1.
Near South Side, Chicago
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The Near South Side is a community area of Chicago in Cook County, Illinois, United States. It is located just south of the central business district, the Loop. The remaining area is undergoing a major residential and mixed-use redevelopment. The Near South Side is one of the most dynamic of Chicagos communities, the Near South Side was initially noted for wagon trails winding through a lightly populated bend of Lake Michigan. This area was first populated by working for the Illinois & Michigan Canal. Proximity to the railroads attracted light manufacturing and shops, in 1853, the community was absorbed by the extension of the city limits to 31st Street, in the same period, the Illinois Central Railroad was built into Chicago. In 1859, a South State Street horse-drawn streetcar line, linking the area to downtown, attracted wealthy families to the area. By the time of the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, it was home to some of the citys finest mansions and most elite social families, however, by the start of the 20th century, rapid transit evolved and many families moved slightly farther from the Loop business district. The railroads brought warehouses and light manufacturing, Michigan Avenue between 14th Street and 22nd Street became an auto row. The Levee vice district of brothels and gambling dens around Cermak Street, Burnham Park and several accompanying institutions were built in the 1910s and 1920s. World War I and post World War I Great Migration settlers moved in, urban renewal and public housing projects later replaced some of the slums. In the 1940s, some of the slums were on the Near South Side. The Century of Progress International Exposition was the name of the Worlds Fair held on the Near South Side lakefront from 1933 to 1934 to celebrate the citys centennial, the theme of the fair was technological innovation over the century since Chicagos founding. More than 40 million people visited the fair, which symbolized for many hope for Chicago, in 1977, George Halas surrendered 51 acres of railyards for redevelopment as Dearborn Park apartments, townhouses and accompanying tree-lined walkways. In 1988, the phase of Dearborn Park construction began between State St. and Clark St. south of Roosevelt Rd. A housing boom emerged in the 1990s and continues to the present day with the construction of new condominium. Construction of the Central Station development commenced in 1990 and this was a mixed-use development on 72 acres of former rail yards and air rights east of Indiana Avenue between Roosevelt Road and 18th Street. Among the prominent buildings are One Museum Park and One Museum Park West along a redeveloped Prairie Avenue, landfill use created Burnham Park and Northerly Island in the 1920s and 1930s along Lake Michigan
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Prairie Avenue District
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The Prairie Avenue District is a historic district in the Near South Side community area of Chicago, Illinois. It includes the 1800 and 1900 blocks of South Prairie Avenue and the 1800 block of South Indiana and it was the site of the Battle of Fort Dearborn and became the citys most fashionable residential district after the Great Chicago Fire. It was designated a Chicago Landmark on December 27,1979 and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 15,1972. The John J. Glessner House, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson in 1885–1886 at 1800 S, Prairie Avenue, has been restored as a historic house museum and is open for public tours. Official City of Chicago Near South Side Community Map Prairie District Neighborhood Alliance Glessner House Museum
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Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
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Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Historic house museum
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A historic house museum is a house that has been transformed into a museum. Historic furnishings may be displayed in a way reflects their original placement. Historic house museums are held to a variety of standards, including those of the International Council of Museums, houses are transformed into museums for a number of different reasons. For example, the homes of writers are frequently turned into writers home museums to support literary tourism. Also known as a ‘memory museum’, which is a used to suggest that historic house museum contains a collection of the traces of memory of the people who once lived there. It is often made up of the belongings and objects – this approach is mostly concerned with authenticity. Some museums are organised around the person who lived there or the role the house had. Other historic house museums may be partially or completely reconstructed in order to tell the story of a particular area, the ‘narrative’ of the people who lived there guides this approach, and dictates the manner in which it is completed. In each kind of museum visitors learn about the previous inhabitants through an explanation and exploration of Social History, the idea of a historic house museum derives from a branch of history called Social History that is solely based on people and their way of living. It became very popular in the century among scholars who were interested in the history of people. Social history remains a branch of history. Philip J. Ethington is a Professor of history and political science, further adds to social history, the past is the set of places made by human action. History is a map of these places, following this historical movement, the concept of ‘Open Air Museums’ became prominent. These particular types of museums had interpreters in costume re-enact the lives of communities in earlier eras and they often occupied large wooden architecture buildings or outdoor sites and landscapes, that were true to the era adding to authenticity. Collective memory is used in the resurrection of historic house museums, however. The notion of Collective Memory originated from philosopher and sociologist Maurice Halbwachs and this extended thesis examines the role of people and place, and how collective memory is not only associated with the individual but is a shared experience. It also focused on the way individual memory is influenced by social structures, an example of a site that utilizes collective memory is the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park in Japan. It was restored and is based on the dialectics of memory, the ‘Hiroshima Traces’ text takes a look the importance of collective memory and how it is embedded in culture and place
7.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
8.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
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Chicago Landmark
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Chicago Landmark is a designation of the Mayor of Chicago and the Chicago City Council for historic buildings and other sites in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Listed sites are selected after meeting a combination of criteria, including historical, economic, architectural, artistic, cultural, Mayor and the City Council appoint a nine-member Commission on Chicago Landmarks to develop landmark recommendations in accordance with a 1968 Chicago city ordinance. In Chicago, the preservation movement initially sought to ensure the survival of individual buildings of special significance. However, the movement has evolved to include districts and neighborhoods, preservation is now an integral element of urban planning and design. In 1957, Chicago City Council 5th ward Alderman Leon Despres began the preservation movement in Chicago. This led to the formation of the City Landmarks Commission, who chose 39 buildings as honorary landmarks, many landmarks have been designated with National Historic Landmark status by the United States Secretary of the Interior for historical significance. All of those and a number of districts, sites, buildings, structures. Not all Chicago Landmarks have been listed on the National Register, no Chicago Landmarks are classified as any other type of National Park System protected area including National Parks, National Monuments, or National Preserves. The charts below detail these designations for the city of Chicago-designated sites, for consistency, the list below uses the name from the Chicago Landmark website. Neighborhood names and boundaries are consistent with the Community areas in Chicago, as noted in the list above, there are many places that are designated as City landmarks but they have not been nationally registered. There are also approximately 200 nationally Registered Historic Places in Chicago that are not also designated Chicago Landmarks, of these,13 are further designated as U. S
10.
Henry Hobson Richardson
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Henry Hobson Richardson was a prominent American architect who designed buildings in Albany, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities. The style he popularized is named for him, Richardsonian Romanesque, along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of the recognized trinity of American architecture. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is credited with the discovery of oxygen. Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University, initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He didnt finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U. S. Civil War, Richardson returned to the U. S. in 1865. He settled in New York in October 1865 and he found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more, Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable, there are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardsons early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design. For the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque, in 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of his eponymous Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, the 1872 Trinity Church in Boston solidified Richardsons national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store, were completed posthumously by his assistants, Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Brights disease, a historical term for the kidney disorder chronic nephritis. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan. One example includes Richardsons design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building, Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death, his aforementioned successors completed the project. He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts, despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his reckless disregard for financial order meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children. Richardsons great grand-daughter is Mill Valley architect Heidi Richardson, Richardson spent much of his later years in his house in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached to ease the strain on his health. The house fell into disrepair and was listed in 2007 as an historic site
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Romanesque architecture
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Romanesque Architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches, examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture, each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan, the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics, Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, northern Spain and rural Italy. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word Romanesque means descended from Roman and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages, Romance language is not degenerated Latin language. Latin language is degenerated Romance language, Romanesque architecture is not debased Roman architecture. Roman architecture is debased Romanesque architecture, the first use in a published work is in William Gunns An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture. The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries, Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been altered, and many are in ruins. By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches, the scope of Romanesque architecture Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire. In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders. In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders, the largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michaels Church, Hildesheim, 1001–1030, the style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band
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Richardsonian Romanesque
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Richardson first used elements of the style in his Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, New York, designed in 1870. This very free revival style incorporates 11th and 12th century southern French, Spanish, the style includes work by the generation of architects practicing in the 1880s before the influence of the Beaux-Arts styles. It is epitomised by the American Museum of Natural Historys original 77th Street building by J. Cleaveland Cady of Cady, Berg and See in New York City. It was seen in communities in this time period such as in St. Thomas, Ontarios city hall and Menomonie. Some of the practitioners who most faithfully followed Richardsons proportion, massing and detailing had worked in his office and these include, Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow and Frank Alden, George Shepley and Charles Coolidge, Herbert Burdett. Bate designed the Grays Armory in this style in Cleveland, Ohio, the style also influenced the Chicago school of architecture and architects Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. In Finland, Eliel Saarinen was influenced by Richardson, research is underway to try to document the westward movement of the artisans and craftsmen, many of whom were immigrant Italians and Irish, who built in the Richardsonian Romanesque tradition. The style began in the East, in and around Boston, as the style was losing favor in the East, it was gaining popularity further west. Stone carvers and masons trained in the Richardsonian manner appear to have taken the style west, as an example, four small bank buildings were built in Richardsonian Romanesque style in Osage County, Oklahoma, during 1904–1911. For pictures of H. H. Richardson’s own designs and some of the details, with the exception of the Richardson Olmsted Complex, none of the following structures were designed by Richardson. They illustrate the strength of his personality on progressive North American architecture from 1885 to 1905. They are divided into categories denoting the various different uses of the buildings, civic Buildings Educational Institutions and Libraries Service-related buildings Churches and chapels Residences Henry Hobson Richardson H
13.
