1.
Daguerreotype
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Daguerreotype process, or daguerreotypy, was the first publicly available photographic process, and for nearly twenty years it was the one most commonly used. During the past few decades, there has been a revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver, lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture, the surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal, the name daguerreotype correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. Since the Renaissance era, artists and inventors had searched for a method of capturing visual scenes. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in art from China, Japan. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Daguerre met with Niépce, Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved,15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin,34 - a camera obscura,74 - sulphuric acid. Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography, Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was named the physautotype. Niépces early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, the asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépces experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt, after Niépces death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. It would bear Daguerres name alone and this was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Everyone says it is superb, but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre
2.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Jackson
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The Roman Catholic Diocese of Jackson is a diocese in the ecclesiastical province of Mobile, in the southern United States of America. Its ecclesiastical jurisdiction includes the northern and central parts of the state of Mississippi and it is the largest diocese, by area, in the United States east of the Mississippi River. It was formerly known as the Diocese of Natchez and the Diocese of Natchez-Jackson, Jackson, Mississippi is the episcopal see. In 1787, three Spanish priests, Fathers McKenna, White, and Savage, arrived at Natchez from Salamanca and these missions, however, virtually disappeared after the Spanish turned over the area to the United States, and the churchs property was confiscated by secular authorities. The diocese was erected as the Vicariate Apostolic of Mississippi, an administrative region of the church separate from the Diocese of Louisiana. At the head of the Vicariate was Louis-Guillaume-Valentin Dubourg, P. S. S. who served less than a year before being appointed bishop of Montauban, France. Bishop Chanche, like his predecessor, was of French lineage, having been born to parents who had fled to Baltimore from the French colony of Saint-Domingue, at his arrival, he found one priest in the diocese, a Father Brogard, who was there only temporarily. Chanche set to building a diocesan infrastructure, and became reasonably well known in the church hierarchy in North America. The First Plenary Council of 1852, held in Baltimore, Maryland, by the time he died later that year, he had built 11 churches, with a team of 11 priests and 13 attendant missions. A curious series of events regarding the separation of church and state involved the Diocese of Natchez in 1864 and that year, Bishop William Henry Elder refused to bend to orders from the Federal troops administering Natchez to compel his parishioners to pray for the President of the United States. For this act, Elder was tried, convicted, and then jailed briefly in Vidalia, Louisiana, nonetheless, as of 2006, Elder remains the second-longest-serving bishop in the dioceses history. By the mid-20th century, the capital of the state of Mississippi, to reflect this fact, on 18 December 1956 the name was changed to Diocese of Natchez-Jackson. Finally, on 1 March 1977, the diocese was divided, concurrently, the Diocese of Natchez-Jackson became simply the Diocese of Jackson. Since the relocation of the diocese to Jackson, the Diocese of Natchez has been maintained as a titular see and he appointed the Reverend Father Joseph R. Kopacz, Ph. D. 63, who then had been a priest of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Scranton. The first seat of the diocese was Saint Mary Basilica in Natchez, the current seat is the Cathedral of St. Peter the Apostle in Jackson. Since 1998, however, the church has maintained a minor basilica at the cathedral in Natchez. The Diocese of Jackson encompasses an area of the United States that has historically been overwhelmingly Protestant, only about 2. 6% of the residents in the diocese are considered Catholic
3.
James Oliver Van de Velde
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James Oliver Van de Velde was a U. S. He served as the second Roman Catholic Bishop of Chicago between 1849 and 1853 and he traveled to Rome in 1852 and petitioned the Pope for a transfer to a warmer climate, due to his health. In 1853, the transfer was granted, Van de Velde became bishop of the Diocese of Natchez, in Mississippi and his full name, almost never referenced in any materials about his life or religious career, was John Andrew James Oliver Benedict Rottheir Van de Velde. Van de Velde was born April 3,1795, near Dendermonde, Belgium and he was soon given to a pious aunty to raise in St. Amand, in Flanders. A priest, fleeing the French Revolution, was staying with the same family, at the age of ten, Van de Velde was sent to a boarding school in Ghent. He did so well that by the age of eighteen he was teaching French and he had been teaching for only a short time when the Battle of Waterloo changed the political situation of the Low Countries. Belgium was reunited with the Netherlands under William of Orange who was known for his vicious persecutions of Catholics, planning to emigrate to England or Italy, Van de Velde began studying English and Italian. However, a seminary director persuaded him to stay in Belgium and teach Latin, French, in 1815, Van de Velde began attending the famous Archiepiscopal Seminary at Mechlin. Two years later, he was one of the selected by Father Charles Nerinckx. The initial plan was for Van de Velde to complete his studies in a seminary in Bardstown. Instead, he retired to St. Marys Seminary in Baltimore to recuperate, the storm had been so violent that the ship was adrift for three days without sails or a helm until repairs could be made. In addition, Van de Velde suffered from seasickness for a month of the crossing. Father Nerinckx advised Van de Velde to enter Georgetown College and the novitiate of the Society of Jesus rather than the seminary at Bardstown, after he completed his two-year Jesuit novitiate at Georgetown University in Washington, D. C. Van de Velde continued his academic and theological studies for eight more years, while in Belgium, Van de Velde had mentored a young man named Judocus Francis Van Assche. Father Nerinckx was making a trip to Belgium in 1820. Though Van Assche received the letter in July 1820, it was not until September 23,1821 that he arrived in Philadelphia, during the delay Van Aasche was able to recruit eight other men to come with him and Nerinckx on their return to America. Father Nerinckx, himself, had recruited two men to become lay brothers at his own mission of Loretto in Kentucky, however, after their arrival in Philadelphia, the two groups briefly separated. Van Assches party of nine took a steamboat to Baltimore, where Archbishop Maréchal attempted to get Van Assche and his companions to remain
4.
Society of Jesus
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
5.
