1.
Punch magazine
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Punch, or The London Charivari was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire established in 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells. Historically, it was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s, after the 1940s, when its circulation peaked, it went into a long decline, closing in 1992. It was revived in 1996, but closed again in 2002, Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, on an initial investment of £25. It was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon and it was subtitled The London Charivari in homage to Charles Philipons French satirical humour magazine Le Charivari. Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became suggestor in chief until he severed his connection in 1845, the magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 Almanack issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842 due to difficulties the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens, Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the terms widespread use. The illustrator Archibald Henning designed the cover of the magazines first issues, the cover design varied in the early years, though Richard Doyle designed what became the magazines masthead in 1849. Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and this group became known as The Punch Brotherhood, which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week. In the 1860s and 1870s, conservative Punch faced competition from upstart liberal journal Fun, at Evanss café in London, the two journals had Round tables in competition with each other. Punch gave several phrases to the English language, including The Crystal Palace, several British humour classics were first serialised in Punch, such as the Diary of a Nobody and 1066 and All That. Towards the end of the century, the artistic roster included Harry Furniss, Linley Sambourne, Francis Carruthers Gould. Among the outstanding cartoonists of the century were Bernard Partridge, H. M. Bateman, Bernard Hollowood who also edited the magazine from 1957 to 1968, Kenneth Mahood. Circulation broke the 100,000 mark around 1910, and peaked in 1947–1948 at 175,000 to 184,000, sales declined steadily thereafter, ultimately, the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years of publication. Punch was widely emulated worldwide and popular in the colonies, however, the colonial experience, especially in India, also influenced Punch and its iconography. Tenniels Punch cartoons of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny led to a surge in the magazines popularity, colonial India was time and again caricatured in Punch and can be seen as a significant source for producing knowledge about India. Many Punch cartoonists of the late 20th century published collections of their own, Punch magazine ceased publishing in 1992
2.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
3.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
4.
Illustrator
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An illustrator is an artist who specializes in enhancing writing or elucidating concepts by providing a visual representation that corresponds to the content of the associated text or idea. The illustration may be intended to clarify complicated concepts or objects that are difficult to describe textually, illustration is the art of making images that work with something and add to it without needing direct attention and without distracting from the thing they illustrate. The other thing is the focus of the attention, and the role is to add personality. A cartoon illustration can add humor to stories or essays, use reference images to create scenes and characters. This can be as simple as looking at an image to inspire artwork, or creating character sketches. Some traditional illustration techniques include watercolor, pen and ink, airbrush art, oil painting, pastels, wood engraving, and linoleum cuts. Traditional illustration seems to have come full circle, from falling out of favor to photography in the early 1990s to being superseded by CGI, universities and art schools offer specific courses in illustration so this has become a new avenue into the profession. Many illustrators are freelance, commissioned by publishers or advertising agencies, most scientific illustrations and technical illustrations are also known as information graphics. Among the information graphics specialists are medical illustrators who illustrate human anatomy, often requiring years of artistic. A particularly popular medium with illustrators of the 1950s and 1960s was casein, the immediacy and durability of these media suited illustrations demands well. The artwork in both types of paint withstood the rigors of travel to clients and printers without damage, digital illustration is the technique of using a computer to produce original artwork. Digital illustrators use a combination of software and image editing software to create computer art. Digital illustration is not merely the manipulation of images with software, computer illustration or digital illustration is the use of digital tools to produce images under the direct manipulation of the artist, usually through a pointing device such as a tablet or a mouse. Computers dramatically changed the industry and today many cartoonists and illustrators create digital illustrations using computers, graphics tablets, software such as Adobe Illustrator or Adobe Photoshop are now widely used by those professionals
5.
Punch (magazine)
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Punch, or The London Charivari was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire established in 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells. Historically, it was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s, after the 1940s, when its circulation peaked, it went into a long decline, closing in 1992. It was revived in 1996, but closed again in 2002, Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, on an initial investment of £25. It was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon and it was subtitled The London Charivari in homage to Charles Philipons French satirical humour magazine Le Charivari. Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became suggestor in chief until he severed his connection in 1845, the magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 Almanack issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842 due to difficulties the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens, Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the terms widespread use. The illustrator Archibald Henning designed the cover of the magazines first issues, the cover design varied in the early years, though Richard Doyle designed what became the magazines masthead in 1849. Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and this group became known as The Punch Brotherhood, which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week. In the 1860s and 1870s, conservative Punch faced competition from upstart liberal journal Fun, at Evanss café in London, the two journals had Round tables in competition with each other. Punch gave several phrases to the English language, including The Crystal Palace, several British humour classics were first serialised in Punch, such as the Diary of a Nobody and 1066 and All That. Towards the end of the century, the artistic roster included Harry Furniss, Linley Sambourne, Francis Carruthers Gould. Among the outstanding cartoonists of the century were Bernard Partridge, H. M. Bateman, Bernard Hollowood who also edited the magazine from 1957 to 1968, Kenneth Mahood. Circulation broke the 100,000 mark around 1910, and peaked in 1947–1948 at 175,000 to 184,000, sales declined steadily thereafter, ultimately, the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years of publication. Punch was widely emulated worldwide and popular in the colonies, however, the colonial experience, especially in India, also influenced Punch and its iconography. Tenniels Punch cartoons of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny led to a surge in the magazines popularity, colonial India was time and again caricatured in Punch and can be seen as a significant source for producing knowledge about India. Many Punch cartoonists of the late 20th century published collections of their own, Punch magazine ceased publishing in 1992
6.
Anti-Americanism
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Criticism largely originates from the perception that the United States military wants to act as a world policeman. French scholar Marie-France Toinet says use of the term anti-Americanism is only justified if it implies systematic opposition – a sort of allergic reaction – to America as a whole. In the online Oxford Dictionary the term anti-American is defined as hostile to the interests of the United States, in France the use of the noun form antiaméricanisme has been catalogued from 1948, entering ordinary political language in the 1950s. A poll conducted in 2014 by the BBC World Service,12 countries rated U. S. influence positively, interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarized. S. Other advocates of the significance of the term argue that anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current and its status as an -ism is a greatly contended suspect, however. Brendon OConnor notes that studies of the topic have been patchy and impressionistic, American academic Noam Chomsky, a prolific critic of U. S. and its policies, asserts that the use of the term within the U. S. The concept anti-American is an interesting one, the counterpart is used only in totalitarian states or military dictatorships. Thus, in the old Soviet Union, dissidents were condemned as anti-Soviet, thats a natural usage among people with deeply rooted totalitarian instincts, which identify state policy with the society, the people, the culture. In contrast, people even the slightest concept of democracy treat such notions with ridicule. Some have attempted to both positions. French academic Pierre Guerlain has argued that the term represents two different tendencies, One systematic or essentialist, which is a form of prejudice targeting all Americans. The other refers to the way criticisms of the United States are labeled anti-American by supporters of U. S. policies in a bid to discredit their opponents. Guerlain argues that these two types of anti-Americanism can sometimes merge, thus making discussion of the phenomenon particularly difficult. Other scholars have suggested that a plural of anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, the widely used anti-American sentiment, meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system. Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies or actions, such as the Vietnam, for this reason, critics sometimes argue the label is a propaganda term that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. In the mid- to late-eighteenth century, a theory emerged among some European intellectuals that the New World landmasses were inherently inferior to Europe, the so-called degeneracy thesis held that climatic extremes, humidity and other atmospheric conditions in America physically weakened both men and animals. Others, like Jean-François Revel, have examined what lay hidden behind this fashionable ideology, native Americans were also held to be feeble, small, and without ardor. The theory originated with Comte de Buffon, a leading French naturalist, the French writer Voltaire joined Buffon and others in making the argument
7.
Antisemitism
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Antisemitism is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite, Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a term for Judenhass Jew-hatred. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes, The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, avner Falk similarly writes, The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile. Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renans false ideas about how Semitic races were inferior to Aryan races and he coined the phrase the Jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism. In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum, vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both Jewry and jewishness. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of Anti-Semitism as a designation which recently came into use, on 19 July 1882, the editor says, This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The related term philosemitism was coined around 1885, from the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, though antisemitism has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen, for example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to the notion that there is an entity Semitism which anti-Semitism opposes. Objections to the usage of the term, such as the nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s. Because of this bad nature, Jews have to be not as individuals. Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies, Jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist, bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest
8.