Prairie Avenue
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The street has a rich history from its origins as a major trail for horseback riders and carriages. The upper six-block section includes part of the historic Prairie Avenue District, several of Chicagos most important historical figures have lived on the street. This is especially true of the period of recovery from the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 when many of the most important families in the city moved to the street, residents of the street have influenced the evolution of the city and have played prominent national and international roles. They have influenced the history, the architecture, the culture. The street has over time been influenced by the demographics of Chicago, the importance of the street has declined, but it still has landmark buildings and is the backbone of a historic district. Preservation battles regarding various properties on the street have been notable with one having been chronicled on the front page of The New York Times, in the early 21st century, the street was redeveloped to host valuable and important condominiums. Recently, developments have extended the north to accommodate new high-rise condominiums, such as One Museum Park. The redevelopment has extended the street so that it has prominent buildings bordering Grant Park with Prairie Avenue addresses, Prairie Avenue once served as an Indian trail linking Fort Dearborn to Fort Wayne in Indiana and thus derived its name from the vast midwestern prairie land between the two endpoints. In 1812, the Battle of Fort Dearborn occurred in the area that is now the section of the street. Casualties of the battle, such as William Wells and George Ronan, were struck down here, over time, the district has evolved from an upscale neighborhood to a factory district and back to an upscale neighborhood. Zoning in 1853 anticipated residential development, although only one grand villa existed at the time, by 1877 the eleven-block area of Prairie Avenue as well as Calumet Avenue housed elite residences. By 1886 the finest mansions in the city, each equipped with its own carriage house, in the 1880s and 1890s, mansions for George Pullman, Marshall Field, John J. Glessner and Philip Armour anchored a neighborhood of over fifty mansions known as Millionaires Row. Many of the architects of the day, such as Richard Morris Hunt, Henry Hobson Richardson. At the time of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition, guidebooks described the street as the most expensive street west of Fifth Avenue. However, after Bertha Palmer, society wife of Potter Palmer, built the Palmer Mansion that anchored the Gold Coast along Lake Shore Drive, by 1911, warehouses and factories cramped the Prairie Avenue District. Large industry overtook the district by 1950, early 21st century deindustrialisation, urban congestion, and historic preservation have brought the return of trendy buildings, and restored as well as renovated structures. Simultaneously new infill housing is resuscitating the district, now, the historic northern section of the street is part of the Chicago Landmark Prairie Avenue District that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was declared a Chicago Landmark on December 27,1979, the historic district includes the 1800 and 1900-blocks of South Prairie, the 1800 block of South Indiana and 211 through 217 East Cullerton
14.
Benjamin H. Warder
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Benjamin Head Warder was an American manufacturer of agricultural machinery. In 1902, the company he co-founded merged with four others to form International Harvester. He was one of the 9 children of Jeremiah Warder and Ann Aston, Quakers from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Jeremiah had been a member of his fathers shipping firm, John Warder & Sons. John Warder had invested in Ohio land, and bequeathed Jeremiah $10,000 in land. In 1850, Benjamin co-founded Warder, Brokaw & Child Company, and paid $30,000 for patent rights to The Champion, Warders company manufactured the machines, but distribution was shared, at first, with Whiteley and others. By 1860, the Springfield firm was just Warder & Child, in 1866, it was reorganized as Warder, Mitchell & Company, with John J. Glessner and Asa S. Bushnell as junior partners. Senior partner Ross Mitchell retired in 1880, and the firm became Warder and it manufactured harvesting machinery – reapers, binders, mowers and hay rakes – under the Champion brand name. Warder and Bushnell managed the factories in Springfield, which covered 20 acres, by 1886, the company employed more than 1000 workers, and was exporting to foreign countries. In 1908, the 2,000, 000th Champion machine was sold, Springfield, Ohios nickname, The Champion City, comes from the companys brand name. Warder retired from business in 1886, and moved his family to Washington, DC, boston architect Henry Hobson Richardson is credited with the design, but died four months into the project. Richardsons successor firm, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, completed the house in 1888. Upon moving to Washington, Warder purchased the late Asa Whitneys country estate of Whitney Close from the heirs of Catherine M. Whitney on June 4,1886 and he immediately set about subdividing the 43 acre tract of land into building lots for a new community named Whitney Close. This was followed by the subdivision and development of other properties in the area. These subdivisions—including Whitney Close, Schuetzen Park, and Bellevue—were organized into a neighborhood known as Park View in 1908. Park Views Warder Street commemorates Warders role in founding the neighborhood, as a memorial to his parents, he commissioned Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge to design a new public library for Springfield, Ohio. Warder Public Library was begun in 1887 and completed in 1890 and he built a speculative office building at 9th & F Street NW, Washington, DC, designed by architect Nicholas T. Haller. Benjamin H. Warder died in 1894, while on a trip to Egypt, Benjamins grandmother Ann Warder had written a series of journals, including mentions of Benjamins grandfather and father, now held by the Pennsylvania Historical Society. Warder married Ellen Nancy Ormsby in 18xx, and they had 3 daughters, Elizabeth, Ellen Nancy, married Ward Thoron, married Mjr
15.
Springfield, Ohio
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Springfield is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Clark County. The municipality is located in southwestern Ohio and is situated on the Mad River, Buck Creek and Beaver Creek, Springfield is home to Wittenberg University, a liberal arts college. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 60,608. The Springfield Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 138,333 residents, and the Dayton-Springfield-Greenville, OH Combined Statistical Area had 1,072,891 residents. In 1983, Newsweek featured Springfield in its 50th anniversary issue, entitled and it chronicled the impact of the past 50 years on five local families. In 2004, Springfield was chosen as an All-America City, in 2010, Springfield ranked third worst in a national wellbeing survey conducted by The Gallup Organization. In 2011, Springfield was named the unhappiest city in America by another Gallup survey. In 2015, Springfield was founded by James Demint, a former teamster from Kentucky, in 1801. Dayton and Eaton wanted the road to veer south after Springfield, during the mid-and-late 19th century, Springfield was dominated by industrialists including Oliver S. Kelly, Asa S. Bushnell, James Leffel, P. P. Asa S. Bushnell built the Springfield, Ohio Bushnell Building where the patent attorney to the Wright Brothers, Harry Aubrey Toulmin, to promote the products of his agricultural equipment company, P. P. Mast started the Farm and Fireside magazine, mast’s publishing company – Mast, Crowell, and Kirkpatrick – grew to become Crowell-Collier Publishing Company best known for Colliers Weekly. In 1894, The Kelly Springfield Tire Company was founded, at the turn of the 20th century Springfield became known as the Home City. Several lodges including the Masonic Lodge, Knights of Pythias and Odd Fellows built homes for orphans, Springfield also became known as The Champion City. A reference to the Champion Farm Equipment brand manufactured by the Warder, Bushnell & Glessner Company, International remains in Springfield as Navistar International, a producer of medium to large trucks. In 1902 A. B. Graham, then the superintendent of schools for Springfield Township in Clark County, established a Boys and Girls Agricultural Club. Approximately 85 children from 10 to 15 years of age attended the first meeting on January 15,1902 in Springfield, Ohio and this was the start of what would be called the 4-H Club within a few years, quickly growing to a nationwide organization. The first projects included food preservation, gardening and elementary agriculture, today, the Courthouse still bears a large 4H symbol under the flag pole at the front of the building to commemorate its part in founding the organization. The Clark County Fair is the second largest fair in the state in part to 4H still remaining very popular in the area. On March 7,1904, over a thousand residents formed a mob, stormed the jail and removed prisoner Richard Dixon
16.