Samuel Eccleston
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Samuel Eccleston, S. S. was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who served as the fifth Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Baltimore, Maryland from 1834 until his death in 1851. Samuel Eccleston was born near Chestertown, Maryland, to Samuel and Martha Eccleston and his grandfather, John Eccleston, was from Preston in North West England, and came to the Colony of Maryland in the middle of the 18th century. His father, who had three children from a marriage, died when Samuel was a young boy. Following his fathers death, his mother remarried a Catholic gentleman named Stenson. Young Eccleston was sent to St. Marys College in Baltimore, run by the Sulpician Fathers, to be educated, following his conversion, Eccleston decided to enter the priesthood, and enrolled at St. Marys Seminary in July 1819. He was ordained a priest by Archbishop Ambrose Maréchal on April 24,1825, later that year, he entered the Sulpicians, and continued his studies at the Grand Seminary of Saint-Sulpice in Issy-les-Moulineaux, France. After visiting England and Ireland, Eccleston returned to Baltimore in July 1827 and he became a faculty member and Vice-President at his alma mater, St. Marys Seminary, and the institutions President in 1829. On March 4,1834, Pope Gregory XVI appointed Eccleston Coadjutor Archbishop of Baltimore, upon Archbishop Whitfields death on October 19,1834, Eccleston succeeded him as the fifth Archbishop of Baltimore. At the age of 34, he became the youngest cleric to become Archbishop in the Archdioceses history, in 1835, the Holy See appointed Eccleston Apostolic Administrator of the Diocese of Richmond, Virginia, an office which he held until the appointment of Richard Vincent Whelan in 1840. Because Richmond was thus a subordinate diocese, Eccleston received the pallium, between 1837 and 1849, bishop Eccleston held five Provincial Councils of Baltimore, he even invited the exiled Pope Pius IX, to preside over the Seventh Provincial Council in 1849. Several new churches were erected during his administration as well, Eccleston died in the Georgetown section of Washington, D. C. aged only 49
6.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
7.
Frederick, Maryland
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Frederick is a city and the county seat of Frederick County in the U. S. state of Maryland. It is part of the Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area. C. and it is a part of the Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is part of a greater Washington-Baltimore-Arlington, DC-MD-VA-WV-PA Combined Statistical Area. The citys population was 65,239 people at the 2010 United States Census, located where Catoctin Mountain meets the rolling hills of the Piedmont region, the Frederick area became a crossroads even before European explorers and traders arrived. The earliest European settlement was north of Frederick in Monocacy. Daniel Dulany—a land speculator—laid out Frederick Town by 1745, three years earlier, All Saints Church had been founded on a hilltop near a warehouse/trading post. In 1742, Marylands General Assembly made Frederick the county seat of Frederick County, the current towns first house was built by a young German Reformed schoolmaster from the Rhineland Palatinate named Johann Thomas Schley, who led a party of immigrants to the Maryland colony. The Palatinate settlers bought land from Dulany on the banks of Carroll Creek, Schleys settlers also founded a German Reformed Church. Probably the oldest house standing in Frederick today is Schifferstadt, built in 1756 by German settler Joseph Brunner. Schleys group was among the many Pennsylvania Dutch who migrated south, another important route continued along the Potomac River from near Frederick, to Hagerstown, where it split. One branch crossed the Potomac River near Martinsburg, West Virginia, the other continued west to Cumberland, Maryland and ultimately crossed the Appalachian Mountains into the watershed of the Ohio River. Thus, British General Edward Braddock marched his troops west in 1755 through Frederick on the way to their fateful ambush near Fort Duquesne during the French, however, the British after the Proclamation of 1763 restricted that westward migration route until after the American Revolutionary War. Other German settlers in Frederick were Evangelical Lutherans, led by Rev. Henry Muhlenberg and they moved their mission church from Monocacy to what became a large complex a few blocks further down Church Street from the Anglicans and the German Reformed Church. Frederick also had a Catholic mission, to which Rev, jean DuBois was assigned in 1792, which became St. John the Evangelist Church. To control this crossroads during the American Revolution, the British garrisoned a German Hessian regiment in the town, afterward, many former Hessians stayed on and married into the towns families, strengthening the towns German identity. As the county seat for Western Maryland, Frederick not only was an important market town, although Montgomery County and Washington County were split off from Frederick County in 1776, Frederick remained the seat of the smaller county. Important lawyers who practiced in Frederick included John Hanson, Francis Scott Key, Frederick was also known during the nineteenth century for its religious pluralism, with one of its main thoroughfares, Church Street, hosting about a half dozen major churches. In 1793, All Saints Church hosted the first confirmation of an American citizen and that original colonial building was replaced in 1814 by a brick classical revival structure. It still stands today, although the principal worship space has become a larger brick gothic church joining it at the back
8.
Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice
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Typically, priests become members of the Society of the Priests of St. Sulpice only after ordination and some years of pastoral work. The purpose of the society is mainly the education of priests, the Society is divided into three provinces, operating in various countries, the Province of France, Canada, and the United States. The Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice was founded in France in 1641 by Father Jean-Jacques Olier, a disciple of Vincent de Paul and Charles de Condren, Olier took part in missions organized by them. The French priesthood at that time suffered from low morale, academic deficits, envisioning a new approach to priestly preparation, Olier gathered a few priests and seminarians around him in Vaugirard, a suburb of Paris, in the final months of 1641. Shortly thereafter, he moved his operation to the parish of Saint-Sulpice in Paris, after several adjustments, he built a seminary next to the current church of Saint-Sulpice. The Séminaire de Saint-Sulpice thereby became the first Sulpician seminary, there the first seminarians got their spiritual formation, while taking most theology courses at the Sorbonne. Sulpician priests contributed to the community during the day. Jean-Jacques Olier attempted to control diverse social groups by having laymen of the community give reports on family life, poverty, the Sulpicians accepted aspirants to the company as long as they were priests and had permission from their bishop. The Sulpicians would thus recruit wealthy individuals since Sulpicians did not take vows of poverty and they retained ownership of individual property and were free to dispose their wealth. The Sulpicians soon came to be known for the revival of the life, reform of seminary life. In the 18th century they attracted the sons of the nobility, as well as candidates from the common class, the Séminaire de Saint-Sulpice was closed during the French Revolution, and its teachers and students scattered to avoid persecution. That Revolution also led to the secularization of the University of Paris, when France stabilized, theology courses were offered exclusively in seminaries, and the Sulpicians resumed their educational mission. Sulpician seminaries earned and maintained reputations for solid academic teaching and high moral tone, the Sulpicians played a major role in the founding of the Canadian city of Montreal, where they engaged in missionary activities, trained priests and constructed the Saint-Sulpice Seminary. The Jesuits served as missionaries for the colony until 1657 when Jean-Jacques Olier sent four priests from the Saint-Sulpice seminary in Paris to form the first parish. Just as in Paris, the Montreal Sulpicians had important civil responsibilities, most notably, they acted as seigneurs for Montreal as part of the Seigneurial system of New France. Dollier de Casson and Brehan de Gallinée explored the region of the Great Lakes, in 1676 the mission of the Mountain was opened on the site of the present seminary, where M. Belmont built a fort. The brandy traffic necessitated the removal of this mission and in 1720 it was transferred to Lac-des-Deux-Montagnes. The Sulpicians served as missionaries, judges, explorers, schoolteachers, social workers, supervisors of convents, almsmen, canal builders, urban planners, colonization agents, and entrepreneurs
9.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
10.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
11.