Crimean War
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The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, the French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. While the churches eventually worked out their differences and came to an agreement, Nicholas I of Russia, Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to, when the Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia in October 1853. The war started in the Balkans, when Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities, until then under Ottoman suzerainty and now part of modern Romania, led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the town of Kars in eastern Anatolia led to a siege. Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and Britain rushed forces to Gallipoli and they then moved north to Varna in June, arriving just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a skirmish at Köstence, there was little for the allies to do. Karl Marx quipped that there they are, the French doing nothing, after extended preparations, the forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and fought their way to a point south of Sevastopol after a series of successful battles. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, a second counterattack, ordered personally by Nicholas, was defeated by Omar Pasha. The front settled into a siege and led to conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller actions were carried out in the Baltic, the Caucasus, Sevastopol fell after eleven months, and neutral countries began to join the Allied cause. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion from the west if the war continued and this was welcomed by France and Britain, as their subjects were beginning to turn against their governments as the war dragged on. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, Russia was forbidden from hosting warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent, Christians there were granted a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute. The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways
9.
Ludgate Hill
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Ludgate Hill is a hill in the City of London, near the old Ludgate, a gate to the City that was taken down, with its attached gaol, in 1780. It is the site of St. Pauls Cathedral, traditionally said to have been the site of a Roman temple of the goddess Diana and it is one of the three ancient hills of London, the others being Tower Hill and Cornhill. The highest point is just north of St. Pauls, at 17.6 metres above sea level, Ludgate Hill is also the name of a street which runs between St. Pauls Churchyard and Ludgate Circus, from where it becomes Fleet Street. It was formerly a much narrower street called Ludgate Street, many small alleys on Ludgate Hill were swept away in the late 1860s to build Ludgate Hill railway station between Water Lane and New Bridge Street, a station of the London, Chatham and Dover Railway. This also involved the regrading of the slope of Ludgate Hill at the junction, there is a blue plaque near the bottom of the hill with these words, In a house near this site was published in 1702 The Daily Courant first London daily newspaper. About halfway up Ludgate Hill is the church of St. Martin, Ludgate, paternoster Square, home of the London Stock Exchange since 2004, lies on the hill, immediately to the north of St. Pauls Cathedral. Ludgate is mentioned in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, written around 1136, according to the pseudohistorical work the name comes from the mythic Welsh king Lud son of Heli whom he claims also gave his name to London. One proposed derivation, entirely prosaic, is that the name is a variation on Fleodgaet, at the bottom of Ludgate Hill, on the north side, is Limeburner Lane. This may sound like a quaint survival from medieval times, but it was constructed in the 1990s. This was the location of the Bell Savage Inn, first mentioned in 1452 where plays were performed, according to surveyor John Stow the name was derived from Isabella Savage, but Addison claimed it was La belle Sauvage, a woman in the wilderness. The clown Richard Tarlton used to perform here and it is mentioned in Thomas Hughes Tom Browns Schooldays and Charles Dickens The Pickwick Papers. In October 1684, a Rynoceros lately brought from the East Indies was put on show there, the inn was demolished in 1873. In 1851, part of it was rented out to John Cassell, at this time it was still called La Belle Sauvage Yard and the firm of Cassell used la Belle Sauvage in some of their imprints. Thomas Malory was imprisoned in the Ludgate prison in the 1460s and he later wrote Le Morte dArthur. The prison is mentioned in Daniel Defoes Roxana, The Fortunate Mistress, from 1731, the London Coffee House was next to St. Martins, Ludgate, at 24-26 Ludgate Hill. It was frequented by Joseph Priestley and Benjamin Franklin, when the juries at the Old Bailey failed to reach a verdict, they were housed here overnight. In 1806, a Roman hexagonal altar dedicated to Claudia Martina by her husband, the London Coffee House was closed in 1867, and is now occupied by a pub called Ye Olde London. Edmund Spensers Shepheardes Calender was printed by Hugh Singleton at the sign of the Gylden tunne in Creed Lane in 1579, John Evelyn lived in the Hawk and Pheasant on Ludgate Hill in 1658-59
10.
Richard Bentley
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Richard Bentley was an English classical scholar, critic, and theologian. He was Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, Bentley was the first Englishman to be ranked with the great heroes of classical learning and was known for his literary and textual criticism. Bentley was born at Oulton near Rothwell, Leeds, West Yorkshire and his father was Thomas Bentley of Oulton. His grandfather, Captain James Bentley, had suffered for the Royalist cause following the English Civil War, Bentleys mother, the daughter of a stonemason, had some education, and was able to give her son his first lessons in Latin. After attending grammar school in Wakefield, Bentley was an undergraduate at St Johns College, Cambridge and he afterwards obtained a scholarship and took the degree of B. A. in 1680. He never became a Fellow, but was appointed to be the headmaster of Spalding Grammar School before he was 21, during his six years as tutor, Bentley also made a comprehensive study of Greek and Latin writers, storing up knowledge which he used later. In 1689, Stillingfleet became bishop of Worcester, and Bentleys pupil went to Wadham College, Oxford, Bentley soon met Dr John Mill, Humphrey Hody, and Edward Bernard. Here he studied the manuscripts of the Bodleian, Corpus Christi and he collected material for literary studies. Among these are a corpus of the fragments of the Greek poets, the Oxford press was about to bring out an edition from the unique manuscript of the Greek Chronicle in the Bodleian Library. It was a history of John of Antioch, called John Malalas or John the Rhetor. The editor, Dr John Mill, principal of St Edmund Hall, asked Bentley to review it, Bentley wrote the Epistola ad Johannem Millium, which is about 100 pages included at the end of the Oxford Malalas. This short treatise placed Bentley ahead of all living English scholars, to the small circle of classical students, it was obvious that he was a critic beyond the ordinary. In 1690, Bentley had taken deacons orders, in 1692 he was nominated first Boyle lecturer, a nomination repeated in 1694. He was offered the appointment a third time in 1695 but declined it, in the first series of lectures, he endeavours to present Newtonian physics in a popular form, and to frame them into proof of the existence of an intelligent Creator. He had some correspondence with Newton, then living in Trinity College, Cambridge, the second series, preached in 1694, has not been published and is believed to be lost. After being ordained, Bentley was promoted to a stall in Worcester Cathedral. In 1693 the curator of the library became vacant, and his friends tried to obtain the position for Bentley. The new librarian, a Mr Thynne, resigned in favour of Bentley, in 1695 Bentley received a royal chaplaincy and the living of Hartlebury
11.
John Flaxman
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John Flaxman R. A. was a British sculptor and draughtsman, and a leading figure in British and European Neoclassicism. Early in his career he worked as a modeller for Josiah Wedgwoods pottery and he spent several years in Rome, where he produced his first book illustrations. He was a maker of funerary monuments. His father, also named John, was known as a moulder and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New Street, Covent Garden. His wifes maiden name was Lee, and they had two children, William and John, within six months of Johns birth the family returned to London. He was a child, high-shouldered, with a head too large for his body. His mother died when he was nine, and his father remarried and he had little schooling, and was largely self-educated. He took delight in drawing and modelling from his fathers stock-in-trade and his fathers customers helped him with books, advice, and later with commissions. Particularly significant were the painter George Romney, and a clergyman, Anthony Stephen Mathew. In the same year,1770, he entered the Academy as a student, in the competition for the gold medal of the Academy in 1772, however, Flaxman was defeated, the prize being awarded by the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to a competitor named Engleheart. This episode seemed to help cure Flaxman of a tendency to conceit which led Thomas Wedgwood V to say of him in 1775, It is and he continued to work diligently, both as a student and as an exhibitor at the Academy, with occasional attempts at painting. To the Academy he contributed a wax model of Neptune, four models in wax, a terracotta bust, a wax figure of a child, an historical figure, a figure of Comedy. During this period he received a commission from a friend of the Mathew family for a statue of Alexander the Great, but he was unable to obtain a regular income from private contracts. From 1775 he was employed by the potter Josiah Wedgwood and his partner Bentley, for whom his father had also some work. The usual procedure was to model the reliefs in wax on slate or glass grounds before they cast for production, dHancarvilles engravings of Sir William Hamiltons collection of ancient Greek vases were an important influence on his work. By 1780 Flaxman had also begun to earn money by sculpting grave monuments, during the rest of Flaxmans career memorial bas-reliefs of this type made up the bulk of his output, and are to be found in many churches throughout England. One example, the monument to George Steevens, originally in St Matthais Old Church, is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, in 1782, aged 27, Flaxman married Anne Denman, who was to assist him throughout his career. She was well-educated, and a devoted companion and they set up house in Wardour Street, and usually spent their summer holidays as guests of the poet William Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex
12.