J. P. Morgan
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John Pierpont J. P. Morgan was an American financier and banker who dominated corporate finance and industrial consolidation in late 19th and early 20th Century United States. In 1892, Morgan arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and he was instrumental in the creation of the United States Steel Corporation, International Harvester and AT&T. He directed the banking coalition that stopped the Panic of 1907 and he was the leading financier of the Progressive Era, and his dedication to efficiency and modernization helped transform American business. Morgan has been described as America’s greatest banker, Morgan died in Rome, Italy, in his sleep in 1913 at the age of 75, leaving his fortune and business to his son, John Pierpont Morgan, Jr. His fortune was estimated at only US$80 million, prompting John D. Rockefeller to say, Morgan was born into the influential Morgan family in Hartford, Connecticut, and was raised there. He was the son of Junius Spencer Morgan and Juliet Pierpont, Pierpont, as he preferred to be known, had a varied education due in part to the plans of his father. In the fall of 1848, Pierpont transferred to the Hartford Public School and then to the Episcopal Academy in Cheshire, Connecticut, boarding with the principal. In September 1851, Morgan passed the exam for The English High School of Boston. In the spring of 1852, an illness struck which was to more common as his life progressed. Rheumatic fever left him in so much pain that he could not walk and he convalesced there for almost a year, then returned to the English High School in Boston to resume his studies. After he graduated, his father sent him to Bellerive, a school near the Swiss village of Vevey and his father then sent him to the University of Göttingen in order to improve his German. He attained a level of German within six months and also a degree in art history, then traveled back to London via Wiesbaden. Morgan went into banking in 1857 at the London branch of merchant banking firm Peabody, in 1858, he moved to New York City to join the banking house of Duncan, Sherman & Company, the American representatives of George Peabody and Company. Morgan had avoided serving during the war by paying a substitute $300 to take his place, from 1860 to 1864, as J. Pierpont Morgan & Company, he acted as agent in New York for his fathers firm, renamed J. S. Morgan & Co. upon Peabodys retirement in 1864, from 1864–72, he was a member of the firm of Dabney, Morgan, and Company. In 1871, he partnered with the Drexels of Philadelphia to form the New York firm of Drexel, at that time, Anthony J. Drexel became Pierponts mentor at the request of Junius Morgan. After the death of Anthony Drexel, the firm was rechristened J. P. Morgan & Company in 1895, retaining close ties with Drexel & Company of Philadelphia, Morgan, Harjes & Company of Paris, and J. S. By 1900, it was one of the most powerful banking houses of the world, Morgan had many partners over the years, such as George W. Perkins, but always remained firmly in charge
17.
Cyrus McCormick
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Cyrus Hall McCormick was an American inventor and businessperson, the founder of the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, which later became part of the International Harvester Company in 1902. From the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, he and many members of his family became prominent residents of Chicago. Even greater than his achievement as an inventor was his success in the development of a company, with manufacturing, marketing. Cyrus McCormick was born on February 15,1809 in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and he was the eldest of eight children born to inventor Robert McCormick, Jr. and Mary Ann Polly Hall. As Cyrus father saw the potential of the design for a mechanical reaper and he worked for 28 years on a horse-drawn mechanical reaper to harvest grain, however, he was never able to reproduce a reliable version. He was aided by Jo Anderson, an enslaved African American on the McCormick plantation at the time, a few machines based on a design of Patrick Bell of Scotland were available in the United States in these years. The Bell machine was pushed by horses, the McCormick design was pulled by horses and cut the grain to one side of the team. Cyrus McCormick held one of his first demonstrations of mechanical reaping at the village of Steeles Tavern. He claimed to have developed a version of the reaper in 18 months. The young McCormick was granted a patent on the reaper on June 21,1834, however, none were sold, because the machine could not handle varying conditions. The McCormick family also worked together in a smelting business. The panic of 1837 almost caused the family to go into bankruptcy when a partner pulled out, in 1839 McCormick started doing more public demonstrations of the reaper, but local farmers still thought the machine was unreliable. He did sell one in 1840, but none for 1841, using the endorsement of his fathers first customer for a machine built by McPhetrich, Cyrus continuously attempted to improve the design. He finally sold seven reapers in 1842,29 in 1843 and they were all built manually in the family farm shop. He received a patent for reaper improvements on January 31,1845. As word spread about the reaper, McCormick noticed orders arriving from farther west, where farms tended to be larger and the land flatter. While he was in Washington, DC to get his 1845 patent, he heard about a factory in Brockport, New York and he also licensed several others across the country to build the reaper, but their quality often proved poor, which hurt the products reputation. In 1847, after their fathers death, Cyrus and his brother Leander moved to Chicago, at the time, other cities in the midwestern United States, such as Cleveland, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, were more established and prosperous
18.
James Deering
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James Deering was an industrial executive in the family Deering Harvester Company and subsequent International Harvester, a socialite, and an antiquities collector. He is known for his landmark Vizcaya estate, where he was an early 20th-century resident on Biscayne Bay in the present day Coconut Grove district of Miami, Florida. Begun in 1910, with architecture and gardens in a Mediterranean Revival style, Vizcaya was his passionate endeavor with artist Paul Chalfin, James Deering was born in 1859 in the western Maine town of South Paris. He was the son of William Deering and his second wife and his older half-brother was the arts patron Charles Deering. His father, who had inherited the family mill and was landowner in the Northeast, invested in a farm-equipment manufacturing company. In 1873, he moved the family to Chicago, Illinois and his parents did acquire a residence in St. Augustine, Florida, for the winter season. James Deerings older brother Charles joined the business in the 1880s, after attending the United States Naval Academy. James Deering attended one year each at Northwestern University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology before also joining the company at the same time, James joined the Deering Harvester Company in 1880 as treasurer. In 1902, with the Bank of J. P. James Deering became vice-president of the new corporation, in 1909, he was phased out of daily company affairs by J. P. Morgan interests. By the turn of the century, James Deering owned homes on Lake Shore Drive in Chicago, in the countryside near Evanston, Illinois, in New York City and his name appeared in social columns as an arts connoisseur, socialite, international traveler, and cultural ambassador. He hosted events for French dignitaries at his New York and Chicago residences, in 1906, for Deerings work in promoting agricultural technology development in France, he was awarded the Légion dhonneur. James Deering and Paul Chalfin then partnered to travel and create Vizcaya there, James Deering built Villa Vizcaya between 1914 and 1922 with visionary mastermind of the project, designer Paul Chalfin, his collaborator companion. The architect was F. Burrall Hoffman Jr, the estates landscape master plan and formal gardens were designed by Colombian landscape designer Diego Suarez. Paul Chalfin had attended Harvard, trained as a painter at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris and she introduced Chalfin to Deering for the interiors of his Chicago home in 1910. The culmination of their effort and lasting memorial to their creative relationship is Villa Vizcaya. The numerous sculptures in the gardens and villa are of ancient Greek, Greco-Roman, the gardens are notable for introducing classical Italian and French design aesthetics into a subtropical habitats plant palette and context — a new approach. This resulted in ongoing garden experiments with many tropical plants new to American horticulture, while Vizcayas landscape design style evokes other periods and places, the use of native stone, plants, and light modulation reflected Deerings desire to showcase the indigenous natural beauty. By 1922, the 180-acre estate included large lagoons and new islands down-coast south of the villa, on the estates western acreage, across present day South Miami Avenue, were the produce gardens and grazing fields
19.