Saint-Domingue
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Saint-Domingue was a French colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804. The French had established themselves on the portion of the islands of Hispaniola. In the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, Spain formally recognized French control of Tortuga island, in 1791, the slaves and some free people of color of Saint-Domingue began waging a rebellion against French authority. The rebels became reconciled to French rule following the abolition of slavery in the colony in 1793, France controlled the entirety of Hispaniola from 1795 to 1802, when a renewed rebellion began. The last French troops withdrew from the portion of the island in late 1803, and the colony later declared its independence as Haiti, its indigenous name. Spain controlled the island of Hispaniola from the 1490s until the 17th century. The official name was La Española, meaning The Spanish and it was also called Santo Domingo or San Domingo, after Saint Dominic. Spain later ceded the western coast of the island to France, retaining the rest of the island, including the Guava Valley. The French called their portion of Hispaniola Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony on Hispaniola remained separate, and eventually became the Dominican Republic, the capital of which is still named Santo Domingo. By the early 17th century, the island and its neighbors, notably Tortuga. In 1606, the king of Spain ordered all inhabitants of Hispaniola to move close to Santo Domingo, rather than secure the island, however, this resulted in French, English and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the now-abandoned north and west coasts of the island. French buccaneers established a settlement on the island of Tortuga in 1625 before going to Grande Terre, at first they survived by pirating Spanish ships, eating wild cattle and hogs, and selling hides to traders of all nations. The settlement on Tortuga was officially established in 1659 under the commission of King Louis XIV, in 1665, French colonization of the islands Hispaniola and Tortuga entailed slavery-based plantation agricultural activity such as growing coffee and cattle farming. It was officially recognized by King Louis XIV, the economy of Saint-Domingue became focused on slave-based agricultural plantations. They followed the example of neighboring Caribbean colonies in coercive treatment of the slaves, more cattle, and slave agricultural holdings, coffee plantations and spice plantations were implemented, as well as fishing, cultivation of cocoa, coconuts and snuff. Saint-Domingue quickly came to overshadow the previous colony in both wealth and population, thus, the income and the taxes from slave-based sugar production became a major source of the French budget. Among the first buccaneers was Bertrand DOgeron, who played a big part in the settlement of Saint-Domingue and he encouraged the planting of tobacco, which turned a population of buccaneers and freebooters, who had not acquiesced to royal authority until 1660, into a sedentary population. But in 1670, shortly after Cap-Français had been established, the crisis of tobacco intervened, the first sugar windmill was built in 1685
12.
Haitian Revolution
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The Haitian Revolution, was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place in the former French colony of Saint-Domingue that lasted from 1791 until 1804. It affected the institution of slavery throughout the Americas, self-liberated slaves destroyed slavery at home, fought to preserve their freedom, and with the collaboration of mulattoes, founded the sovereign state of Haiti. It led to the greatest slave uprising since Spartacuss unsuccessful revolt against the Roman Republic nearly 1,900 years prior, the Haitian Revolution was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state free from slavery and ruled by non-whites and former captives. With the increasing number of Haitian Revolutionary Studies in the last few decades, the legacy of the Revolution was that it challenged long-held beliefs about black inferiority and of the enslaved persons capacity to achieve and maintain freedom. The rebels organizational capacity and tenacity under pressure became the source of stories that shocked and frightened slave owners, while acknowledging the cross-influences, most contemporary historians distinguish the Haitian Revolution from the French Revolution. Some even separate it from the mulattoes earlier armed conflicts, which at first sought political rights for themselves and these scholars show that if the agency of the enslaved blacks becomes the focus of studies, the Revolutions opening and closing dates are certain. From this premise, the narrative began with the enslaved blacks bid for freedom through armed struggle and concluded with their victory over slaving powers, in April 1791, a massive black insurgency turned violently against the plantation system, setting a precedent of resistance to racial slavery. In cooperation with their former rivals, blacks ended the Revolution in November 1803 when they decidedly defeated the French army at the Battle of Vertières. The chief concern flutters around the question if the victorious Haitians were intrinsically revolutionary force, one thing is sure, Haiti became an independent country on January 1,1804, when the council of generals chose Jean-Jacques Dessalines to assume the office of governor-general. One of the states first significant documents was Dessaliness Liberty or Death speech, in it, the new head of state made the case for the new nations coherent objective, the permanent abolition of slavery in Haiti. An independent government was created in Haiti, but the society remained deeply affected by patterns established under French colonial rule. Many of them had used their capital to acquire wealth. Some had identified more with the French colonists than the slaves, mulatto domination of politics and economics after the revolution created another two-caste society, as most Haitians were rural subsistence farmers. Much of the Caribbean economic development was contingent to Europeans demand for sugar, Saint Domingue also had extensive coffee, cocoa, and indigo plantations, but these were smaller and less profitable than the wealthy sugar plantations. Starting in the 1730s, French engineers constructed complex irrigation systems to increase sugarcane production, by the 1740s Saint-Domingue, together with Jamaica, had become the main supplier of the worlds sugar. Sugar production depended on extensive manual labor provided by enslaved Africans in the harsh Saint-Domingue colonial plantation economy, the economic importance of St. Domingue, and several million indirectly depended upon trade from Frances richest colony to maintain their standard of living. To sustain the sugar production amid the climate of the Caribbean with malaria. In one year alone, namely 1787, the French imported about 20,000 slaves from Africa into Saint-Domingue while the British imported about 38,000 slaves to all of their Caribbean colonies
13.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
14.