Charterhouse School
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Charterhouse is an independent day and boarding school in Godalming, Surrey. Today pupils are referred to as Carthusians, and ex-pupils as Old Carthusians. Charging full boarders up to £36,000 per annum in 2015/16, Charterhouse is amongst the most expensive Headmasters and it has educated one British Prime Minister and has a long list of notable alumni. In May 1611, the London Charterhouse came into the hands of Thomas Sutton of Knaith and he acquired a fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to London, he carried on a commercial career. Charterhouse established a reputation for excellence in care and treatment, thanks in part to Henry Levett. Levett was widely esteemed for his writings, including an early tract on the treatment of smallpox. Levett was buried in Charterhouse Chapel and his widow married Andrew Tooke, the school was moved to its present site in 1872 by the then headmaster, the Reverend William Haig Brown – a decision influenced by the findings of the Clarendon Commission of 1864. The school bought a 68-acre site atop a hill just outside Godalming, in addition to the main school buildings, they constructed three boarding houses, known as Saunderites, Verites and Gownboys. The school was built by Lucas Brothers, who built the Royal Albert Hall. As pupil numbers grew, other houses were built alongside the approach road, each was titled with an adaptation of the name of their first housemaster, such as Weekites, Daviesites and Girdlestoneites. The last of these is referred to as Duckites, reflecting the unusual gait of its original housemaster. There are now the four old houses plus eight new houses. The twelve Houses have preserved a unique identity and pupils compete against each other in sports and the arts. The school continued to expand over the 20th century, around 350 names have been subsequently added to commemorate those who died in the Second World War and other more recent conflicts. Most still attend a chapel service there six times a week. Charterhouse was all male until the 1970s when girls were first admitted in the sixth form, of over 400 sixth formers today, almost a third are girls. An addition to the campus was seven new Houses, built in the 1970s, in 2003, the School renovated its onsite Library. 2006 saw the opening of The Beveridge Centre for the Social Sciences, in 2007, a £3m Modern Languages building was completed
13.
William Makepeace Thackeray
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William Makepeace Thackeray was an English novelist of the 19th century. He is known for his works, particularly Vanity Fair. Thackeray, a child, was born in Calcutta, British India. His mother, Anne Becher, was the daughter of Harriet Becher and John Harman Becher. Richmond died in 1815, which caused Anne to send her son to England in 1816, the ship on which he travelled made a short stopover at St. Helena, where the imprisoned Napoleon was pointed out to him. Once in England he was educated at schools in Southampton and Chiswick, and then at Charterhouse School, Thackeray disliked Charterhouse, and parodied it in his fiction as Slaughterhouse. Nevertheless, Thackeray was honoured in the Charterhouse Chapel with a monument after his death, Thackeray then travelled for some time on the continent, visiting Paris and Weimar, where he met Goethe. He returned to England and began to study law at the Middle Temple and he also lost a good part of his fortune in the collapse of two Indian banks. The Thackerays had three children, all girls, Anne Isabella, Jane and Harriet Marian, who married Sir Leslie Stephen, editor, Thackeray now began writing for his life, as he put it, turning to journalism in an effort to support his young family. Between 1837 and 1840 he also reviewed books for The Times and he was also a regular contributor to The Morning Chronicle and The Foreign Quarterly Review. Later, through his connection to the illustrator John Leech, he began writing for the newly created magazine Punch, in which he published The Snob Papers and this work popularised the modern meaning of the word snob. Thackeray was a regular contributor to Punch between 1843 and 1854. Tragedy struck in Thackerays personal life as his wife, Isabella, succumbed to depression after the birth of their third child, in 1840. Finding that he could get no work done at home, he spent more and more time away until September 1840, struck by guilt, he set out with his wife to Ireland. During the crossing she threw herself from a water-closet into the sea and they fled back home after a four-week battle with her mother. From November 1840 to February 1842 Isabella was in and out of professional care and she eventually deteriorated into a permanent state of detachment from reality. Isabella outlived her husband by 30 years, in the end being cared for by a family named Thompson in Leigh-on-Sea at Southend until her death in 1894, after his wifes illness Thackeray became a de facto widower, never establishing another permanent relationship. He did pursue other women, however, in particular Mrs Jane Brookfield, in 1851 Mr Brookfield barred Thackeray from further visits to or correspondence with Jane. Baxter, an American twenty years Thackerays junior whom he met during a tour in New York City in 1852
14.
St Bartholomew's Hospital
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St Bartholomews Hospital, also known simply as Barts and later more formally as The Royal Hospital of St Bartholomew, is a hospital located at Smithfield in the City of London and founded in 1123. Today it forms part of Barts Health NHS Trust, Barts was founded in 1123 by Rahere, a favourite courtier of King Henry I. The Dissolution of the Monasteries did not affect the running of Barts as a hospital, the first Superintendent of the hospital was Thomas Vicary, sergeant-surgeon to King Henry, and an early writer on anatomy. In 1839 to 1872, the mortality reports show that surgical trauma, tuberculosis, however, remained the most fatal nontraumatic cause of death. Upon the creation of the National Health Service in 1948, it became known as St Bartholomews Hospital. The so-named Henry VIII entrance to the continues to be the main public entrance. Its main square was designed by James Gibbs in the 1730s, of the four original blocks only three survive, they include the block containing the Great Hall and two flanking blocks that contained wards. The first wing to be built was the North Wing, in 1732, which includes the Great Hall, the South Wing followed in 1740, the West in 1752 and finally the East Wing in 1769. In 1859, a fountain was placed at the centre with a small garden. St Bartholomews Hospital has existed on the site since its founding in the 12th century. Its museum, which is open Tuesdays to Fridays every week, shows how medical care has developed over this time, part-way around the exhibition is a door which opens on to the hospitals official entrance hall. On the walls of the staircase are two painted by William Hogarth, The Pool of Bethesda and The Good Samaritan. They can only be seen at close quarters on Friday afternoons, the room to which the staircase leads is the hospitals Great Hall, a double-height room in Baroque-style. St Barts-the-Less is the survivor of five chapels originally within the hospitals estate. Throughout the whole of the 19th century, the Hardwick family were benefactors of the hospital. Thomas Hardwick Jr. Philip Hardwick, and Philip Charles Hardwick were all architects/surveyors to Barts Hospital, Philip Hardwick, a Royal Academician, was also engaged in the rebuilding of the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Less in 1823 and donated the fountain in the hospitals courtyard. By 1872, Barts contained 676 beds, about 6,000 in-patients were admitted every year, as well as 101,000 out-patients. The average income of the hospital was £40,000 and the number of governors exceeded 300, in 1993 the controversial Tomlinson Review of London hospitals was published and concluded that there were too many hospitals in central London
15.
Albert Richard Smith
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Albert Richard Smith was an English author, entertainer, and mountaineer. Smith was born at Chertsey, Surrey, the son of a surgeon, he studied medicine in London and in Paris, and his first literary effort was an account of his life in Paris, which appeared in the Mirror. He gradually abandoned his work in favour of writing. Though a journalist rather than a figure, he was one of the most popular writers of his time. He also published a novella, The Adventures of Jack Holiday, in 1842 Smiths first play, Blanche Heriot, or The Chertsey Curfew, based on a legend from his home town, was produced at the Surrey Theatre. In 1843 he published The Wassail-Bowl, A Comic Christmas Sketchbook and he also wrote a series of so-called natural histories, The Gent, The Ballet Girl, Stuck-Up People, The Idler upon Town and The Flirt. With Angus Bethune Reach he founded and edited a magazine called The Man in the Moon. In 1849 Smith went on a tour to Constantinople and the Near East, on his return he published A Month at Constantinople, and shortly afterwards he appeared at Williss Rooms in a public entertainment about his travels called The Overland Mail, which proved a hit. In August 1851 he ascended Mont Blanc, in May 1854 he gave his performance before Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Osborne House. Smiths Mont Blanc show ran for 2000 performances over six years and he was one of the founder members of the Alpine Club in 1857. In July 1858 Smith traveled to Hong Kong, on his return he published To China and Back, and in December 1858 he commenced at the Egyptian Hall a third entertainment, called Mont Blanc to China, which was also very popular. In 1859 Smith married Mary Lucy Keeley, who had been an actress and was the daughter of the comedian Robert Keeley. In 1860 he died from bronchitis in Fulham, London, and was buried in Brompton Cemetery, Smith received great help from his brother, Arthur W. W. Smith, who had also educated in medicine and who managed the entertainments at the Egyptian Hall from 1852 to 1860. Arthur also planned Charles Dickenss readings in 1858, and made arrangements for a second series, hansen, Peter H. Smith, Albert Richard. The first edition of text is available as an article on Wikisource, Smith. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Smith. Cultural Climbs, John Ruskin, Albert Smith and the Alpine Aesthetic, a Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature
16.