International Harvester
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The International Harvester Company was a United States manufacturer of agricultural machinery, construction equipment, trucks, and household and commercial products. In 1902, J. P. Morgan merged the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and Deering Harvester Company, in 1985, International Harvester sold off most of its agricultural division to Tenneco, Inc. which merged it into its subsidiary J. I. Case under the Case IH brand, following the terms of IHs agreement with Tenneco, International Harvester renamed itself Navistar International Corporation in 1986. Together with his brother Leander J. McCormick, McCormick moved to Chicago in 1847, the McCormick reaper sold well, partially as a result of savvy and innovative business practices. Their products came onto the market just as the development of railroads offered wide distribution to distant market areas and he developed marketing and sales techniques, developing a vast network of trained salesmen able to demonstrate operation of the machines in the field. In 1902, the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and Deering Harvester Company, banker J. P. Morgan provided the financing. In 1919, the Parlin and Orendorff factory in Canton, Illinois, was a leader in the manufacturing industry. International Harvester purchased the factory, calling it the Canton Works, in 1926, IHs Farmall Works began production in a new plant in Rock Island, Illinois, built solely to produce the new Farmall tractor. By 1930, the 100, 000th Farmall was produced, IH next set their sights on introducing a true general-purpose tractor designed to satisfy the needs of the average US family farmer. IH ranked 33rd among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts, in 1946 IH acquired a defense plant in Louisville, Kentucky, which was enlarged, expanded, and re-equipped for production of the Farmall A, B, and the new 340 tractors. Then in 1948, IH acquired the Metropolitan Body Company of Bridgeport and this was the manufacturing facility for the bodies of the commercially successful Metro line of forward control vans and trucks from 1938 until roughly 1964. In 1974, the five-millionth IHC tractor was produced at the Rock Island Farmall plant, throughout the 1960s and 1970s, despite good sales, IHs profit margins remained slim. An overly conservative management, combined with a policy of in-house promotions, tended to stifle new management strategies. Products with increasingly ancient technology continued in production despite their marginal addition to sales, in 1979, IH named a new CEO, who was determined to improve profit margins and drastically cut ballooning costs. Unprofitable model lines were terminated, and factory production curtailed, by the end of the year, IH profits were at their highest in 10 years, but cash reserves were still too low. Union members became increasingly irate over production cutbacks and other cost-cutting measures, in the spring and summer of 1979, IH began short-term planning for a strike that seemed inevitable. Then on November 1, IH announced figures showing that president, McCardell sought overtime, work rule, and other changes from the United Auto Workers, which led to a strike on November 2,1979. Soon after, the economy turned unfavorable, and IH faced a financial crisis, the strike lasted about six months
20.
Navistar International
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The company is also a provider of truck and diesel engine parts and service. Headquartered in Lisle, Illinois, Navistar has 16,500 employees, the company also provides financing for its customers and distributors principally through its wholly owned subsidiary, Navistar Financial Corporation. Today, Navistar produces International brand military vehicles through its affiliate Navistar Defense, International Harvester fell on hard times during the poor agricultural economy in the early to mid-1980s and the effects of a long strike with the UAW over proposed work rule changes. IHs new CEO, Donald Lennox, directed the management organization to begin exiting many of its IHs historical business sectors in an effort to survive. Some of the sales of business endeavors were executed to raise cash for short-term survival. During this period of economic survival, in an effort to raise needed cash and to reduce losses. The Scout and Light Truck Parts Business was sold to Scout/Light Line Distributors, after the Agricultural Division sale in 1985, all that remained of IH was the Truck and Engine Divisions. The company changed its name in 1986 to Navistar International Corporation, in the early 1980s, IH developed a series of reliable large-displacement V8 diesel engines that were sold as an option for heavy-duty Ford 3/4-ton and 1-ton pickup trucks. During the 1980s and 1990s, the popularity of diesel engines had made Navistar a leading manufacturer of bus chassis, the company purchased one-third of American Transportation Corporation, an Arkansas-based manufacturer in 1991, and the remaining two-thirds in April 1995. By becoming both a body and chassis manufacturer at the time, Navistar gained significant market share in the industry. In 2002, AmTran was rebranded as IC after a few months as International Truck, after nearly a century of business in Chicago, Navistar announced its plans on 30 September 2000 to leave the city and relocate its corporate offices to west suburban Warrenville, Illinois. The companys Melrose Park, Illinois plant is notable for a significant workplace shooting on February 5,2001, in 2004, Navistar re-entered the retail vehicle market for the first time since 1980. The International XT pickup truck was a series of three pickup trucks and it was the largest pickup truck available for retail sale and two of the three versions were essentially International Durastar medium-duty trucks fitted with pickup beds. The third version was essentially a version of a Navistar-designed military vehicle. The three XT trucks were sold until 2008, in 2005, Navistar purchased the Workhorse company, a manufacturer of step-van and motor home chassis, to seemingly re-enter the delivery van market. It appeared that the new subsidiary might also benefit by its association with a company history from the 1930s into the 60s included the popular Metro van. For a short time Workhorse offered an integrated chassis-body product called MetroStar, in Sept. of 2012, Navistar announced the shut down of Workhorse and the closure of the plant in Union City, Indiana in order to cut costs. Workhorse has since repositioned itself as a manufacturer of electrically powered trucks, in January 2006, the company declared it would not file its form 10-K annual report with the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission on time
21.
Heritage Documentation Programs
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These programs were established to document historic places in the United States. Records consist of measured drawings, archival photographs, and written reports, in 1933, NPS established the Historic American Buildings Survey following a proposal by Charles E. Peterson, a young landscape architect in the agency. It was founded as a constructive program for architects, draftsmen. Guided by field instructions from Washington, D. C. the first HABS recorders were tasked with documenting a representative sampling of Americas architectural heritage, by creating an archive of historic architecture, HABS provided a database of primary source material and documentation for the then-fledgling historic preservation movement. Earlier private projects included the White Pine Series of Architectural Monographs, notable HABS photographers include Jack Boucher, who worked for the project for over 40 years. The Historic American Engineering Record program was founded on January 10,1969, by NPS, HAER documents historic mechanical and engineering artifacts. Since the advent of HAER, the program is typically called HABS/HAER. Today much of the work of HABS/HAER is done by student teams during the summer, eric DeLony headed HAER from 1971 to 2003. In October 2000, NPS and the American Society of Landscape Architects established a sister program, a predecessor, the Historic American Landscape and Garden Project, recorded historic Massachusetts gardens between 1935 and 1940. That project was funded by the Works Progress Administration, but was administered by HABS, the permanent collection of HABS/HAER/HALS are housed at the Library of Congress, which was established in 1790 as the replacement reference library of the United States Congress. It has since expanded to serve as the National Library of the United States, U. S. publishers are required to deposit a copy of every copyrighted and published work, book monograph. As a branch of the United States Government, its works are in the public domain in the US. Many images, drawings, and documents are available through the Prints and Photographs Online Catalog, including proposed, demolished, and existing structures, locales, projects, and designs. Jack Boucher, former HABS/HAER photographer Jet Lowe, former HAER photographer National Register of Historic Places HAER,30 Years of Recording Our Technological Heritage, IA, The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology. Documenting Complexity, The Historic American Engineering Record and Americas Technological History, IA, The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology. National Park Service−NPS, official Heritage Documentation Programs website
22.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
23.
Floor plan
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Dimensions are usually drawn between the walls to specify room sizes and wall lengths. Floor plans may also include details of fixtures like sinks, water heaters, furnaces, floor plans may include notes for construction to specify finishes, construction methods, or symbols for electrical items. Similar to a map the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a conventional map, objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown cut in plan-section, and objects above this vertical position within the structure are omitted or shown dashed. Plan view or planform is defined as an orthographic projection of an object on a horizontal plane. The term may be used in general to any drawing showing the physical layout of objects. For example, it may denote the arrangement of the objects at an exhibition. Drawings are now reproduced using plotters and large format xerographic copiers and this convention maintains the same orientation of the floor and ceilings plans - looking down from above. RCPs are used by designers and architects to demonstrate lighting, visible mechanical features, a floor plan is not a top view or birds eye view. It is a drawing to scale of the layout of a floor in a building. A top view or birds eye view does not show an orthogonally projected plane cut at the typical 4 foot height above the floor level, a floor plan could show, Interior walls and hallways Restrooms Windows and doors Appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, water heater etc. In other words, a plan is a section viewed from the top, in such views, the portion of the object above the plane is omitted to reveal what lies beyond. In the case of a plan, the roof and upper portion of the walls may typically be omitted. Roof plans are orthographic projections, but they are not sections as their plane is outside of the object. A plan is a method of depicting the internal arrangement of a 3-dimensional object in two dimensions. It is often used in drawing and is traditionally crosshatched. The style of crosshatching indicates the type of material the section passes through, a 3D floor plan can be defined as a virtual model of a building floor plan. Its often used to better convey architectural plans to individuals not familiar with floor plans, despite the purpose of floor plans originally being to depict 3D layouts in a 2D manner, technological expansion has made rendering 3D models much more cost effective. 3D plans show a depth of image and are often complimented by 3D furniture in the room
24.