St. Mary's Seminary and University
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Founded in 1791 as a Catholic seminary under the leadership of newly ordained first Bishop John Carroll, after he returned to America from his consecration in England that year. A former large tavern was secured just northwest outside of the growing Baltimore Town on the Hookstown Road, within a decade, the Seminary was moved south to North Paca Street at the developed northwest edge of the newly incorporated city. The seminary was founded by the French Sulpician Fathers, and continued to be operated by that Community after 1852, designed in 1806 by J. Maximilian M. Godefroys original chapel stands adjacent to the now historical shrine of the Mother Seton House, used by Elizabeth Ann Seton. The old Godefroy Chapel is now used as part of the seminarys Spiritual Center, the influence of the St. Marys Seminary increased in the late 19th Century under the leadership of Alphonse Magnien, who served as superior of the school from 1878 to 1902. The lawn was used as a pad for leaving to the local airport following the several days of the 1995 Baltimore visit by Pope John Paul II. In 1974, the name was changed to St. Marys Seminary and University to reflect its expanded departments. Father Robert F. Leavitt retired as long-time president/rector in spring 2007, the Seminarys alumni have gone on to reach bishops positions and form leading teaching roles in various theological seminaries of the Church in many cities and towns of the United States. The Knott Library at St. Marys Seminary and University houses the papers of Fr. Raymond E. Brown S. S. an eminent Johannine scholar, Dr. Brent Laytham, formerly of North Park University, is the E. I. s dean, succeeding Dr. Michael J. Gorman. Gorman remains on the faculty as the inaugural Raymond E. Brown Professor of Biblical Studies, in May 2012, N. T. Wright was the keynote speaker for the graduating class at the E. I. and was himself awarded an honorary degree. William O. Brady, Archbishop of Saint Paul and Minneapolis, in St. Paul, writer/Author about early California province, republic and state history plus legal practices, law and precedents
15.
Holy orders
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In the Christian churches, Holy Orders are ordained ministries such as bishop, priest or deacon. Except for Lutherans and some Anglicans, these churches regard ordination as a sacrament, the Anglo-Catholic tradition within Anglicanism identifies more with the Roman Catholic position about the sacramental nature of ordination. Denominations have varied conceptions of Holy Orders, in the Anglican churches and some Lutheran churches the traditional orders of bishop, priest and deacon are bestowed using ordination rites. The extent to which ordination is considered sacramental in these traditions has, however, many other denominations do not consider ministry as being sacramental in nature and would not think of it in terms of holy orders as such. Historically, the word order designated a civil body or corporation with a hierarchy. The word holy refers to the Church, in context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church considers ordination to be a Sacred Mystery, although all other mysteries may be performed by a presbyter, ordination may only be conferred by a bishop, and ordination of a bishop may only be performed by several bishops together. Cheirotonia always takes place during the Divine Liturgy and it was the mission of the Apostles to go forth into all the world and preach the Gospel, baptizing those who believed in the name of the Holy Trinity. In the Early Church those who presided over congregations were referred to variously as episcopos or presbyteros and this link is believed to continue in unbroken succession to this day. Over time, the ministry of bishops and presbyters or priests came to be distinguished, in Orthodox terminology, priesthood or sacerdotal refers to the ministry of bishops and priests. A bishop is the Teacher of the Faith, the carrier of Sacred Tradition, a bishop is consecrated through the laying on of hands by several bishops. The consecration of a bishop takes place near the beginning of the Liturgy, since a bishop can, in addition to performing the Mystery of the Eucharist, also ordain priests and deacons. Customarily, the consecrated bishop ordains a priest and a deacon at the Liturgy during which he is consecrated. A priest may serve only at the pleasure of his bishop, a bishop bestows faculties giving a priest chrism and an antimins, he may withdraw faculties and demand the return of these items. After the Aër is taken from the candidate to cover the chalice and diskos, the candidate is then taken to the southeast corner of the Holy Table and kneels on both knees, resting his forehead on the edge of the Holy Table. Afterwards, the bishop brings the newly ordained priest to stand in the Holy Doors and he then clothes the priest in each of his sacerdotal vestments, at each of which the people sing, Worthy. A deacon may not perform any Sacrament and performs no liturgical services on his own but serves only as an assistant to a priest and may not even vest without the blessing of a priest. After being vested as a deacon and given a liturgical fan, the Anglican churches hold their bishops to be in apostolic succession, although there is some difference of opinion with regard to whether ordination is to be regarded as a sacrament
16.