Rape of the Sabine Women
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The rape of the Sabine Women is the common name of an incident from Roman mythology, in which the men of Rome committed a mass abduction of young women from the other cities in the region. It has been a frequent subject of artists, particularly during the Renaissance and post-Renaissance eras, use of the word rape comes from the conventional translation of the Latin word used in the ancient accounts of the incident, raptio. Modern scholars tend to interpret the word as abduction as opposed to violation, controversy remains, however, as to how the acts committed against the women should be judged. The Rape occurred in the history of Rome, shortly after its founding by Romulus. Seeking wives in order to establish families, the Romans negotiated unsuccessfully with the Sabines, the Sabines feared the emergence of a rival society and refused to allow their women to marry the Romans. Consequently, the Romans planned to abduct Sabine women during a festival of Neptune Equester and they planned and announced a marvelous festival to attract people from all nearby towns. According to Livy, many people from Romes neighboring towns attended, including folk from the Caeninenses, Crustumini, and Antemnates, at the festival, Romulus gave a signal, at which the Romans grabbed the Sabine women and fought off the Sabine men. The indignant abductees were implored by Romulus to accept Roman husbands. Livy says that Romulus offered them free choice and promised civic and this did not include the men being responsible for meeting the needs of the children. Outraged at the occurrence, the king of the Caeninenses entered upon Roman territory with his army, Romulus and the Romans met the Caeninenses in battle, killed their king, and routed their army. Romulus later attacked Caenina and took it upon the first assault, returning to Rome, he dedicated a temple to Jupiter Feretrius and offered the spoils of the enemy king as spolia opima. According to the Fasti Triumphales, Romulus celebrated a triumph over the Caeninenses on 1 March 752 BC, at the same time, the army of the Antemnates invaded Roman territory. The Romans retaliated, and the Antemnates were defeated in battle, according to the Fasti Triumphales, Romulus celebrated a second triumph in 752 BC over the Antemnates. The Crustumini also started a war, but they too were defeated, Roman colonists subsequently were sent to Antemnae and Crustumerium by Romulus, and many citizens of those towns also migrated to Rome. The Sabines themselves finally declared war, led into battle by their king, Tatius almost succeeded in capturing Rome, thanks to the treason of Tarpeia, daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, governor of the citadel on the Capitoline Hill. She opened the city gates for the Sabines in return for what they bore on their arms, instead, the Sabines crushed her to death with their shields, and her body was thrown from a rock known ever since by her name, the Tarpeian Rock. The Romans attacked the Sabines, who now held the citadel, the Roman advance was led by Hostus Hostilius, the Sabine defence by Mettus Curtius. Hostus fell in battle, and the Roman line gave way and they retreated to the gate of the Palatium
17.
Lithograph
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
18.
Robert Seymour (illustrator)
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Robert Seymour was a British illustrator. Seymour is known for his illustrations of the works of Charles Dickens, Seymour was born in Somerset, England in 1798, the second son of Henry Seymour and Elizabeth Bishop. Soon after moving to London Henry Seymour died, leaving his wife, in 1827 his mother died, and Seymour married his cousin Jane Holmes, having two children, Robert and Jane. After his father died, Robert Seymour was apprenticed as a pattern-drawer to a Mr. Vaughan of Duke Street, Smithfield and he was commissioned to illustrate the works of Shakespeare, Milton, Cervantes, and Wordsworth. He also produced portraits, miniatures, landscapes, etc. as can be seen in two Sketchbooks, Windsor, Eaton, Figure Studies, Portraits at the Victoria and Albert Museum. After the rejection of his second Royal Academy submission, he continued to paint in oils, mastered techniques of copper engraving, from 1822-27, Seymour produced designs for a wide range of subjects including, poetry, melodramas, children’s stories, and topographical and scientific works. A steady supply of such work enabled him to comfortably and enjoy his library and fishing and shooting expeditions with his friends, Lacey the publisher. In 1827, the year of his mother’s death and his marriage, Robert Seymour’s publishers, Knight and Lacey, were made bankrupt, in 1827, Seymour then found steady employment when his etchings and engravings were accepted by the publisher Thomas McLean. Learning to etch on the newly fashionable steel-plates, Seymour then first began to specialize in caricatures, gilbert à Beckett later in 1834 insulted Seymour by replacing him with Cruikshank’s brother. This partnership lasted until 1834, when à Beckett suffered a financial loss. A’Beckett then launched a media campaign cruelly libelling Seymour, who resigned. This humiliating public smear was attributed as a cause for the suicide verdict. Seymours characters were popular, but all were lighthearted sporting or political in theme, the thin and large characters he developed were continued into the early life of the Pickwick Papers. There is however considerable controversy about who is responsible for the creation of the Pickwick Papers. The usual method was anecdotal stories, further he developed the idea of a Nimrod Club of sporting people having adventures as the framework for the sketches and illustrations. This is very much in the line of his already published Seymours Sketches, for the interested reader it is worth viewing his Seymours Sketches on Project Gutenberg to get a feel for the popular style involved and to understand Seymours viewpoint. The quality of the writing in this volume is also valuable to provide contrast to Dickens work. Edward Chapman agreed that the work should be issued in monthly parts and this was a very popular method at the time
19.
Pickwick Papers
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The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club was Charles Dickenss first novel. He was asked to contribute to the project as a writer following the success of Sketches by Boz. Dickens increasingly took over the monthly publication after the original illustrator Robert Seymour had committed suicide. With the introduction of Sam Weller in chapter 10, the became the first real publishing phenomenon, with bootleg copies, theatrical performances, Sam Weller joke books. A firm of London publishers, Messrs. Chapman & Hall, was projecting a series of cockney sporting plates by illustrator Robert Seymour. There was to be a club, the members of which were to be sent on hunting and fishing expeditions into the country and their guns were to go off by accident, fishhooks were to get caught in their hats and trousers. All these and other misadventures were to be depicted in Seymours comic plates, only in a few instances did Dickens adjust his narrative to plates that had been prepared for him. Typically, he led the way with an instalment of his story. The story thus became the source of interest, and the illustrations merely of secondary importance. By this reversal of interest, Dickens transformed, at a stroke, simple as the process may appear, others who had tried the plan had all failed. Pierce Egan partially succeeded in his Tom and Jerry, a novel in which the pictures, in future years, however, Dickens was suspiciously eager to distance himself from suggestions that Pierce Egans Life in London had been a formative influence. Robert Seymour provided the illustrations for the first two instalments before his suicide, Robert Buss illustrated the third instalment, but his work was not liked by Dickens and the remaining instalments were illustrated by Phiz who went on to illustrate most of Dickens novels. The instalments were first published in form in 1837. Written for publication as a serial, The Pickwick Papers is a sequence of loosely related adventures, the action is given as occurring 1827–8, though critics have noted some seeming anachronisms. It has been stated that Dickens satirized the case of George Norton suing Lord Melbourne in The Pickwick Papers, the novels main character, Samuel Pickwick, Esquire, is a kind and wealthy old gentleman, the founder and perpetual president of the Pickwick Club. Their travels throughout the English countryside by coach provide the theme of the novel. A distinctive and valuable feature of the work is the accurate description of the old coaching inns of England. Its main literary value and appeal is formed by its numerous memorable characters, each character in The Pickwick Papers, as in many other Dickens novels, is drawn comically, often with exaggerated personality traits
20.
Bentley's Miscellany
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Bentleys Miscellany was an English literary magazine started by Richard Bentley. It was published between 1836 and 1868, already a successful publisher of novels, Bentley began the journal in 1836 and invited Charles Dickens to be its first editor. Dickens serialised his second novel Oliver Twist but soon fell out with Bentley over editorial control and he quit as editor in 1839 and William Harrison Ainsworth took over. Ainsworth would also stay in the job for three years, but bought the magazine from Bentley a decade later. In 1868 Ainsworth sold the magazine back to Bentley, who merged it with the Temple Bar Magazine and it was also the first place to publish cartoons by John Leech, who became a prominent Punch cartoonist
21.