Courtyard
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A courtyard or court is an enclosed area, often surrounded by a building or complex, that is open to the sky. Such spaces in inns and public buildings were often the meeting places for some purposes. Both of the court and yard derive from the same root. See yard and garden for the relation of this set of words, courtyards—private open spaces surrounded by walls or buildings—have been in use in residential architecture for almost as long as people have lived in constructed dwellings. The courtyard house makes its first appearance ca, Courtyards have historically been used for many purposes including cooking, sleeping, working, playing, gardening, and even places to keep animals. Before courtyards, open fires were burning in a central place within a home. Over time, these openings were enlarged and eventually led to the development of the centralized open courtyard we know today. Courtyard homes have been designed and built throughout the world many variations. Courtyard homes are prevalent in temperate climates, as an open central court can be an important aid to cooling house in warm weather. However, courtyard houses have been found in harsher climates as well for centuries, the comforts offered by a courtyard—air, light, privacy, security, and tranquility—are properties nearly universally desired in human housing. Ur,2000 BC — two-storey houses constructed around a square were built of fired brick. Kitchen, working, and public spaces were located on the ground floor, the central uncovered area in a Roman domus was referred to as an atrium. Today, we use the term courtyard to refer to such an area. Roman atrium houses were built side by side along the street and they were one-storey homes without windows that took in light from the entrance and from the central atrium. The hearth, which used to inhabit the centre of the home, was relocated, and these homes frequently incorporated a second open-air area, the garden, which would be surrounded by Greek-style colonnades, forming a peristyle. This created a colonnaded walkway around the perimeter of the courtyard, Courtyard houses in the Middle East reflect the nomadic influences of the region. Often the flat rooftops of these structures were used for sleeping in warm weather, in some Islamic cultures, private courtyards provided the only outdoor space for women to relax unobserved. The traditional Chinese courtyard house, e. g. siheyuan, is an arrangement of individual houses around a square
25.
Servants' hall
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The Servants Hall is a common room for domestic workers in a great house. The term usually refers to the dining room. If there is no separate sitting room, the Servants Hall doubles as the servants may spend their leisure hours. Meals in the Servants Hall were sometimes very formal affairs, depending on the size, at dinner in a formal house, the Butler and Housekeeper presided over the table much as the master and lady of the house did above stairs. In Victorian England, the rules of precedence were mirrored by the domestic staff in grand or formal homes in the seating arrangements of the Servants Hall. A senior servant such as the ladys maid took the place of honour but would have to go lower if the employer of a visiting servant outranked the mistress of the house
26.
Braggville, Massachusetts
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Braggville is a former postal village located in Massachusetts, now within the towns of Holliston in Middlesex County, Medway in Norfolk County and Milford in Worcester County. Though people had settled the land long before the incorporation of the town of Holliston, the village itself however, would be named for his nephew, Colonel Arial Bragg, Hollistons first shoe and boot maker as well as the agrarian communitys first wholesale manufacturer. After a century of economic prowess, the fell into decline following the First World War. With the emergence of the Post–World War I recession much of the business came to a standstill. By March 1919, the Boston and Albany Railroad had ceased providing passenger service to the Braggville station, although its schoolhouse would remain standing for several more decades, the end of Braggville as a would-be town came in June 1919, when the U. S. Braggville does not have official borders defined by the United States Census Bureau, Massachusetts Route 16 passes through the village, bisecting it almost evenly. Braggville is located in eastern Massachusetts, and bordered by, Holliston on the north Medway on the south and east Milford on the west Bragg, Milford, MA, George W. Stacy, Printer. History Of Braggville Section of Holliston, Medway and Milford, the origin and growth of the boot and shoe industry in Holliston, where it began in 1793, and in Milford, Massachusetts, where it continued in 1795 and remained into 1950. History of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, containing carefully prepared histories of every city, kampersal Field Metcalf, Holliston, Massachusetts Holliston, Massachusetts Medway, Massachusetts Milford, Massachusetts
27.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
28.
Arch
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An arch is a curved structure that spans a space and may or may not support weight above it. Arch may be synonymous with vault, but a vault may be distinguished as a continuous arch forming a roof, an arch is a pure compression form. It can span an area by resolving forces into compressive stresses and. This is sometimes referred to as arch action, as the forces in the arch are carried to the ground, the arch will push outward at the base, called thrust. As the rise, or height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust increases, in order to maintain arch action and prevent the arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained, either with internal ties or external bracing, such as abutments. The most common true arch configurations are the arch, the two-hinged arch. The fixed arch is most often used in reinforced concrete bridge and tunnel construction, because it is subject to additional internal stress caused by thermal expansion and contraction, this type of arch is considered to be statically indeterminate. The two-hinged arch is most often used to long spans. This type of arch has pinned connections at the base, unlike the fixed arch, the pinned base is able to rotate, allowing the structure to move freely and compensate for the thermal expansion and contraction caused by changes in outdoor temperature. However, this can result in additional stresses, so the two-hinged arch is also statically indeterminate, the three-hinged arch is not only hinged at its base, like the two-hinged arch, but at the mid-span as well. The additional connection at the mid-span allows the arch to move in two opposite directions and compensate for any expansion and contraction. This type of arch is not subject to additional stress caused by thermal change. The three-hinged arch is said to be statically determinate. It is most often used for structures, such as large building roofs. Another advantage of the arch is that the pinned bases are more easily developed than fixed ones, allowing for shallow. Arches have many forms, but all fall into three categories, circular, pointed, and parabolic. Arches can also be configured to produce vaults and arcades, Arches with a circular form, also referred to as rounded arches, were commonly employed by the builders of ancient, heavy masonry arches. Ancient Roman builders relied heavily on the arch to span large
29.
Column
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A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member, the term column applies especially to a large round support with a capital and a base or pedestal and made of stone, or appearing to be so. A small wooden or metal support is called a post. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces, other compression members are often termed columns because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, column refers to such an element that also has certain proportional. A column might also be an element not needed for structural purposes, many columns are engaged. All significant Iron Age civilizations of the Near East and Mediterranean made some use of columns, egyptian columns are famously present in the Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak, where 134 columns are lined up in 16 rows, with some columns reaching heights of 24 metres. Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of the Persians and they included double-bull structures in their capitals. The Hall of Hundred Columns at Persepolis, measuring 70 ×70 metres, was built by the Achaemenid king Darius I, many of the ancient Persian columns are standing, some being more than 30 metres tall. The Minoans used whole tree-trunks, usually turned upside down in order to prevent re-growth, stood on a set in the stylobate. These were then painted as in the most famous Minoan palace of Knossos, the Minoans employed columns to create large open-plan spaces, light-wells and as a focal point for religious rituals. These traditions were continued by the later Mycenaean civilization, particularly in the megaron or hall at the heart of their palaces. Being made of wood these early columns have not survived, but their bases have and through these we may see their use. The Greeks developed the classical orders of architecture, which are most easily distinguished by the form of the column and their Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders were expanded by the Romans to include the Tuscan and Composite orders. Columns, or at least large structural exterior ones, became less significant in the architecture of the Middle Ages. Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a piece of stone. Monolithic columns are among the heaviest stones used in architecture, other stone columns are created out of multiple sections of stone, mortared or dry-fit together
30.