Master of ceremonies
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A master of ceremonies, abbreviated M. C. also called compère and announcer, is the official host of a ceremony, a staged event or similar performance. The master of ceremonies sometimes also refers to the officer during an official state function. Today, the term often connotes a master of ceremonies who presents performers, speaks to the audience, entertains people, in addition, the term also exists in various chivalric orders and fraternal orders. The term originated in the Catholic Church, the Master of Ceremonies is an official of the Papal Court responsible for the proper and smooth conduct of the elegant and elaborate rituals involving the Pope and the sacred liturgy. He may also be an involved in the proper conduct of protocols and ceremonials involving the Roman Pontiff, the Papal Court. Examples of official liturgical books prescribing the rules and regulations of liturgical celebrations are Cæremoniale Romanum, the office of the Master of Ceremonies itself is very old. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the most ancient ceremonials and rituals of the Catholic Church are the Ordines Romani, names of Masters of Ceremonies are known since the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. However, copies of books prescribing the forms of rituals, rites and it is reasonable to assume that the ceremonials themselves pre-date Gelasius. However, documentary evidence from the late Roman period is scarce or lost, the ceremonies and practices of the Byzantine emperors are also known to have influenced the papal court. At a large Catholic church or cathedral, the Master of Ceremonies organizes and rehearses the proceedings and he may also have responsibility for the physical security of the place of worship during the liturgy. At major festivities such as Christmas and Easter, when the liturgies are long and complex, the current papal Master of Ceremonies is Monsignor Guido Marini, who succeeded Archbishop Piero Marini. Masters of Ceremonies at weddings and private events also ensure the coordination of their event, became an alternative title for a rapper and for their role within hip hop music and culture. The term is used as a term of distinction, referring to an artist with good performance skills. An MC focuses on skills, lyrical ability, and subject matter, in any comedy show, the compère is the host of the evenings events, but the precise role and responsibilities will vary depending on the country, venue and style of event. The compère will normally do longer bits at the start of the show and after any interval and they may also be required to make announcements, such as birthdays, anniversaries and bar promotions. In some circles the title Master of Ceremonies is also known as Minister of Ceremonies, in the 1940 Disney film, Fantasia, Deems Taylor is the films Master of Ceremonies. Media related to Master of ceremonies at Wikimedia Commons
17.
Excellency
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Excellency is an honorific style given to certain members of an organisation or state. Generally people addressed as Excellency are heads of state, heads of government, governors, ambassadors, certain ecclesiastics, royalty, and others holding equivalent rank and the FIFA President. It is sometimes misinterpreted as a title of office in itself, in reference to such an official, it takes the form His or Her Excellency, in direct address, Your Excellency, or, less formally, simply Excellency. The abbreviation HE is often used instead of His/Her Excellency, alternatively it may stand for His/Her Eminence, in most republican nations, the head of state is formally addressed as His Excellency. If a republic has a head of government, that official is often addressed as Excellency as well. If the nation is a monarchy, however, the customs may vary, in the case of Australia, all ambassadors, high commissioners, governors and the governor-general and their spouses are entitled to the use of Excellency. Governors of colonies in the British Empire were entitled to be addressed as Excellency, in various international organizations, notably the UN and its agencies, Excellency is used as a generic form of address for all republican heads of state and heads of government. Judges of the International Court of Justice are also called Your Excellency, in some monarchies the husbands, wives, or children, of a royal prince or princess, who do not possess a princely title themselves, may be entitled to the style. For example, in Spain spouses or children of a born infante or infanta are addressed as Excellency, also, former members of a royal house or family, who did have a royal title but forfeited it, may be awarded the style afterwards. Examples are former husbands or wives of a prince or princess, including Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg. In some emirates, only the Emir, heir apparent and prime minister are called His Highness and their children are styled with the lower treatment of His/Her Excellency. In Spain members of the nobility, holding the dignity of grandee, are addressed as The Most Excellent Lord/Lady. Some of the high ranking counts, Excellency can also attach to a prestigious quality, notably in an order of knighthood. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial of 31 December 1930 the Holy See granted bishops of the Roman Catholic Church the title of Most Reverend Excellency. In the years following the First World War, the title of Excellency. The adjective Most Reverend was intended to distinguish the title from that of Excellency given to civil officials. The instruction Ut sive sollicite of the Holy Sees Secretariat of State, dated 28 March 1969, cardinals, even those who were bishops, continued to use the title of Eminence. In some English-speaking countries, the honorific of Excellency does not apply to other than the nuncio
18.
Natchesium
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The Roman Catholic diocese of Natchez, in Latin Natchesium, was founded on July 28,1837 and originally covered the entire state of Mississippi. The first bishop of the diocese, John Mary Chanche, S. S. was not appointed until three years later, in 1840, and arrived in Natchez in May 1841. On his arrival at Natchez, he met the only priest in the new diocese, Father Brogard, in the role of a missionary, Bishop Chanche began to contact the Catholics and organize the new diocese. Within a year he laid the cornerstone of his cathedral, at his death the diocese had 11 priests,11 churches erected, and 13 attendant missions. Over the years, as the balance within the state shifted, it became obvious that the operations of the diocese should be moved to Jackson. On December 18,1956, the diocese was renamed the Diocese of Natchez-Jackson, on March 1,1977, the Mississippi diocese was split into two dioceses, the Diocese of Jackson and the Diocese of Biloxi. After this, the Diocese of Natchez became a titular see, 1911–1924 Richard Oliver Gerow, 1924–1967 Daniel Kucera, O. S. B
19.
St. Mary Basilica, Natchez
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St. Mary Basilica, formerly St. Marys Cathedral, located in Natchez, Mississippi, United States, is a parish church in the Diocese of Jackson and Minor basilica of the Catholic Church. In 1979 it was listed under its name as a contributing property in the Natchez On-Top-of-the-Hill Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places. The Diocese of Natchez was erected in 1837, and in 1842 construction began on a new cathedral and it was dedicated on December 25,1843 and consecrated on September 19,1886 and remained the cathedral of the diocese until 1977. It was designated a basilica on September 8,1998. The brick structure is two-stories in height, and it was constructed on a raised basement. It features a semi-circular apsidal end, ornamental pinnacles, and buttresses, the central square tower that is capped with a spire is embedded into the structure, and it has a recessed Gothic-arched entrance. Local architect James Hardie designed the Gothic Revival building, St. Mary Basilica website St. Mary Basilica Archives website Natchez of the Mighty Mississippi River
20.