George Cruikshank
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George Cruikshank was a British caricaturist and book illustrator, praised as the modern Hogarth during his life. His book illustrations for his friend Charles Dickens, and many other authors and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, was one of the leading caricaturists of the late 1790s and Cruikshank started his career as his fathers apprentice and assistant. His older brother, Isaac Robert, also followed in the business as a caricaturist. Cruikshanks early work was caricature, but in 1823, at the age of 31 and he illustrated the first,1823 English translation of Grimms Fairy Tales, published in two volumes as German Popular Stories. On 16 October 1827, he married Mary Ann Walker, two years after her death, on 7 March 1851, he married Eliza Widdison. The two lived at 263 Hampstead Road, North London, upon his death, it was discovered that Cruikshank had fathered 11 illegitimate children with a mistress named Adelaide Attree, his former servant, who lived close to where he lived with his wife. Adelaide was ostensibly married and had taken the married surname Archibold, Cruikshanks early career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. He achieved early success collaborating with William Hone in his political satire The Political House That Jack Built, in the same year he produced the remarkable anti-abolitionist New Union Club. It satirised a dinner party organised by abolitionists with black guests and his first major work was Pierce Egans Life in London. This was followed by The Comic Almanack and Omnibus and he gained notoriety with his political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians. In 1820 he received a bribe of £100 for a pledge not to caricature His Majesty in any immoral situation. His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as James Gillray, Cruikshank replaced one of his major influences, James Gillray, as Englands most popular satirist. For a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals impartially, satirical material came to him from every public event – wars abroad, the enemies of Britain, the frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which he excelled. For Charles Dickens, Cruikshank illustrated Sketches by Boz, The Mudfog Papers, Cruikshank even acted in Dickenss amateur theatrical company. On 30 December 1871 Cruikshank published a letter in The Times which claimed credit for much of the plot of Oliver Twist, the letter launched a fierce controversy around who created the work. Cruikshank was not the first Dickens illustrator to make such a claim, the friendship between Cruikshank and Dickens soured further when Cruikshank became a fanatical teetotaler in opposition to Dickenss views of moderation. Nightcap and nightdress belonged to a past age and reminded you of Cruickshanks illustrations to the novels of Charles Dickens, in the late 1840s, Cruikshanks focus shifted from book illustration to an obsession with temperance and anti-smoking. Formerly a heavy drinker, he now supported, lectured to, and supplied illustrations for the National Temperance Society, for his efforts he was made vice president of the National Temperance League in 1856
22.
Oliver Twist
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Oliver Twist, or The Parish Boys Progress, is the second novel by English author Charles Dickens and was first published as a serial 1837–39. The story is of the orphan Oliver Twist, who starts his life in a workhouse and is sold into apprenticeship with an undertaker. He escapes from there and travels to London, where he meets the Artful Dodger, Oliver Twist is notable for its unromantic portrayal by Dickens of criminals and their sordid lives, as well as for exposing the cruel treatment of the many orphans in London in the mid-19th century. The alternate title, The Parish Boys Progress, alludes to Bunyans The Pilgrims Progress, as well as the 18th-century caricature series by William Hogarth, A Rakes Progress and A Harlots Progress. In this early example of the novel, Dickens satirizes the hypocrisies of his time, including child labour, the recruitment of children as criminals. The novel may have inspired by the story of Robert Blincoe. It is likely that Dickenss own youthful experiences contributed as well, Oliver Twist has been the subject of numerous adaptations for various media, including a highly successful musical play, Oliver. and the multiple Academy Award-winning 1968 motion picture. Disney also put its spin on the novel with the movie called Oliver & Company in 1988, the novel was originally published in monthly installments in the Magazine Bentleys Miscellany from February 1837 to April 1839. It was originally intended to form part of Dickenss serial, The Mudfog Papers, george Cruikshank provided one steel etching per month to illustrate each installment. It included 24 steel-engraved plates by Cruikshank, the first edition was titled, Oliver Twist, or, The Parish Boys Progress. Oliver is brought up with food and few comforts. Around the time of Olivers ninth birthday, Mr. Bumble, Oliver, who toils with very little food, remains in the workhouse for six months. One day, the desperately hungry boys decide to draw lots, the loser must ask for another portion of gruel. The task falls to Oliver, who at the next meal tremblingly comes up forward, bowl in hand, the board of well-fed gentlemen who administer the workhouse hypocritically offer £5 to any person wishing to take on the boy as an apprentice. Mr. Gamfield, a chimney sweep, almost claims Oliver. However, when he begs not to be sent away with that dreadful man. Later, Mr. Sowerberry, an undertaker employed by the parish and he treats Oliver better and, because of the boys sorrowful countenance, uses him as a mourner at childrens funerals. In trying to bait Oliver, Noah insults Olivers biological mother, calling her a regular right-down bad un. Oliver flies into a rage, once Oliver is sent to his room for the night, he breaks down and weeps, upset at the events which he had faced
23.
Guy Fawkes
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Guy Fawkes, also known as Guido Fawkes, the name he adopted while fighting for the Spanish, was a member of a group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605. Fawkes was born and educated in York and his father died when Fawkes was eight years old, after which his mother married a recusant Catholic. Fawkes converted to Catholicism and left for the continent, where he fought in the Eighty Years War on the side of Catholic Spain against Protestant Dutch reformers in the Low Countries and he travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England without success. He later met Thomas Wintour, with whom he returned to England, Wintour introduced Fawkes to Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate King James I and restore a Catholic monarch to the throne. The plotters leased an undercroft beneath the House of Lords, prompted by the receipt of an anonymous letter, the authorities searched Westminster Palace during the early hours of 5 November, and found Fawkes guarding the explosives. Over the next few days, he was questioned and tortured, immediately before his execution on 31 January, Fawkes fell from the scaffold where he was to be hanged and broke his neck, thus avoiding the agony of the mutilation that followed. Fawkes became synonymous with the Gunpowder Plot, the failure of which has been commemorated in Britain since 5 November 1605 and his effigy is traditionally burned on a bonfire, commonly accompanied by a fireworks display. Guy Fawkes was born in 1570 in Stonegate, York and he was the second of four children born to Edward Fawkes, a proctor and an advocate of the consistory court at York, and his wife, Edith. Guys mothers family were recusant Catholics, and his cousin, Richard Cowling, Guy was an uncommon name in England, but may have been popular in York on account of a local notable, Sir Guy Fairfax of Steeton. The date of Fawkess birth is unknown, but he was baptised in the church of St. Michael le Belfrey on 16 April, as the customary gap between birth and baptism was three days, he was probably born about 13 April. In 1568, Edith had given birth to a daughter named Anne and she bore two more children after Guy, Anne, and Elizabeth. Both were married, in 1599 and 1594 respectively, in 1579, when Guy was eight years old, his father died. His mother remarried years later, to the Catholic Dionis Baynbrigge of Scotton. A governor of the school had spent about 20 years in prison for recusancy, and its headmaster, John Pulleyn, came from a family of noted Yorkshire recusants, the Pulleyns of Blubberhouses. Fawkess fellow students included John Wright and his brother Christopher and Oswald Tesimond, Edward Oldcorne and Robert Middleton, after leaving school Fawkes entered the service of Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu. The Viscount took a dislike to Fawkes and after a short time dismissed him, he was employed by Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu. At least one source claims that Fawkes married and had a son, in October 1591 Fawkes sold the estate in Clifton that he had inherited from his father. He travelled to the continent to fight in the Eighty Years War for Catholic Spain against the new Dutch Republic and, from 1595 until the Peace of Vervins in 1598, France
24.
Ingoldsby Legends
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The legends were first printed during 1837 as a regular series in the magazine Bentleys Miscellany and later in New Monthly Magazine. The legends were illustrated by John Leech, George Cruikshank, and they proved immensely popular and were compiled into books published in 1840,1842 and 1847 by Richard Bentley. They remained popular during the 19th century but have become little known. An omnibus edition was published in 1870, The Ingoldsby Legends, or Mirth, a later omnibus edition, printed in in 1989 by JM Dent of London contained illustrations by Arthur Rackham. As a priest of the Chapel Royal, Barham was not troubled with strenuous duties and he had time to read. Although based on legends and mythology, such as the hand of glory, they are mostly deliberately humorous parodies or pastiches of medieval folklore. The collection contains one of the earliest transcriptions of the song A Franklyns Dogge, other than this, the best-known poem of the collection is the Jackdaw of Rheims about a jackdaw who steals a cardinals ring and is made a saint. The chapters include, The Spectre of Tappington The Hand of Glory, a Legend of Bleeding-Heart Yard The Forlorn One Jerry Jarviss Wig, a Legend of the Weald Of Kent Unsophisticated Wishes Miscellaneous Poems In Patrick Leigh Fermor, Chapter 11. P. Rider Haggards 1885 novel King Solomons Mines, Allan Quatermain describes himself as non-literary, claiming to have read only the Bible. Later in the novel he quotes a poem that he attributes incorrectly to The Ingoldsby Legends, in Henry Jamess 1888 essay From London, his stay at Morleys Hotel brings to mind The Ingoldsby Legends, he scarce knows why. In Anthony Powells 1968 The Military Philosophers, Nick Jenkins mentions reading The Ingoldsby Legends when he needs relaxation from Marcel Prousts In Search of Lost Time. In Dorothy L. Sayers The Nine Tailors, Lord Peter Wimsey quotes from The Ingoldsby Legends, in Chapter 7 of Half Magic by Edward Eager, Katherine reads from The Ingoldsby Legends. Edmund Wilson referenced the Ingoldsby Legends in Memoirs of Hecate County when he states that his friend, staggered in tonight like the jackdaw of Rheims, cursed by bell and book, the two main characters then discuss the Ingoldsby Legends. Kentish folk band Los Salvadores song Smugglers Leap is based on the story of the name featured in the Ingoldsby Legends. Wodehouse refers to The Ingoldsby Legends in his novel A Prefects Uncle, comparing his character to the lady in the earlier work who didnt mind death. Ngaio Marsh refers to The Ingoldsby Legends in Death in a White Tie, troy tells about coming across Lord Tomnoddy and the hanging and the extraordinary impression it had on her. She also makes references in Surfeit of Lampreys, the time with reference to The Hand of Glory. The narrator in the short story The Red Room by H. G. Wells refers to making up rhymes about the legend Ingoldsby fashion to calm himself
25.
