wall, which lay between the river and Ludgate Hill, around their area. The site was used for occasions of state, including meetings of Parliament. The priory was closed in 1538 during Henrys Dissolution of the monasteries. Katherine Parr, Henry VIIIs sixth and final wife, was born in the area, in 1632, the Society of Apothecaries, acquired the monasterys guesthouse and established their base there. The building was destroyed in the Great Fire of London but the Society rebuilt, the area is now the location of Blackfriars station, and forms the northern bridge-head for both Blackfriars Bridge and Blackfriars Railway Bridge. Alongside the road bridge is Blackfriars Millennium Pier, a stop for bus services on London River Services. The Victoria Embankment stretches along the bank of the river west from Blackfriars to Westminster Bridge. Notable buildings in the include the large Art Deco Unilever House. The area was served by a station south of the river Blackfriars Bridge railway station. It was closed to passengers in 1885 when the current Blackfriars station was opened, on the name Blackfriars, Spirituality Today
30.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
31.
John Payne Collier
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John Payne Collier, was an English Shakespearian critic and forger. He was summoned before the House of Commons in 1819 for giving a report of a speech by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but was not called to the bar until 1829, the delay was partly due to his indiscretion in publishing the Criticisms on the Bar by Amicus Curiae. His leisure was given to the study of Shakespeare and the early English drama, after some minor publications, he produced in 1825–1827 a new edition of Dodsleys Old Plays and in 1833 a supplementary volume entitled Five Old Plays. In 1831 appeared his 3-volume History of English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakespeare and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration, in 1847 he was appointed secretary to the Royal Commission on the British Museum. Collier used these opportunities to effect a series of literary fabrications, over the next several years he claimed to find a number of new documents relating to Shakespeares life and business. In this book were numerous manuscript emendations of Shakespeare, said by Collier to be from the hand of an old corrector and he published these corrections as Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakespeare and boldly incorporated them in his next edition of Shakespeare. Their authenticity was disputed by S. W, singer in The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated and by E. A. Brae in Literary Cookery on internal evidence, in 1859 the folio was submitted by its owner, the Duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum, the emendations were incontestably proved to be forgeries of modern date. Collier was exposed by Nicholas Hamilton in his Inquiry and he had produced the Memoirs of Edward Alleyn for the Shakespeare Society in 1841. He followed up this volume with the Alleyn Papers and the Diary of Philip Henslowe, no statement of his can be accepted without verification, and no manuscript he has handled without careful examination, but he did much useful work. His Old Mans Diary is a record, though even here the taint of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately, what he did amiss is more striking to the imagination than what he did aright and he died at Maidenhead, where he had long resided, on 17 September 1883. For an account of the discussion raised by Colliers emendations, see C. M, ingleby, Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy. In the later 20th century, some scholars attempted a re-evaluation of Collier, the main effort was by Dewey Ganzel, in his 1982 study Fortune and Mens Eyes. The case for Collier has relied on the fact that not all of the accusations of forgery against Collier have stood up to critical examination, the consensus of scholarly opinion has remained convinced of Colliers guilt. Samuel Schoenbaum, in his discussion of the Collier case, mentions a damning incident omitted by Ganzel. In his old age in 1875, more than thirty years after the Perkins folio, by this time his reputation was so tarnished that he was not able to launch another campaign of forgery, and while the Milton folio indeed exists, the annotations are not by Milton
32.
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
33.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
34.
LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
35.