Sisters of Charity
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Many religious communities have the term Sisters of Charity as part of their name. While some Sisters of Charity communities refer to the Vincentian tradition and it is important to recognize that there may be no family or historical relationship between groups having the phrase Sisters of Charity as part of their name. The rule of Vincent de Paul for the Daughters of Charity has been adopted and adapted by at least sixty founders of religious institutes around the world in the subsequent centuries. In 1633 Vincent de Paul, a French priest and Louise de Marillac, the French Revolution shut down all convents, but the society was restored in 1801 and eventually spread to Austria, Australia, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Portugal, Turkey, Britain and the Americas. In 1809 American Elizabeth Ann Seton, founded the Sisters of Charity of St. Josephs, adapting the rule of the French Daughters of Charity for her Emmitsburg, in 1817, Mother Seton sent three Sisters were sent to New York City to establish an orphanage. In 1829, four Sisters of Charity from Emmitsburg, Maryland traveled to Cincinnati, to open St. Peter’s Girl’s Orphan Asylum, in 1850, the Sulpician priests of Baltimore successfully negotiated that the Emmitsburg community be united with the international community based in Paris. The foundations in New York and Cincinnati decided to become independent diocesan congregations, six separate religious congregations trace their roots to the beginnings of the Sisters of Charity in Emmitsburg. In addition to the community of Sisters at Emmitsburg, they are based in New York City, Cincinnati, Ohio, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Convent Station, New Jersey. In 2011, the Daughters of Charity established The Province of St. Louise, bringing together the West Central, East Central, Southeast, los Altos Hills in California remains a separate province. Paul Sisters of Chartes, also known as the Sisters of Charity of St. Paul Religious Sisters of Charity, the most famous convent is at 14 Rue du Bac in Paris, France, born 1633. This was where Catholics believe Sister Catherine Laboure received the vision of Immaculate Mary on the eve of St. Vincents feastday,1830, Sisters of Charity have been one of the convents implicated in labor abuse scandal in Ireland
21.
Plenary Councils of Baltimore
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The Plenary Councils of Baltimore were three national meetings of Catholic bishops in the United States in 1852,1866 and 1884 in Baltimore, Maryland. During the early history of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States all of the dioceses were part of one ecclesiastical province under the Archbishop of Baltimore and this being the case, governance of the American church was carried out by provincial councils held in Baltimore. As the church grew and was divided into provinces, it became necessary for a national council of the bishops of the United States to meet to foster common discipline. The fathers of the Seventh Provincial Council of Baltimore requested the Holy See to sanction the holding of a plenary council, the petition was granted and the pope appointed Archbishop Francis Kenrick of Baltimore as Apostolic Delegate to convene and preside over the council. The First Plenary Council of Baltimore was solemnly opened on May 9,1852 and its sessions were attended by six archbishops and thirty-five suffragan bishops. The Bishop of Monterey, California, Joseph Sadoc Alemany, was present, although his diocese. Another prelate in attendance was Armand de Charbonnel, the Bishop of Toronto, the last solemn session was held on the 20th of May. As to the method of baptism, the Holy See extended the dispensations to use the short formula for another five years. A letter from Cardinal-Prefect Franzoni, added to the acts of the council, in the acts of this council is found a statement of the Bishop of Monterey concerning the California Missions. For years they had received none of this money and the revolutions made any hope of reparation unlikely. The outcome of the discussion was the sending of a letter on the subject to the Archbishop of Mexico. The money was recovered and employed for the Church in California. The Second Plenary Council was presided over by Archbishop Spalding of Baltimore as Delegate Apostolic and it was opened on the 7th of October and closed on 21 October 1866. The acts note that, at the last solemn session, Andrew Johnson, the decrees of this council were signed by seven archbishops, thirty-nine bishops or their procurators, and two abbots. The decrees are divided into fourteen titles and subdivided into chapters and they were approved by Pope Pius IX. V. The seventh chapter in which the present errors are discussed treats of the dissensions among the Protestant sects, the Fathers warn their flock against the teaching that one religion is as good as another provided one be honest and just to his neighbour. They call this a plague, spreading under the guise of charity and these theories the first denying the divinity of Christ and the other eternal punishment, tend to the rejection of the supernatural in religion. These are the systems of men, who having dethroned God, the faithful are warned that magnetism is often employed for superstitious and illicit purposes, namely, to forecast the future by means of female mediums
22.
Burial
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Burial or interment is the ritual act of placing a dead person or animal, sometimes with objects, into the ground. This is accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, humans have been burying their dead for at least 100,000 years. Burial is often seen as indicating respect for the dead, sometimes objects or grave goods are buried with the body, which may be dressed in fancy or ceremonial garb. Depending on the culture, the way the body is positioned may have great significance, the location of the burial may be determined taking into account concerns surrounding health and sanitation, religious concerns, and cultural practices. Some cultures keep the close to provide guidance to the living. Some religions consecrate special ground to bury the dead, and some families build private family cemeteries, most modern cultures document the location of graves with headstones, which may be inscribed with information and tributes to the deceased. However, some people are buried in anonymous or secret graves for various reasons, sometimes multiple bodies are buried in a single grave either by choice, due to space concerns, or in the case of mass graves as a way to deal with many bodies at once. Alternatives to burial may include cremation, burial at sea, promession, cryopreservation, some human cultures may bury the remains of beloved animals. Humans are not the species which bury their dead, the practice has been observed in chimpanzees, elephants. Evidence suggests that the Neanderthals were the first human species to practice burial behavior and intentionally bury their dead, doing so in shallow graves along with stone tools, exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however, argue that these bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons, the earliest undisputed human burial dates back 100,000 years. Human skeletal remains stained with red ochre were discovered in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh, a variety of grave goods were present at the site, including the mandible of a wild boar in the arms of one of the skeletons. Prehistoric cemeteries are referred to by the neutral term grave field. After death, a body will decay, Burial is not necessarily a public health requirement. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the WHO advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial, human burial practices are the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate respect for the dead. Cultures vary in their mode of respect, some reasons follow, Respect for the physical remains. If left lying on top of the ground, scavengers may eat the corpse, in Tibet, Sky burials return the remains to the cycle of life and acknowledge the body as food, a core tenet of some Buddhist practices. Burial can be seen as an attempt to bring closure to the deceaseds family, psychologists in some Western Judeo-Christian quarters, as well as the US funeral industry, claim that by interring a body away from plain view the pain of losing a loved one can be lessened
23.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
24.