Hablot Browne
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Hablot Knight Browne was an English artist and illustrator. Well-known by his pen name, Phiz, he illustrated books by Charles Dickens, Charles Lever, of Huguenot ancestry, Hablot Knight Browne was born in England, in Lambeth on Kennington Lane. He was the fourteenth of Catherine and William Loder Brownes fifteen children, according to biographer, Valerie Browne Lester, Phiz was in fact the illegitimate son of his putative eldest sister Kate and Captain Nicholas Hablot of Napoleons Imperial Guard. There is some uncertainty regarding the date of birth. 10 July 1815 is the date given by Valerie Browne Lester, John Buchanan-Brown in his book Phiz. Illustrator of Dickens World says 12 July 1815, the date on his Christening record of 21 December 1815 at St Marys Church, Lambeth, Surrey, England gives 11 June 1815, as does the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition and 15 June 1815. A copy of the program from his service, which is still owned by the Browne family. William Browne was then declared dead by his wife Catherine, thomas Moxon, husband of Williams sister Ann Loder Browne, helped to support the family, who were left badly off. Browne was apprenticed to William Finden, an engraver, in studio he obtained his only artistic education. In the spring of 1836, he met Charles Dickens and it was at the time when Dickens was looking for someone to illustrate Pickwick. Browne had been the illustrator of his little pamphlet Sunday under Three Heads, the next two plates were by Robert William Buss. Browne and William Makepeace Thackeray visited the office with specimens of their work for Dickenss inspection. Brownes first two etched plates for Pickwick were signed Nemo, but the third was signed Phiz, a pseudonym which was retained in future. When asked to explain why he chose this name he answered that the change from Nemo to Phiz was made to better with Dickenss Boz. Phiz developed the character Sam Weller graphically just as Seymour had developed Pickwick, other Dickens characters illustrated by Phiz were Squeers, Micawber, Guppy, Major Bagstock, Mrs Gamp, Tom Pinch and David Copperfield. Of the ten books by Dickens which Phiz illustrated, he is most known for David Copperfield, Pickwick, Dombey and Son, Martin Chuzzlewit, Browne made several drawings for Punch in his early days and also towards the end of his life. He designed the wrapper which was used for eighteen months from January 1842 and he also contributed to Punchs Pocket Books. In addition to his work for Dickens, Phiz illustrated more than twenty of Levers novels and he also illustrated Harrison Ainsworths and Frank Smedleys novels
26.
Douglas William Jerrold
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Douglas William Jerrold was an English dramatist and writer. Jerrolds father, Samuel Jerrold, was an actor and lessee of the theatre of Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent. In 1807 Douglas moved to Sheerness, where he spent his childhood and he occasionally took a child part on the stage, but his fathers profession held little attraction for him. In December 1813 he joined the guardship Namur, where he had Jane Austens brother Francis as captain and he saw nothing of the war save a number of wounded soldiers from Waterloo, but he retained an affection for the sea. Thus Jerrold became a professional journalist, Jerrolds figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed almost to deformity. His features were marked and expressive, from the thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes. He was brisk and active, with the careless bluffness of a sailor, open and sincere, he concealed neither his anger nor his pleasure, to his sailors frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful. The cynical side of his nature he kept for his writings, in politics Jerrold was a Liberal, and he gave eager sympathy to Lajos Kossuth, Giuseppe Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social politics especially he took a part, he never tired of declaiming against the horrors of war. Douglas Jerrold is now better known from his reputation as a brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As a dramatist he was popular, though his plays have not kept the stage. He dealt with rather humbler forms of world than had commonly been represented on the boards. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram and brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, in 1821, a comedy that Jerrold had written at the age of 14 was brought out at Sadlers Wells theatre under the title More Frightened than Hurt. Other plays followed, and in 1825 he was employed for a few pounds weekly to produce dramas, in the autumn of 1824, the little Shakespeare in a camlet cloak, as he was nicknamed, married Mary Swan and continued to work as both dramatist and journalist. For a short while he was proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829, through a quarrel with the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left for Coburg, in 1829, a three-act melodrama about corrupt personnel and press gangs of the Navy launched his fame. Black-Eyed Susan, or, All in the Downs, was out by manager Robert William Elliston at the Surrey Theatre. Its subject was very topical and its success was enormous and it took the town by storm, and all London crossed the river to see it
27.
A Christmas Carol
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A Christmas Carol in Prose, Being a Ghost-Story of Christmas, commonly known as A Christmas Carol, is a novella by Charles Dickens, first published in London by Chapman & Hall in 1843. A Christmas Carol tells the story of Ebenezer Scrooge, an old miser who is visited by the ghost of his business partner Jacob Marley. After their visits Scrooge is transformed into a kinder, gentler man, Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol at a time when the British were examining and exploring Christmas traditions from the past, such as carols, as well as new customs such as Christmas trees. He was influenced by experiences from his own past, and from the Christmas stories of other authors, including Washington Irving, the treatment of the poor and the ability of self-interested man redeeming himself by transforming into a more sympathetic character are the key themes of the story. There is discussion among academics as to whether this was a fully secular story, published on 19 December, the first edition sold out by Christmas Eve, by the end of 1844 thirteen editions had been released. Most critics reviewed the novella positively, the story was illicitly copied in January 1844, Dickens took action against the publishers, who went bankrupt, reducing further Dickenss small profits from the publication. He went on to four other Christmas stories in subsequent years. In 1849 he began public readings of the story proved so successful he undertook 127 further performances until 1870. A Christmas Carol has never been out of print and has translated into several languages. With A Christmas Carol, Dickens captured the zeitgeist of the revival of the Christmas holiday. Dickens divided the book into five chapters, which he labelled staves, the story begins on a cold and bleak Christmas Eve in London, seven years after the death of Ebenezer Scrooges business partner, Jacob Marley. Scrooge, an old miser, hates Christmas and refuses an invitation to Christmas dinner from his nephew Fred. At home that night, Scrooge is visited by Marleys ghost, the first of the spirits, the Ghost of Christmas Past, takes Scrooge to Christmas scenes of Scrooges boyhood and youth, reminding him of a time when he was more innocent. The boyhood scenes portray Scrooges lonely childhood, his relationship with his beloved sister Fan, and a Christmas party hosted by his first employer, Mr. Fezziwig, who treated Scrooge like a son. They also portray Scrooges neglected fiancée Belle, who ends their relationship after she realises that Scrooge will never love her as much as he loves money, finally, they visit a now-married Belle with her large, happy family on a recent Christmas Eve. Scrooge and the ghost also visit Freds Christmas party, a major part of this stave is taken up with Bob Cratchits family feast and introduces his youngest son, Tiny Tim, a happy boy who is seriously ill. The spirit informs Scrooge that Tiny Tim will die unless the course of events changes. Before disappearing, the spirit shows Scrooge two hideous, emaciated children named Ignorance and Want and he tells Scrooge to beware the former above all and mocks Scrooges concern for their welfare
28.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
29.
Cartoon
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A cartoon is a type of two-dimensional illustration. An artist who creates cartoons is called a cartoonist, the concept originated in the Middle Ages and first described a preparatory drawing for a piece of art, such as a painting, fresco, tapestry, or stained glass window. In the 19th century, it came to refer to humorous illustrations in magazines and newspapers, in the 21st century, cartoons could be published on the Internet. A cartoon is a drawing made on sturdy paper as a study or modello for a painting. Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days. Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design so that a bag of soot patted or pounced over the cartoon, held against the wall, would leave black dots on the plaster. Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London, tapestry cartoons, usually coloured, were followed with the eye by the weavers on the loom. In modern print media, a cartoon is an illustration or series of illustrations and this usage dates from 1843, when Punch magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by John Leech. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster, Cartoons can be divided into gag cartoons, which include editorial cartoons, and comic strips. Modern single-panel gag cartoons, found in magazines, generally consist of a drawing with a typeset caption positioned beneath. Newspaper syndicates have also distributed single-panel gag cartoons by Mel Calman, Bill Holman, Gary Larson, George Lichty, Fred Neher, many consider New Yorker cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon. The roster of magazine gag cartoonists includes names like Charles Addams, Charles Barsotti, Bill Hoest, Jerry Marcus and Virgil Partch began as magazine gag cartoonists and moved to syndicated comic strips. Richard Thompson is noteworthy in the area of newspaper cartoon illustration, the sports section of newspapers usually featured cartoons, sometimes including syndicated features such as Chester Chet Browns All in Sport. Editorial cartoons are found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites, although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire. The art usually acts as a metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social and/or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and sometimes use multiple panels, editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, David Low, Jeff MacNelly, Mike Peters and Gerald Scarfe. Comic strips, also known as cartoon strips in the United Kingdom, are daily in newspapers worldwide. In the United States, they are not commonly called cartoons themselves, nonetheless, the creators of comic strips—as well as comic books and graphic novels—are usually referred to as cartoonists
30.