George Pullman
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George Mortimer Pullman was an American engineer and industrialist. He designed and manufactured the Pullman sleeping car and founded a town, Pullman. His Pullman Company also hired African-American men to staff the Pullman cars and he gained presidential support by Grover Cleveland for the use of federal military troops which left 30 strikers dead in the violent suppression of workers there to end the Pullman Strike of 1894. A national commission was appointed to investigate the strike, which included assessment of operations of the company town, in 1898 the Supreme Court of Illinois ordered the Pullman Company to divest itself of the town which became a neighborhood of the city of Chicago. Pullman was born in Brocton, New York, the son of Emily Caroline and he moved with his family to Albion, New York, along the Erie Canal. It was heavily traveled by boats that carried people on day excursions as well as travelers across the state. There he attended schools and at work learned other skills that contributed to his later success. At the age of fourteen, he dropped out of school and he worked with his father to move houses during the widening of the Erie Canal, and learned his technique of shifting them to newly built foundations. He moved to Chicago as a engineer, as it was a boom town that was expanding rapidly. He arrived in Chicago as that city prepared to build the nations first comprehensive sewer system and he formed a partnership known as Ely, Smith & Pullman. Chicago was built on a bog, and people described the mud in the streets as deep enough to drown a horse. Pullman was one of the engineers who worked to raise the buildings of central Chicago to the new grade, the Ely, Smith & Pullman partnership gained favorable publicity for raising the massive Tremont House, a six-story brick hotel, while the guests remained inside. He developed a railroad sleeping car, the Pullman sleeper or palace car and these were designed after the packet boats that traveled the Erie Canal of his youth in Albion. The first one was finished in 1864, orders for his new car began to pour into his company. The sleeping cars proved successful although each cost more than five times the price of a railway car. They were marketed as luxury for the middle class, in 1867 Pullman introduced his first hotel on wheels, the President, a sleeper with an attached kitchen and dining car. The food rivaled the best restaurants of the day and the service was impeccable, a year later in 1868, he launched the Delmonico, the worlds first sleeping car devoted to fine cuisine. The Delmonico menu was prepared by chefs from New Yorks famed Delmonicos Restaurant, both the President and the Delmonico and subsequent Pullman sleeping cars offered first-rate service
31.
American Institute of Architects
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The American Institute of Architects is a professional organization for architects in the United States. The AIA also works with members of the design and construction team to help coordinate the building industry. The AIA is currently headed by Robert Ivy, FAIA as EVP/Chief Executive Officer and Thomas V. Vonier, wells, with Richard Upjohn serving as the first president. They met on February 23,1857 and decided to invite 16 other prominent architects to join them, including Alexander Jackson Davis, Thomas U. Prior to their establishment of the AIA, anyone could claim to be an architect and they drafted a constitution and bylaws by March 10,1857, under the name New York Society of Architects. Walter, of Philadelphia, later suggested the name be changed to American Institute of Architects, the members signed the new constitution on April 15,1857, having filed a certificate of incorporation two days earlier. As of 2008, AIA has more than 300 chapters, the AIA is headquartered at 1735 New York Avenue, NW in Washington, D. C. A design competition was held in the mid-1960s to select an architect for a new AIA headquarters in Washington, mitchell/Giurgola won the design competition but failed to get approval of the design concept from the United States Commission of Fine Arts. The firm resigned the commission and helped select The Architects Collaborative to redesign the building, the design, led by TAC principals Norman Fletcher and Howard Elkus, was ultimately approved in 1970 and completed in 1973. More than 90,000 licensed architects and associated professionals are members, AIA members adhere to a code of ethics and professional conduct intended to assure clients, the public, and colleagues of an architects dedication to the highest standards in professional practice. There are five levels of membership in the AIA, Architect members are licensed to practice architecture in the United States, international associate members hold an architecture license or the equivalent from a licensing authority outside the United States. Emeritus members have been AIA members for 15 successive years and are at least 65 years of age or are incapacitated, allied membership is a partnership with the AIA and the American Architectural Foundation. The AIA’s most prestigious honor is the designation of a member as a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects and this membership is awarded to members who have made contributions of national significance to the profession. Slightly more than 2,600, or 2% of all members, have elevated to the AIA College of Fellows. Foreign architects of prominence may be elected to the College as Honorary Fellows of the AIA, the AIA is governed by a Board of Directors and has a staff of over 200 full-time employees. Although the AIA functions as an organization, at its heart are some 300 local. The components are spread throughout the United States, United Kingdom, Europe, Japan, by speaking with a united voice, AIA architects influence government practices that affect the practice of the profession and the quality of American life. The AIA monitors legislative and regulatory actions and uses the power of its membership to participate in decisionmaking by federal, state
32.
Illinois Institute of Technology
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It traces its history to several 19th century engineering and professional education institutions. In 1890, when advanced education was reserved for societys elite. When Armour Institute opened in 1893, it offered courses in engineering, chemistry, architecture. Illinois Tech was created in 1940 by the merger of Armour Institute, located on the west side of Chicago, Lewis Institute, established in 1895 by the estate of hardware merchant and investor Allen C. Lewis, offered liberal arts as well as science and engineering courses for men and women. At separate meetings held by their respective boards on Oct.26,1939, a Cook County circuit court decision on April 23,1940 solidified the merger. The Institute of Design, founded in Chicago by László Moholy-Nagy in 1937, Chicago-Kent College of Law, founded in 1887, became part of the university in 1969, making Illinois Institute of Technology one of the few technology-based universities with a law school. The program became the Stuart School of Business in 1999, as of April 2014, the University Tech Park at Illinois Institute of Technology is home to many companies. Today, IIT is a private, Ph. D. -granting university with programs in engineering, science, human sciences, applied technology, architecture, business, design and law. One of the 16 institutions that comprise the Association of Independent Technological Universities, through a committed faculty and close personal attention, IIT provides a challenging academic program focused by the rigor of the real world. The university and its contract research affiliate, IIT Research Institute, have an annual volume of $130 million. IIT has more than 40,000 living alumni and is known as the mater of accomplishments as well as of people. IIT architects have shaped the skyline of Chicago and cities throughout the world, IIT Research Institute has several locations throughout the United States, and the university has five campuses in the Chicago area. In 1976, the American Institute of Architects recognized the campus as one of the 200 most significant works of architecture in the U. S. S. R. Crown Hall, home of IIT College of Architecture, was named a National Historic Landmark in 2001, Institute of Design, an international leader in teaching systemic, human-centered design, is located at 350 N. LaSalle Street in Chicagos River North neighborhood. The 19-acre Daniel F. and Ada L. IIT continued to expand after the merger. As one of the first American universities to host a Navy V-12 program during World War II the school saw an increase in students. Two years before the merger, German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe joined the then Armour Institute of Technology to head both Armours and the Art Institute of Chicagos architecture program, the Art Institute would later separate and form its own program
33.
Chicago Architecture Foundation
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The Chicago Architecture Foundation is a nonprofit cultural organization based in Chicago, Illinois, United States, whose mission is to inspire people to discover why design matters. It is known for its tours and programs, most notably the docent-led architecture cruise on the Chicago River. CAF is also known for its model of downtown Chicago. CAFs river cruise is ranked in the top ten tours in the U. S. by TripAdvisor users, CAF was founded in 1966 as the Chicago School of Architecture Foundation to save H. H. Richardsons Glessner House, one of Chicagos oldest residences. In 1971, it began to offer lectures and volunteer-led tours of Chicago to the public, in 1979 it was renamed the Chicago Architecture Foundation. In 1992, CAF moved to its current location, the Railway Exchange Building, in 2009 CAF opened a new exhibition, Chicago Model, which includes a 3D-printed scale model of the central area of the city and is now on permanent display. CAF offers approximately 85 different tours of the city, all tours are led by trained volunteer docents who go through a 14-week training course before being certified to lead CAF tours. Some modern buildings that are explored include the Sears Tower, John Hancock Center, Mies van der Rohes Chicago Federal Center, CAF also offers tours of parks and public spaces such as Millennium Park, Maggie Daley Park and the Chicago Pedway. During the summer months, CAF offers tours of various neighborhoods throughout Chicago in addition to downtown tours, cAFs most popular tour, the CAF River Cruise aboard Chicagos First Lady Cruises has departures April–November every year. CAF also hosts the largest annual event in the city. This free, annual event gives the public access to buildings, held over a weekend in October, OHC attracts tens of thousands of participants from across the country and around the world. org. In 2013, CAF opened the ArcelorMittal Design Studio, a space dedicated to introducing design concepts to individuals of all ages. The CAF Shop, which offers Chicago and architecture-themed products, is located on the first floor of the Railway Exchange Building at 224 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago Architecture Foundation web site Chicago Architecture Foundation YouTube Channel Chicago Architecture Foundation Facebook Chicago Architecture Foundation Twitter
34.