Catholic Encyclopedia
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The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index volume in 1914 and later supplementary volumes. It was designed to give its readers full and authoritative information on the cycle of Catholic interests, action. The Catholic Encyclopedia was published by the Robert Appleton Company, a company incorporated at New York in February 1905 for the express purpose of publishing the encyclopedia. The five members of the encyclopedias Editorial Board also served as the directors of the company, in 1912 the companys name was changed to The Encyclopedia Press. Publication of the volumes was the sole business conducted by the company during the projects lifetime. The encyclopedia was designed to serve the Roman Catholic Church, concentrating on information related to the Church and it records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. The volumes came out sequentially the first two in 1907 and the last three in 1912, The editors had their first editorial meeting at the office of The Messenger, on West 16th Street, New York City. The text received a nihil obstat from an official censor, Remy Lafort, on November 1,1908 and this review process was presumably accelerated by the reuse of older authorized publications. A first supplement was published in 1922, a supplement in nine loose-leaf sections was published by The Gilmary Society between 1950 and 1958. In 1912, a special completely illustrated commemorative volume was awarded to patrons who contributed to the start of the enterprise by buying multiple encyclopedia sets early on. The encyclopedia was later updated under the auspices of The Catholic University of America and a 17-volume New Catholic Encyclopedia was first published in 1967, and then in 2002. The Catholic Encyclopedia and its makers states that, The work is entirely new, the editors have insisted that the articles should contain the latest and most accurate information to be obtained from the standard works on each subject. Those who wrote new articles in English include Anthony Maas and Herbert Thurston, under United States copyright law, all works published in the United States before 1923 are in the public domain. Knight founded the website New Advent to house the undertaking, volunteers from the United States, Canada, France, and Brazil helped in the transcription of the original material. The site went online in 1995, and transcription work ended in 1997, in 2007, Catholic Answers published a watermarked version derived from page scans. This version has since replaced with a transcription of the Encyclopedia similar to that found at the New Advent website. The Catholic Answers transcription, however, is a transcription of the original text, whereas the New Advent version at times modernizes certain words. Other scanned copies of the 1913 Encyclopedia are available on Google Books, at the Internet Archive, wikisource also hosts a transcription project backed by the scans hosted at Commons
25.
William Henry Elder
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William Henry Elder was a U. S. archbishop. He served as the Roman Catholic Bishop of Natchez from 1857 to 1880, William Henry Elder was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on March 22,1819. His father, Basil Elder, was a descendant of William Elder and his mother Elisabeth Miles Elder was also Catholic. In 1831 Elder entered Mt. St. Marys College, in Emmitsburg, Maryland and he afterward became the second bishop, and later the first Archbishop of Cincinnati. Elder graduated in 1837 and entered the seminary, in 1842 he was sent to Urban College in Rome for further studies, where he continued his training for about four more years. Elder was ordained a priest in Rome, March 29,1846, the diocese was geographically huge, comprising the entire state of Mississippi. Elder wrote a letter to President Abraham Lincoln regarding the matter, senator Francis Kernan responded, saying he met with Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton regarding the matter. Stanton said he would communicate to Tuttle to remedy the situation so there would be not further interference, later, Colonel Farrar was placed in command of Natchez, he noted Tuttles order had neither been rescinded nor was being obeyed. General Mason Brayman, the commander, took a harder stance, saying. military orders are to be followed. And issued an order for Elder to be sent to jail in Vidalia, federal troops took Elder to Vidalia for a few weeks. After Washington officials intervened, Brayman ordered the release of Elder on 12 August 1864, during his time in Natchez, a yellow fever epidemic broke out in 1878. Ministering to the sick, Elder caught the disease but survived, at the time he arrived in Natchez the diocese had eleven missions, nine priests and 10,000 Catholics. When he left, there were churches,25 priests, six religious houses for men, five convents. On January 30,1880, he was transferred to Cincinnati, becoming bishop and coadjutor with the right of succession to Archbishop Purcell. Archbishop Elder was third bishop and second archbishop of Cincinnati and he became bishop at a time of great financial difficulty in the archdiocese. Elder systematically organized the administration of the diocese and he reopened Mount Saint Mary Seminary in 1887, which had been closed since 1879. He instituted the office of chancellor of the diocese and insisted on annual reports from clergy, Elder served the archdiocese until his death in Cincinnati on October 31,1904 from influenza. He is buried at St. Joseph Cemetery, Cincinnati, Ohio, Elder High School, a Cincinnati parochial school, was named for Bishop Elder
26.
Francis Janssens
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Francis August Anthony Joseph Janssens was a Dutch-born prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Natchez and Archbishop of New Orleans, francis August Janssens was born in Tilburg, North Brabant, to Cornelius John and Josephine Anne Janssens. He studied at the seminary of s-Hertogenbosch from 1856 until 1866, Janssens was ordained to the priesthood on December 21,1867. Arriving at Richmond, Virginia, in September 1868, he became rector of the cathedral in 1870 and served as general under Bishops James Gibbons. On April 7,1881, Janssens was appointed the fourth Bishop of Natchez, Mississippi and he received his episcopal consecration on the following May 1 from Archbishop James Gibbons, with Bishops Thomas Becker and John Keane serving as co-consecrators. During his tenure he completed construction on the Cathedral of St. Peter the Apostle, Janssens was promoted to the fourth Archbishop of New Orleans, Louisiana, on August 7,1888, and installed on the following September 16. Janssens tenure also spanned the period of hardening racial divisions between whites and blacks. He once said, There is nothing in my administration of the Diocese that worries me more than our colored people, to see what is done by the Protestants to capture them and how often they succeed. It was, however, his hope that anyone might occupy any pew or any seat anywhere in the church. Janssens died aboard the steamer Creole, bound for New York City and he is buried at St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans. St. Mary Basilica Archives, Natchez, Mississippi
27.