John Orrin Smith
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John Orrin Smith was an English wood engraver. Born in Colchester, Smith went to London about 1818, coming of age in 1821, he inherited some money, and bought a part-proprietorship in a newspaper, The Sunday Monitor, on which Douglas Jerrold worked as a compositor. By the time he was 24 he found himself penniless, William Harvey then instructed him in wood-engraving. He had previously been a pupil of Samuel Williams, in 1842 Smith took into partnership William James Linton. Smith & Linton did much work for the Illustrated London News, Smith died of apoplexy on 15 October 1843, at 11 Mabledon Place, Burton Crescent, London. After much hack-work, Smith was employed by Léon Curmer of Paris to engrave a number of the blocks for his edition of Paul et Virginie, the last two works were part-owned by Smith, with Meadows and Henry Vizetelly. In 1821 Smith married Jane Elizabeth, daughter of Joseph Barney and his widow survived him with four children. Harvey Edward Orrinsmith, the son practised wood-engraving, but then became a director of the firm of James Burn & Co. bookbinders, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Lee, Sidney, ed. Smith, John Orrin
31.
Leicester Square
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Leicester Square is a pedestrianised square in the West End of London, England. It was laid out in 1670 and is named after the contemporary Leicester House, itself named after Robert Sidney, the square was originally a gentrified residential area, with tenants including Frederick, Prince of Wales and artists William Hogarth and Joshua Reynolds. It became more down-market in the late 18th century as Leicester House was demolished and retail developments took place, several major theatres were established in the 19th century, which were converted to cinemas towards the middle of the next. The square remains a popular tourist attraction, including hosting events for the Chinese New Year, the square has always had a park in its centre, which was originally Lammas land. The parks fortunes have varied over the centuries, reaching near dilapidation in the century after changing ownership several times. It was restored under the direction of Albert Grant, which included the construction of four new statues, the square was extensively refurbished and remodelled for the 2012 London Olympics, costing more than £15m and taking over 17 months to complete. The square lies within an area bound by Lisle Street, to the north, Charing Cross Road, to the east, Orange Street, to the south, and Whitcomb Street, to the west. It is within the City of Westminster, north of Trafalgar Square, east of Piccadilly Circus, west of Covent Garden, the nearest tube station is Leicester Square tube station, which opened in 1906. London bus routes 24,29 and 176 run on nearby Charing Cross Road, the land where Leicester Square now lies once belonged to the Abbot and Convent of Westminster Abbey and the Beaumont family. In 1536, Henry VIII took control of 3 acres of land around the square, the square is named after Robert Sidney, 2nd Earl of Leicester, who purchased this land in 1630. By 1635, he had himself a large house, Leicester House. The area in front of the house was enclosed, depriving inhabitants of St Martin in the Fields parish of their right to use the previously common land. The parishioners appealed to King Charles I, and he appointed three members of the council to arbitrate. Lord Leicester was ordered to keep part of his land open for the parishioners, the square was laid out to the south of Leicester House and developed in the 1670s. The area was originally residential, with properties laid out in a similar style to nearby Pall Mall. In 1687, the part of the square became part of the new parish of St Anne. The Jocelyn Sidney, 7th Earl of Leicester took ownership of the property in 1728 and it was briefly the residence of Frederick, Prince of Wales from 1742 until Leicesters death the following year. The poet Matthew Prior lived at what is now No.21 around 1700, the magistrate Thomas de Veil, later to found Bow Street Magistrates Court, lived at No 40 between 1729 and 1737, this location is now the Odeon West End
32.
Benjamin Disraeli
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Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS was a British politician and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He played a role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies. Disraeli is remembered for his voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone. He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and he is the only British Prime Minister of Jewish birth. Disraeli was born in Bloomsbury, then part of Middlesex and his father left Judaism after a dispute at his synagogue, young Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12. After several unsuccessful attempts, Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837, in 1846 the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws, which involved ending the tariff on imported grain. Disraeli clashed with Peel in the Commons, Disraeli became a major figure in the party. When Lord Derby, the party leader, thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s and he also forged a bitter rivalry with Gladstone of the Liberal Party. Upon Derbys retirement in 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister briefly before losing that years election and he returned to opposition, before leading the party to a majority in the 1874 election. He maintained a friendship with Queen Victoria, who in 1876 created him Earl of Beaconsfield. Disraelis second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire, Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company. This diplomatic victory over Russia established Disraeli as one of Europes leading statesmen, World events thereafter moved against the Conservatives. Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support and he angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain. With Gladstone conducting a speaking campaign, his Liberals bested Disraelis Conservatives in the 1880 election. In his final months, Disraeli led the Conservatives in opposition and he had throughout his career written novels, beginning in 1826, and he published his last completed novel, Endymion, shortly before he died at the age of 76. Disraeli was born on 21 December 1804 at 6 Kings Road, Bedford Row, Bloomsbury, London, the child and eldest son of Isaac DIsraeli, a literary critic and historian. The family was of Sephardic Jewish Italian mercantile background, All Disraelis grandparents and great grandparents were born in Italy, Isaacs father, Benjamin, moved to England from Venice in 1748. Disraelis siblings were Sarah, Naphtali, Ralph, and James and he was close to his sister, and on affectionate but more distant terms with his surviving brothers
33.
John Ruskin
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John Ruskin was the leading English art critic of the Victorian era, as well as an art patron, draughtsman, watercolourist, a prominent social thinker and philanthropist. He wrote on subjects as varied as geology, architecture, myth, ornithology, literature, education, botany and his writing styles and literary forms were equally varied. Ruskin also penned essays and treatises, poetry and lectures, travel guides and manuals, letters, the elaborate style that characterised his earliest writing on art was later superseded by a preference for plainer language designed to communicate his ideas more effectively. In all of his writing, he emphasised the connections between nature, art and society and he also made detailed sketches and paintings of rocks, plants, birds, landscapes, and architectural structures and ornamentation. He was hugely influential in the half of the 19th century. After a period of decline, his reputation has steadily improved since the 1960s with the publication of numerous academic studies of his work. Today, his ideas and concerns are widely recognised as having anticipated interest in environmentalism, sustainability, from the 1850s he championed the Pre-Raphaelites who were influenced by his ideas. His work increasingly focused on social and political issues, Unto This Last marked the shift in emphasis. In 1869, Ruskin became the first Slade Professor of Fine Art at the University of Oxford, in 1871, he began his monthly letters to the workmen and labourers of Great Britain, published under the title Fors Clavigera. In the course of this complex and deeply personal work, he developed the principles underlying his ideal society, as a result, he founded the Guild of St George, an organisation that endures today. Ruskin was the child of first cousins. His father, John James Ruskin, was a sherry and wine importer founding partner and de facto manager of Ruskin, Telford. John James was born and brought up in Edinburgh, Scotland, to a mother from Glenluce and his wife, Margaret Cox, née Cock, was the daughter of an aunt on the English side of the family and a publican in Croydon. She had joined the Ruskin household when she became companion to John Jamess mother, John James had hoped to practice law, but was instead articled as a clerk in London. His father, John Thomas Ruskin, described as a grocer, was an inadequate businessman, to save the family from bankruptcy, John James, whose prudence and success were in stark contrast to his father, took on all debts, settling the last of them in 1832. John James and Margaret were engaged in 1809, but opposition to the union from John Thomas, Ruskin was born at 54 Hunter Street, Brunswick Square, London, south of St Pancras railway station. His childhood was characterised by the influences of his father and mother. John James Ruskin helped to develop his sons Romanticism and they shared a passion for the works of Byron, Shakespeare and especially Walter Scott
34.