Philip Johnson
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In 1978 he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and in 1979 the first Pritzker Architecture Prize. Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio on July 8,1906 and he was descended from the Jansen family of New Amsterdam, and included among his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out the first town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. In 1928 he met Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting formed the basis for a relationship of both collaboration and competition In 1930, Johnson joined the architecture department of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. There he arranged for American visits by Gropius and Le Corbusier, in 1932, working with Hitchcock and Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, he organized the first exhibition on Modern architecture at the Museum of Modern Art in 1932. The show and their published book International Style, Modern Architecture Since 1922 played an important part in introducing modern architecture to the American public. When the rise of the Nazis in Germany forced the modernists Marcel Breuer and Mies van der Rohe to leave Germany, in 1936, in the depths of the Great Depression, he left the Museum of Modern Art for a brief venture into journalism and politics. In his 1994 biography of Johnson, Schultze wrote, In politics he proved to be a model of futility and he was never much of a political threat to anyone, still less an effective doer of either political good or political evil. In 1941, at the age of 35, Johnson abandoned politics and journalism and enrolled in the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in 1941, Johnson designed and actually built his first building, a house still existing at 9 Ash Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The house, strongly influenced by Mies van der Rohe, has a wall around the lot which merges with the structure, after the United States entered World War II in December 1941, Johnson enlisted in the Army. He spent his service during the war in the United States. In 1946, after he completed his service, Johnson returned to the Museum of Modern Art as a curator. At the same time, he began working to establish his architectural practice and he built a small house, in th style of Mies, in Saaponack, Long Island in 1946. This was followed by one of this most famous buildings, which he built for himself, the Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, completed in 1949, which has become a landmark of modern architecture. Johnson had curated an exhibit of Mies van der Rohes at the Museum of Modern Art in 1947, the house is a 56 foot by 32 foot glass rectangle, sited at the edge of a crest on Johnsons estate overlooking a pond. The buildings sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel, the floor, of brick, is not flush with the ground, the interior is an open space divided by low walnut cabinets, a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling. The New York Times described it in 2005 as one of the 20th centurys greatest residential structures, Johnson continued to add to the Glass House estate during each period of his career. After completing the Glass House, he completed two more houses in New Canaan in a similar to that of Mies, the Hodgson House
35.
Harry Weese
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Harry Mohr Weese was an American architect, born in Evanston, Illinois in the Chicago suburbs, who had an important role in 20th century modernism and historic preservation. His brother, Ben Weese, is also a renowned architect, Harry Mohr Weese was born on June 30,1915 in Evanston, Illinois as the first son of Harry E. and Marjorie Weese. His father was an Episcopalian, and his mother was a Presbyterian, in 1919, the family moved to a house in Kenilworth, Illinois, where Harry would be raised. Weese was enrolled in the progressive Joseph Sears School in 1919, by 1925, Weese decided that he wanted to be either an artist or an architect. After graduating from New Trier High School, Weese enrolled at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1933 to pursue a Bachelor in Architecture, Weese also took architecture classes at Yale University starting in 1936. Weese studied under Alvar Aalto at MIT and fraternized with classmates I. M. Pei, as his schooling was at the height of the Great Depression, Weese eschewed studying the expensive historical revivals in favor of more affordable modern styles. In the summer of 1937, Weese toured northern Europe on a bicycle, upon his return to the United States, Weese was offered a fellowship at the Cranbrook Academy of Art through Eero Saarinen, whose father Eliel oversaw the school. There, he studied city planning, potter, and textiles while learning more about Modernist principles and he worked alongside other emerging Modernist designers such as Ralph Rapson, Florence Knoll, and Charles Eames. Weese formed a partnership in Chicago with classmate Benjamin Baldwin upon their graduation in 1940. He would later marry Baldwins sister, Kitty, following the brief partnership, Weese joined the firm of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. Soon after joining, however, Weese enlisted as an officer in the United States Navy for World War II. Weese moved back to Chicago after the war in 1945 and rejoined SOM, in 1947, Weese started his independent design firm, Harry Weese Associates. His first commissions, such as the Robert and Suzanne Drucker House in Wilmette, Illinois, were houses for family members, by the late 1950s, Weese began to receive major commissions. Although he continued to plan houses, Weese also built civic projects such as the Metropolitan Correctional Center in Chicago, the Washington Metro in the District of Columbia helped Weese become the foremost designer of rail systems during the peak of his career. He subsequently was commissioned to oversee rail projects in Miami, Los Angeles, Dallas and he was named a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects in 1961 and received the Arnold W. Brunner Memorial Prize from the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1964. He led the restoration of Adler & Sullivans Auditorium Building, and Daniel Burnhams Field Museum of Natural History, Harry Weese & Associates received the Architecture Firm Award from the American Institute of Architects in 1978. Weese also served as a judge for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial design competition, weeses parents were Protestant Christians, but he himself was nonreligious. Muschamp noted that the ceilings at the crossings of subway lines induce an almost religious sense of awe
36.
William Morris
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William Morris was an English textile designer, poet, novelist, translator, and socialist activist. Associated with the British Arts and Crafts Movement, he was a contributor to the revival of traditional British textile arts. His literary contributions helped to establish the modern fantasy genre, while he played a significant role in propagating the early socialist movement in Britain. Born in Walthamstow, Essex, to a wealthy family, Morris came under the strong influence of medievalism while studying Classics at Oxford University. Webb and Morris designed a home, Red House, then in Kent. In 1861, Morris founded a decorative arts firm with Burne-Jones, Rossetti, Webb, and others, in 1875, Morris assumed total control of the company, which was renamed Morris & Co. Although retaining a main home in London, from 1871 Morris rented the rural retreat of Kelmscott Manor, greatly influenced by visits to Iceland, with Eiríkr Magnússon he produced a series of English-language translations of Icelandic Sagas. In 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings to campaign against the damage caused by architectural restoration, in 1891 he founded the Kelmscott Press to publish limited-edition, illuminated-style print books, a cause to which he devoted his final years. Morris is recognised as one of the most significant cultural figures of Victorian Britain, though best known in his lifetime as a poet, founded in 1955, the William Morris Society is devoted to his legacy, while multiple biographies and studies of his work have seen publication. Many of the associated with his life are open to visitors, much of his work can be found in art galleries and museums. Morris was born at Elm House in Walthamstow, Essex, on 24 March 1834. Raised into a wealthy family, he was named after his father. His mother was Emma Morris, who came from Woodford Hall in Woodford, Essex and he also took rides through the Essex countryside on his pony, and visited the various churches and cathedrals throughout the country, marveling at their architecture. His father took him on visits outside of the county, for instance to Canterbury Cathedral, the Chiswick Horticultural Gardens, and to the Isle of Wight, where he adored Blackgang Chine. In February 1848 Morris began his studies at Marlborough College in Marlborough, Wiltshire and he despised his time there, being bullied, bored, and homesick. He did use the opportunity to many of the prehistoric sites of Wiltshire, such as Avebury and Silbury Hill. At Christmas 1851, Morris was removed from the school and returned to Water House, guy, Assistant Master at the nearby Forest School. In June 1852 Morris entered Oxford Universitys Exeter College, although since the college was full and he disliked the college and was bored by the manner in which they taught him Classics
37.