John Edward Gunn
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John Edward Gunn was an Irish-born prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Natchez from 1911 until his death in 1924, the oldest of eleven children, John Gunn was born in Fivemiletown, County Tyrone, to Edward and Mary Gunn. From 1875 to 1880, he studied at St. Marys College in Dundalk and he then attended the Marist House of Studies in Paignton, England before furthering his studies in Rome at the Pontifical Gregorian University. While in Rome, he made his profession in the Society of Mary on 23 August 1884, and was ordained to the priesthood by Patriarch Iulius Lenti on 2 February 1890. Gunn then taught at St. Marys in Dundalk until 1892, in 1898 he was assigned to Atlanta, Georgia, where he served as pastor of the newly erected Sacred Heart Church. The parish was already in debt when he arrived, as evidenced by an entry he made in his ledger upon is arrival, in February 1899 it was necessary for him to advance $360 more to meet current expenses. During his pastorate at Sacred Heart, he founded and served as the first president of the Marist College. On 29 June 1911, Gunn was appointed the sixth Bishop of Natchez, Mississippi, upon Gunns arrival that September, the diocese contained 75 churches,46 priests, and 17,000 Catholics. He then began extensive pastoral visits to all the parishes and missions throughout the diocese and he received significant assistance from the Catholic Church Extension Society, and incorporated the diocese in 1918. He became known as the Chapel Builder, and by the time of his death, there were 149 churches and over 31,000 Catholics in the diocese. In 1915, while attending the installation of Archbishop George Mundelein at Detroit, a German spy laced the soup at a banquet with arsenic, poisoning Gunn and four others, but the Bishop survived. Following the end of World War I, he was considered for the Archbishop of New Orleans, Louisiana, by January 1924, his failing health left him in critical condition. Gunn later died from an attack, aged 60. He is buried beside his predecessor, Bishop Thomas Heslin, in his will he states, In life and in death I am proud of three things, My Irish birth, my Catholic faith, and my American citizenship. I tried to translate my love for all three service and sacrifice
28.
Joseph Nunzio Latino
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Joseph Nunzio Latino is a bishop of the Catholic Church in the United States. He served as the Bishop of Jackson in the state of Mississippi from 2003 to 2013, Latino was born in New Orleans, Louisiana. He attended St. Joseph Seminary College in Covington, Louisiana and he has served as an associate pastor at St. Francis de Sales in Houma. He was assigned to St. John Prep Seminary in New Orleans as teacher, from 1969–1971 he was assigned to St. Philip the Apostle Church in the Desire Project. He served as pastor of St. Bernadette Parish in Houma, Louisiana 1972–1987, during the intervening years he has served as Vocation Director for the Diocese and was named a Monsignor with the title Prelate of Honor in January 1983. He also has been the Vicar General as well as the Chancellor of the Diocese of Houma-Thibodaux, after the occasion of Bishop Michael Jarrell leaving the diocese to become the Bishop of Lafayette, Louisiana, Monsignor Latino was elected by the Consultors to be the Administrator of the diocese. Soon after he was appointed by Pope John Paul II to the position as the 10th bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Jackson, Roman Catholic bishops are required to submit their resignation upon reaching the age of 75. Pope Francis accepted the resignation of Bishop Latino on December 12,2013, overview The episcopal heraldic achievement, of bishops coat of arms, is composed of a shield, with its charges, a motto scroll and the external ornaments. The terms dexter and sinister are thus the reverse of what they are as seen from the front. Arms By heraldic tradition, the arms of the bishop of a diocese, called the Ordinary are joined to the arms of the his jurisdiction, in this case, these arms of the Diocese of Jackson. These arms are composed of a field on which is displayed a red cross potent. When the City of Jackson was established the second See City for the Diocese of Natchez-Jackson in 1957, below the cross are wavy blue and silver bars to represent the waters of the Mississippi. For his personal arms, seen in the impalement of the shield. The design is a saltire with gold and red bars on the top and bottom and silver fields on either side. In the base of the bars from the upper portion have been replaced by a golden carpenters square, issuant from the sides, to honor the bishops Baptisimal patron. This arrangement is used in the arms of the Diocese of Houma-Thibodaux where Bishop Latino was serving as Vicar General when he became Bishop of Jackson, motto Bishop Latinos motto is ut unum sini, from St. Johns Gospel. These are the insignia of the prelate of the rank of bishop by instruction of The Holy See of March 31,1969
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Joseph Kopacz
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Joseph Richard Kopacz is a bishop of the Catholic Church in the United States serving as the eleventh Bishop of Jackson, Mississippi since 2014. Joseph Richard Kopacz was born in Dunmore, Pennsylvania in the diocese of Scranton, Kopacz is the son of the late Stanley and Carmella Calomino Kopacz, and is a graduate of Dunmore Central Catholic High School. He is the second of three children with a brother, Robert, and a sister, Mary Ellen Negri and he obtained a BA in History from the University of Scranton. After this he entered the seminary of Christ the King in Buffalo and he was ordained a priest for the Diocese of Scranton on May 7,1977. He obtained a Masters in Latin from Fordham University and he went on to obtain a Masters in Counselling and Psychology and a doctorate in Human Development from Marywood University in Scranton. After his ordination he was parish priest of Our Lady Queen of Peace Parish and he was Professor at the Saint Pius X Seminary in Dalton and pastor of the parish of Saint Michael, Saint James and Saint Stanislaus in Jessup. He was transferred to the Nativity of Our Lord Parish in Scranton, after this he was appointed Director of Education at the Seminary Saint Pius X, and pastor of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary Parish in Scranton. He served as Vicar General and Vicar for Clergy, from 2006 to 2014 he was the pastor of Most Holy Trinity Parish in Mount Pocono, Pennsylvania. In addition, he was a member of the Diocesan Council for Finance, on December 12,2013 Pope Francis appointed Kopacz as the eleventh bishop of Jackson. He was consecrated a bishop by Archbishop Thomas Rodi of Mobile on February 6,2014, emeritus Bishop Joseph Latino of Jackson and Bishop Joseph Bambera of Scranton were the principal co-consecrators
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "article name needed". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.