Find a Grave
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Find a Grave is a website that allows the public to search and add to an online database of cemetery records. It is owned by Ancestry. com, the worlds largest for-profit genealogy company, the site was created in 1995 by Salt Lake City resident Jim Tipton to support his hobby of visiting the burial sites of celebrities. He later added an online forum, Find a Grave was launched as a commercial entity in 1998, first as a trade name and then incorporated in 2000. The site later expanded to include graves of non-celebrities, in order to allow visitors to pay respect to their deceased relatives or friends. In 2013, Tipton sold Find a Grave to Ancestry. com, burial information is a wonderful source for people researching their family history. In a September 30,2013, press release, Ancestry, as of March 2017, Find a Grave contained over 159 million burial records and 75 million photos. The website contains listings of cemeteries and graves from around the world, american cemeteries are organized by state and county, and many cemetery records contain Google Maps and photographs of the cemeteries and gravesites. Individual grave records may contain dates and places of birth and death, biographical information, cemetery and plot information, photographs, Interment listings are added by individuals, genealogical societies, and other institutions such as the International Wargraves Photography Project. Contributors must register as members to submit listings, called memorials, the submitter becomes the manager of the listing but may transfer management. Only the current manager of a listing may edit it, although any member may use the features to send correction requests to the listings manager. Managers may add links to other listings of deceased spouses, parents, members may post requests for photos of a specific grave, these requests will be automatically sent to other members who have registered their location as being near that grave. Find a Grave also maintains lists of memorials of famous persons by their claim to fame, such as Medal of Honor recipients, religious figures, Find a Grave exercises editorial control over these listings. Canadian Headstones Interment. net National Cemetery Administrations Nationwide Gravesite Locator Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness Tombstone tourist Colker, web site answers grave concerns about stars. Web site attracts millions of grave-seekers, Find VIPs who R. I. P. through online cemetery. Genealogy, Find a Grave tremendous on many different levels, terre Haute, Indiana, Community Newspaper Holdings Inc. Archived from the original on May 14,2011, tip, Find a Grave has info youre dying to know. Tracking Down Relatives, Visiting Graves Virtually, media related to Images from Find A Grave at Wikimedia Commons Official website
36.
Early texts of Shakespeare's works
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The earliest texts of William Shakespeares works were published during the 16th and 17th centuries in quarto or folio format. Folios are large, tall volumes, quartos are smaller, roughly half the size, the publications of the latter are usually abbreviated to Q1, Q2, etc. where the letter stands for quarto and the number for the first, second, or third edition published. 18 of the 36 plays in the First Folio were printed in separate, Pericles and The Two Noble Kinsmen also appeared separately before their inclusions in folio collections. Six of these were classified bad quartos by Alfred W. Pollard, popular plays like 1 Henry IV and Pericles were reprinted in their quarto editions even after the First Folio appeared, sometimes more than once. Differing from the quartos of the plays, the first editions of Shakespeares narrative poems are extremely well printed, Richard Field, Shakespeares first publisher and printer, was a Stratford man, probably a friend of Shakespeare, and the two produced an excellent text. John Benson published an edition of Shakespeares Poems in 1640. The folio format was reserved for expensive, prestigious volumes and his poems were never included in his collected works until the eighteenth century. It was not until 1616, the year of Shakespeares death, seven years later the folio volume Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories & Tragedies appeared, this edition is now called the First Folio. It contains 36 plays,18 of which were printed for the first time, because Shakespeare was dead, the folio was compiled by John Heminges and Henry Condell, and arranged into comedies, histories and tragedies. The Folio is no more a definitive text than the quartos, many of the plays in the folio omit lines that can be found in quarto versions, and include misprints and textual corruption. The First Folio was compiled by Heminges and Condell — but it was published by a trio of stationers, William Jaggard, his son Isaac Jaggard, and Edward Blount. It contained, in addition to blandishments provided by various admirers of Shakespeare, such as the dedication signed by John Heminge, the Jaggards were printers, and did the actual printing of the book. It is thought that the printing of the First Folio was such a task that the Jaggards shop was simply needed to get the job done. The First Folio was reprinted three times in the 17th century, The Second Folio appeared in 1632, Isaac Jaggard had died in 1627, and Edward Blount had transferred his rights to stationer Robert Allot in 1630. The Second Folio was published by Allot, William Aspley, Richard Hawkins, Richard Meighen, and John Smethwick and it contained the same plays as the First Folio and much of the same additional material, with the addition of an unsigned poem by John Milton. The Third Folio was issued in 1663, published by Philip Chetwinde, Chetwinde had married Robert Allots widow, all seven of these additional plays had been published as quartos while Shakespeare was alive, but only Pericles was eventually widely accepted into the Shakespearean canon. The quartos of Pericles, The London Prodigal and A Yorkshire Tragedy were all attributed to William Shakespeare on their front pages, sir John Oldcastle was printed in 1619, three years after Shakespeares death, as part of the False Folio. It was attributed to Shakespeare on its title page which also bore a date of 1600
37.
Foul papers
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Foul papers are an authors working drafts. The term is most often used in the study of the plays of Shakespeare, once the composition of a play was finished, a transcript or fair copy of the foul papers was prepared, by the author or by a scribe. The term foul papers is given different definitions by various scholars, for example, some define them as the authors original drafts. W. W. Greg and Fredson Bowers define them as The authors last complete draft, E. A. J. Honigmann defines them as any kind of draft preceding the first fair copy. Few sets of foul papers actually exist from the era in question,4 volumes, Oxford, Clarendon Press,1923
38.