William De Morgan
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William Frend De Morgan was an English potter, tile designer and novelist. A lifelong friend of William Morris, he designed tiles, stained glass and his tiles are often based on medieval designs or Persian patterns, and he experimented with innovative glazes and firing techniques. Galleons and fish were popular motifs, as were fantastical birds, many of De Morgans tile designs were planned to create intricate patterns when several tiles were laid together. Born in Gower Street, London, the son of the distinguished mathematician Augustus De Morgan and his highly educated wife, De Morgan was always supported in his desire to become an artist. At the age of twenty he entered the Royal Academy schools, but he was disillusioned with the establishment, then he met Morris. Soon De Morgan began experimenting with stained glass, ventured into pottery in 1863, in 1872, De Morgan set up a pottery works in Chelsea where he stayed until 1881—his most fruitful decade as an art potter. The arts and crafts ideology he was exposed to through his friendship with Morris and his own insistent curiosity and his early efforts at making his own tiles during his Chelsea Period were of variable technical quality – often amateurish with firing defects and irregularities. In his early years, De Morgan made extensive use of blank commercial tiles, hard and durable biscuit tiles of red clay were obtained from the Patent Architectural Pottery Co. in Poole. Dust pressed tiles of white earthenware were bought from Wedgwood, Mintons and other manufacturers and he continued to use blank commercial dust-pressed tiles which were decorated in red lustre into his Fulham Period. However he developed a high quality biscuit tile of his own and his inventive streak led him to spend hours designing a new duplex bicycle gear and also lured him into complex studies of the chemistry of glazes, methods of firing, and pattern transfer. De Morgans decoration of pottery included chargers, rice dishes and vases, some of these were made in his works but many were bought as biscuit ware from Wedgwood and others and decorated by De Morgans workers. Some were signed by his decorators including Charles Passenger, Fred Passenger, Joe Juster, De Morgan was particularly drawn to Eastern tiles. Around 1873–1874, he made a breakthrough by rediscovering the technique of lustreware found in Hispano-Moresque pottery. Nor was his interest in the East limited to glazing techniques and this partnership was associated with a move for the factory from Merton Abbey to Fulham in 1888. However, this did not guarantee success, and in 1907 William De Morgan left the pottery, which continued under the Passenger brothers. All my life I have been trying to make things, he said at the time. William De Morgan turned his hand to writing novels, and became better known than he ever had been for his pottery and his first novel, Joseph Vance, was published in 1906, and was an instant sensation in the United States as well as the United Kingdom. This was followed by An Affair of Dishonour, Alice-for-Short, the genre has been described as Victorian and suburban
38.
A. H. Davenport and Company
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A. H. Davenport and Company was a late-19th-century–early-20th-century American furniture manufacturer, cabinetmaker, and interior decoration firm. Based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it sold luxury items at its showrooms in Boston and New York City, the word davenport, meaning a boxy sofa or sleeper-sofa, comes from the company. It was founded by Alfred H. Davenport, who began as a bookkeeper at the Boston Furniture Company in 1866 and he changed the companys name, and expanded it, opening a showroom in New York City. It produced high-end and custom-made furniture, which it retailed alongside fabrics, wallpaper, hardware, decorative items, one of Davenports first big commissions was for 225 pieces of furniture and decorative items for the Iolani Palace in Honolulu, Hawaii. The company formed a relationship with architect H. H. Richardson. Boston Furniture Company–Davenport & Co. likely executed the furniture for his Winn Memorial Library in Woburn, Davenport & Co. Richardson designed the New York Court of Appeals Room, on the third floor of the New York State Capitol in Albany. Davenport & Co. executed its highly carved, Byzantine-Romanesque-style cabinetwork, Lord Coleridge, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, described it as the finest courtroom in the world. In 1916, Richardsons courtroom was disassembled and relocated to the New York Court of Appeals Building, in 1885, Davenport hired an architect from Richardsons office, Francis H. Bacon, to be his chief designer. Bacon soon was promoted to vice-president of Davenport & Co. Richardson died in 1886, the custom-designed case for the Steinway grand piano was made by the company, and is attributed to Bacon. The Warder Mansion in Washington, D. C. was one of Richardsons final buildings, Davenport & Co. made the furniture, but it is unclear whether design is partially attributable to Richardson, or wholly attributable to Bacon. Davenport & Co. did work on the James J. Hill House in Minneapolis, the architects, Peabody and Stearns, were fired before the buildings completion and its interiors were completed by Irving & Casson. The company produced furniture and interiors for architect Charles Brighams 1895 annex to the Massachusetts State House in Boston, architect Charles Follen McKim assembled the team of Herter Brothers, Davenport & Co. and Edward F. Caldwell & Co. to execute his interior designs for the Frederick William Vanderbilt Mansion, in Hyde Park, McKim would reunite the team a couple years later to renovate The White House. McKim, Mead and White designed the interiors for the George Eastman House in Rochester, Davenport & Co. executed the work, including a dining room similar to McKims State Dining Room. The company did work on the Henry Clay Frick House in New York City, Thomas Hastings, the Frick Papers include receipts for furniture and interior woodwork, fabrics and wall coverings, decorative painting. Davenport & Co. made a set of sofas and chairs for the Cross Hall during the second Grover Cleveland Administration. McKim, Mead and White renovated the rooms of The White House during the Theodore Roosevelt Administration, removing the grand staircase. McKims goal was to make changes so that the house would not have to be altered again, Herter Brothers executed plasterwork, paneling and cabinetwork for several of the public rooms, helping to turn a stylistic hodge-podge of interiors into a unified Neo-Classical whole
39.
Rocks Estate
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The Rocks Estate, also known as the John Jacob Glessner Estate, is a historic summer estate in Bethlehem, New Hampshire. The large estate, covering more than 1,300 acres, is located near the junction of U. S. Route 302 and Interstate 93, and includes some twenty buildings. The estate was assembled by John Jacob Glessner in the 1880s, Glessner created The Rocks as a private conservation initiative, to prevent destructive farming methods from destroying the land. The large Shingle-style house he had built in 1883 no longer stands, but a significant number of outbuildings survive, including a house, horse barn. At least these three buildings were designed by Chicago architect Hermann V. von Holst, there is a subsidiary area of the estate known as the Red Farm, centered on a c.1840 farmhouse. The estate was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984, the property is now owned by the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, and is open to the public. National Register of Historic Places listings in Grafton County, New Hampshire The Rocks - SPNHF
40.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
41.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
42.
John J. Glessner House
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The John J. Glessner House, operated as the Glessner House Museum, is an important 19th-century residence located at 1800 S. It was designed in 1885-1886 by architect Henry Hobson Richardson and completed in late 1887, the property was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 14,1970. The site was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on April 17,1970, John Jacob Glessner was a partner in the firm of Warder, Bushnell & Glessner, a farm machinery manufacturer headquartered in Springfield, Ohio. Immediately after his marriage in 1870 to Frances Macbeth, Glessner relocated to Chicago where he opened a branch office, Glessner was appointed vice president and continued in that capacity until his death in 1936 at the age of 92. During the late 19th century, Chicagos most prestigious residential street was Prairie Avenue on the South Side, enjoying economic success, Glessner decided to build a home for his family on Prairie Avenue and 18th Street. He chose one of the nations foremost architects, H. H. Richardson. The Richardsonian Romanesque style took elements of European Romanesque architecture from buildings constructed in the 11th and 12th centuries, for example, the heavy, rough-cut facing stones of Romanesque architecture were no longer necessary for engineering reasons. Architects and builders had discovered more efficient ways for walls to distribute, Richardson believed that what was no longer necessary for function could be made to serve a new purpose of form, by creating a new visual language of individual separation and privacy. The Glessner residence was Richardsons last work and he died at 48, just 3 weeks after completion. The innovative floor plan and design of the Glessner house rank it as one of the most important residential commissions of the 19th century, the walls of the house are pushed close to the lot lines, allowing for a spacious private courtyard within. The courtyard allowed abundant natural light to enter the rooms of the house through south-facing windows. Additionally, a long servant hall is placed along the side of the house, buffering the family spaces from the noise. The exterior of the house is clad in Braggville granite, laid in courses of various heights, ornamentation is minimal, and includes an arch of stylized foliage over the front entrance and a series of carved capitals on the second floor columns. The design was different from the other houses on Prairie Avenue. After John Glessner died in 1936, the house was given to the American Institute of Architects, in 1937, the family deeded the house to the Armour Institute. In 1945 the Institute leased the house to the Lithographic Technical Foundation, when the Foundation moved to Pittsburgh in the early 1960s, the house was threatened with demolition. The Chicago Architecture Foundation was founded in 1966 as the Chicago School of Architecture Foundation in order to save Glessner House. Eventually a group of architects - including Philip Johnson, Ben Weese and Harry Weese - and preservation-minded citizens banded together to save the house, within a few years, the Glessner descendants began returning original furnishings
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