Quarto
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Quarto is a book or pamphlet produced from full blanksheets, each of which is printed with eight pages of text, four to a side, then folded twice to produce four leaves. Each printed page presents as one-fourth size of the full blanksheet, the earliest known European printed book is a quarto, the Sibyllenbuch, believed to have been printed by Gutenberg in 1452–53, before the Gutenberg Bible, surviving only as a fragment. These terms are discussed in detail in Book sizes. A quarto is a book or pamphlet made up of one or more sheets of paper on which 8 pages of text were printed. Each leaf of a quarto book thus represents one fourth the size of the original sheet, each group of 4 leaves could be sewn through the central fold to attach it to the other gatherings to form a book. Sometimes, additional leaves would be inserted within another group to form, for example gatherings of 8 leaves, generally, quartos have more squarish proportions than folios or octavos. There are variations in how quartos were produced, for example, bibliographers call a book printed as a quarto, but bound in gatherings of 8 leaves each, a quarto in 8s. The actual size of a quarto book depends on the size of the sheet of paper on which it was printed. The earliest surviving books printed by movable type by Gutenberg are quartos which were printed before the Gutenberg Bible, the earliest known one is a fragment of a medieval poem called the Sibyllenbuch, believed to have been printed by Gutenberg in 1452–53. Quartos were the most common format of books printed in the incunabula period, beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, technology permitted the manufacture of large sheets or rolls of paper on which books were printed, many text pages at a time. As a result, it may be impossible to determine the actual format, the term quarto as applied to such books may refer simply to the size, i. e. books that are approximately 12 inches tall. During the Elizabethan era and through the century, plays. Eighteen of Shakespeares 36 plays included in first folio collected edition of 1623, were separately printed as quartos. Bibliographers have extensively studied these different editions, which refer to by abbreviations such as Q1, Q2. The texts of some of the Shakespeare quartos are highly inaccurate and are full of errors and omissions. Bibliographer Alfred W. Pollard named those editions Bad quartos, and it is speculated that they may have produced, not from manuscript texts. Other playwrights in this period published their plays in quarto editions. Christopher Marlowes Doctor Faustus, for example, was published as a quarto in 1604, the same is true of poems, Shakespeares poem Venus and Adonis being first printed as a quarto in 1593, with a second quarto edition in 1594
39.
Bad quarto
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Or it would be written down later by an actor or group of actors, which, according to the theory, has been termed “memorial reconstruction”. Bad quartos are considered to include the first quartos of Romeo and Juliet, Henry V, The Merry Wives of Windsor, and Hamlet. The concept has expanded to include quartos of plays by other Elizabethan authors, including Peele’s The Battle of Alcazar, Greene’s Orlando Furioso, and the collaborative script, Sir Thomas More. Jonathan Bate states that “late twentieth- and early twenty-first century scholars have begun to question the whole edifice. ”The concept of the “Bad Quarto” as a category of text was created by bibliographer Alfred W. Pollard in his book Shakespeare Folios and Quartos. The idea came to him in his reading of the address by the editors, John Heminges and Henry Condell and this address is titled, “To the Great Variety of Readers. ”In this address Heminges and Condell refer to “diuerse stolne, and surreptitious copies” of the plays. It had been thought that that reference was generally to quarto editions of the plays, Pollard points out that the texts contained “badness”, but also that there was badness in those who pirated the plays. The scholar W. W. Greg, worked closely with Pollard, he published the bad quarto of The Merry Wives of Windsor, which is a work that is significant in the history of the “bad quarto” theory. For Shakespeare, the First Folio of 1623 is the document, of the thirty-six plays contained in that collection. The idea caught on among Shakespeare scholars, the concept of the bad quarto was extended to play texts by authors other than Shakespeare, and by the second half of the twentieth century the idea was widely being used. However, by the end of the century, considerable doubt had been cast on the concept of memorial reconstruction by the work of Laurie Maguire, some problems exist with the bad quarto hypothesis. The first quarto of Richard III is considered a bad quarto, alexander himself recognized that the idea of memorial reconstruction did not apply perfectly to the two plays he studied, which possessed problematical features that could not be explained this way. He maintained that the quartos of the two histories were partial memorial reconstructions. In this view, memorial reconstruction is a modern fiction, individual scholars have sometimes favored alternative explanations for variant texts—in some cases, revision. Steven Roy Miller considers a revision hypothesis in preference to a hypothesis for The Taming of a Shrew. Other studies have questioned the view on bad quartos, as in David Farley-Hillss work on Romeo. She found that actors typically add, drop or invert single words, however, the larger-scale errors expected if actors were attempting to piece together the plays some time after their performance failed to appear in all but a few of the bad quartos. The study did, however, uncover some circumstantial evidence for memorial reconstruction in the bad quartos of Hamlet, The Merry Wives of Windsor and Pericles. According to Maguire, virtually all the bad quartos appear to be accurate renditions of original texts that merit our attention as valid texts in their own right
40.
Second Folio
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Second Folio is the term applied to the 1632 edition of the collected plays of William Shakespeare, following upon the First Folio of 1623. Much language was updated, there are almost 1,700 changes from the First Folio, edward Blount, the third major partner, had sold his rights to Shakespearean plays to Robert Allot in 1630, and then died in 1632. Allot thus became the prime mover in the creation of the Second Folio, Allot, Aspley, and Smethwick were joined by two other publishers, Richard Hawkins and Richard Meighen. The printing of the Second Folio was done by Thomas Cotes, individual copies of the Second Folio were issued with title-page inscriptions to each of the five publishers, in the format printed by Thomas Cotes for Robert Allot. for William Aspley, etc. In all copies, though, a colophon at the end of the book gives the full list of publishers, the Hawkins imprint is exceedingly rare, and Not more than three or four copies are known with the Smethwick imprint. Though all copies of the Second Folio are dated 1632, some in fact are remainder issues that were released as late as 1641 and after. King Charles I owned a copy of the Second Folio, which part of the library of Windsor Castle. The so-called Perkins Folio, which John Payne Collier used for his forged emendations of Shakespeares text, was a copy of the Second Folio, Second Folio– Walter Havighurst Special Collections, Miami University The Second Folio. What is the Second Folio of William Shakespeare, in the Meisei University Shakespeare Collection Database
41.
False Folio
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The only complete extant copy is part of the collection of the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, DC. The term false folio intentionally evokes the folio collections of Shakespeares works that appeared later, the description folio is not strictly accurate, since the ten plays were printed in a larger-than-usual quarto format, not in folio, but the key qualifier is false folio. The texts in question were first examined with modern bibliographic procedures primarily by Alfred W. Pollard, W. W. Greg, Pollard provides a detailed account in his Shakespeare Folios and Quartos. In summary, the stationer and printer William Jaggard reprinted ten plays in 1619, the ten plays were, Henry V – printed for T. P.1608 on the title page. Thomas Pavier was the stationer who possessed the rights to Henry V, king Lear – Printed for Nathaniel Butter 1608. Butter had printed Q1 of Lear in 1608, the Merchant of Venice – Printed by J. Roberts,1600. This was one play to which Jaggard did not have valid title, the Merry Wives of Windsor – Printed for Arthur Johnson,1619. Johnson published Q1 of Merry Wives in 1602, a Midsummer Nights Dream – Printed by James Roberts,1600. Pericles, Prince of Tyre – Printed for T. P.1619, sir John Oldcastle – printed for T. P.1600. A Yorkshire Tragedy – Printed for T. P.1619, the Whole Contention Between the Two Famous Houses, Lancaster and York – Printed at London, for T. P. In 1602, Pavier had acquired the rights to both plays from Millington, pericles was printed after The Whole Contention, since their signatures run together, but the nine plays were apparently bound together in no particular order. As Jaggard lacked rights to Hayes Merchant of Venice, he may also have lacked rights to Butters Lear, there is much about the False Folio affair that remains unclear, such as subjective questions of Jaggards motivation. Jaggard had an odd connection with the Shakespeare canon, he had printed the questionable miscellany The Passionate Pilgrim as Shakespeares in 1599 and 1612. Some Shakespeare scholars have wondered why the Kings Men used Jaggard as the printer and one of the publishers of the First Folio and it may have been a case of necessity, since Jaggard had a large-capacity print shop. Pollard focused much of his attention on the concept of literary piracy, and his viewpoint coloured much of the scholarly attitude and approach to the False Folio during the twentieth century