Illustrated London News
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The Illustrated London News appeared first on Saturday 14 May 1842, as the worlds first illustrated weekly news magazine. Founded by Herbert Ingram, it appeared weekly until 1971, then less frequently thereafter, the company continues today as Illustrated London News Ltd, a publishing, content and digital agency in London, which holds the publication and business archives of the magazine. As a newsagent, Ingram was struck by the increase in newspaper sales when they featured pictures. Ingram began to plan a weekly newspaper that would contain pictures in every edition, Ingram rented an office, recruited artists and reporters, and employed as his editor Frederick William Naylor Bayley, formerly editor of the National Omnibus. The first issue of The Illustrated London News appeared on Saturday,14 May 1842, Ingram hired 200 men to carry placards through the streets of London promoting the first edition of his new newspaper. Costing sixpence, the first issue sold 26,000 copies, despite this initial success, sales of the second and subsequent editions were disappointing. Its circulation soon increased to 40,000 and by the end of its first year was 60,000, in 1851, after the newspaper published Joseph Paxtons designs for the Crystal Palace before even Prince Albert had seen them, the circulation rose to 130,000. Andrew Spottiswoodes Pictorial Times lost £20,000 before it was sold to Ingram by Henry Vizetelly, Ingram folded it into another purchase, The Ladys Newspaper, which became The Ladys Newspaper and Pictorial Times. Vitezelly was also behind a competitor, The Illustrated Times in 1855. Ingrams other early collaborators left the business in the 1850s, nathanial Cooke, his business partner and brother-in-law, found himself in a subordinate role in the business and parted on bad terms around 1854. 1858 saw the departure of William Little, who, in addition to providing a loan of £10,000, was printer and publisher of the paper for 15 years, littles relationship with Ingram deteriorated over Ingrams harassment of their mutual sister-in-law. By 1863, The Illustrated London News was selling more than 300,000 copies every week, the death of Herbert and his eldest son left the company without a director and manager. Control passed to Ingrams widow Ann, and his friend Sir Edward William Watkin, once Ingrams two younger sons, William and Charles, were old enough, they took over as managing directors, although it was William who took the lead. It was also a period of expansion and increased competition for the ILN, as reading habits and the illustrated news market changed, the ILN bought or established a number of new publications, evolving from a single newspaper to a larger-scale publishing business. As with Herbert Ingrams purchases in the 1850s, this expansion was also a way of managing competition, dominating markets. As too with the acquisitions of the 1850s, several similar illustrated publications were established in this period by former employees of The Illustrated London News. Serious competition for the ILN appeared in 1869, with the establishment of The Graphic, Thomas was a former wood engraver for The Illustrated London News, and brought his expertise in illustrated publishing to his new magazine. The Graphic was highly popular, particularly for its coverage of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, William Ingram became chief proprietor of The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, and The Ladys Pictorial, which may have been a later title of The Ladys Newspaper and Pictorial Times
35.
John Everett Millais
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Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Baronet, PRA was an English painter and illustrator who was one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. A child prodigy, at the age of eleven Millais became the youngest student to enter the Royal Academy Schools, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded at his family home in London, at 83 Gower Street. Millais became the most famous exponent of the style, his painting Christ in the House of His Parents generating considerable controversy, by the mid-1850s Millais was moving away from the Pre-Raphaelite style and developing a new and powerful form of realism in his art. His later works were successful, making Millais one of the wealthiest artists of his day. Millaiss personal life has played a significant role in his reputation. His wife Effie was formerly married to the critic John Ruskin, Millais was born in Southampton, England in 1829, of a prominent Jersey-based family. His parents were John William Millais and Emily Mary Millais, most of his early childhood was spent in Jersey, to which he retained a strong devotion throughout his life. The author Thackeray once asked him when England conquered Jersey, the family moved to Dinan in Brittany for a few years in his childhood. His mothers forceful personality was the most powerful influence on his early life and she had a keen interest in art and music, and encouraged her sons artistic bent, promoting the relocating of the family to London to help develop contacts at the Royal Academy of Art. He later said I owe everything to my mother and his prodigious artistic talent won him a place at the Royal Academy schools at the unprecedented age of eleven. While there, he met William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti with whom he formed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in September 1848 in his home on Gower Street. Millaiss Christ in the House of His Parents was highly controversial because of its portrayal of a working class Holy Family labouring in a messy carpentry workshop. Later works were controversial, though less so. Millais achieved popular success with A Huguenot, which depicts a couple about to be separated because of religious conflicts. He repeated this theme in later works. All these early works were painted with great attention to detail, in paintings such as Ophelia Millais created dense and elaborate pictorial surfaces based on the integration of naturalistic elements. This approach has been described as a kind of pictorial eco-system, Mariana is a painting that Millais painted in 1850-51 based on the play Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare and the poem of the same name by Alfred, Lord Tennyson from 1830. In the play, the young Mariana was to be married and this style was promoted by the critic John Ruskin, who had defended the Pre-Raphaelites against their critics
36.
Chiaroscuro
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Chiaroscuro is an oil painting technique, developed during the Renaissance, that uses strong tonal contrasts between light and dark to model three-dimensional forms, often to dramatic effect. The underlying principle is that solidity of form is best achieved by the light falling against it, artists known for developing the technique include Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio, and Rembrandt. It is a mainstay of black and white photography and these in turn drew on traditions in illuminated manuscripts going back to late Roman Imperial manuscripts on purple-dyed vellum. Such works used to be called chiaroscuro drawings, but are often described in modern museum terminology by such formulae as pen on prepared paper. Chiaroscuro woodcuts began as imitations of this technique, when discussing Italian art, the term sometimes is used to mean painted images in monochrome or two colours, more generally known in English by the French equivalent, grisaille. The term broadened in meaning early on to cover all strong contrasts in illumination between light and dark areas in art, which is now the primary meaning. The invention of these effects in the West, skiagraphia or shadow-painting to the Ancient Greeks, traditionally was ascribed to the famous Athenian painter of the fifth century BC, Apollodoros. Chose her place to sit for that purpose in the alley of a goodly garden. In drawings and prints, modelling chiaroscuro often is achieved by the use of hatching, washes, stipple or dotting effects, and surface tone in printmaking are other techniques. Chiaroscuro woodcuts are old master prints in woodcut using two or more blocks printed in different colours, they do not necessarily feature strong contrasts of light and they were first produced to achieve similar effects to chiaroscuro drawings. Other printmakers to use the technique include Hans Wechtlin, Hans Baldung Grien, in Germany the technique achieved its greatest popularity around 1520, but it was used in Italy throughout the sixteenth century. Later artists such as Goltzius sometimes made use of it, in most German two-block prints, the keyblock was printed in black and the tone block or blocks had flat areas of colour. In Italy, chiaroscuro woodcuts were produced without keyblocks to achieve a different effect. Manuscript illumination was, as in areas, especially experimental in attempting ambitious lighting effects since the results were not for public display. The development of compositional chiaroscuro received an impetus in northern Europe from the vision of the Nativity of Jesus of Saint Bridget of Sweden. Hugo van der Goes and his followers painted many scenes lit only by candle or the light from the infant Christ. As with some later painters, in their hands the effect was of stillness, strong chiaroscuro became a popular effect during the sixteenth century in Mannerism and Baroque art. Divine light continued to illuminate, often rather inadequately, the compositions of Tintoretto, Veronese, tenebrism was especially practiced in Spain and the Spanish-ruled Kingdom of Naples, by Jusepe de Ribera and his followers
37.
William Hogarth
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William Hogarth FRSA was an English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic, and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic series of pictures called modern moral subjects. Knowledge of his work is so pervasive that satirical political illustrations in this style are referred to as Hogarthian. William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London to Richard Hogarth, a poor Latin school teacher and textbook writer, in his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young Hogarth also took a lively interest in the life of the metropolis and the London fairs. Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St Johns Gate, was imprisoned for debt in Fleet Prison for five years, Hogarth never spoke of his fathers imprisonment. Hogarth became a member of the Rose and Crown Club, with Peter Tillemans, George Vertue, Michael Dahl, by April 1720, Hogarth was an engraver in his own right, at first engraving coats of arms, shop bills, and designing plates for booksellers. In 1727, he was hired by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, Morris heard that he was an engraver, and no painter, and consequently declined the work when completed. Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, in 1757 he was appointed Serjeant Painter to the King. In the bottom corner, he shows Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish figures gambling, while in the middle there is a huge machine, like a merry-go-round. At the top is a goat, written below which is Whol Ride, Other early works include The Lottery, The Mystery of Masonry brought to Light by the Gormogons, A Just View of the British Stage, some book illustrations, and the small print Masquerades and Operas. He continued that theme in 1727, with the Large Masquerade Ticket, in 1726 Hogarth prepared twelve large engravings for Samuel Butlers Hudibras. These he himself valued highly, and they are among his best book illustrations, in the following years he turned his attention to the production of small conversation pieces. One of his real low-life and real-life subjects was Sarah Malcolm who he sketched two days before her execution and he might also have printed Burlington Gate, evoked by Alexander Popes Epistle to Lord Burlington, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great offence, and was suppressed, however, modern authorities such as Ronald Paulson no longer attribute it to Hogarth. In 1731 Hogarth completed the earliest of his series of moral works, the collection of six scenes was entitled A Harlots Progress and appeared first as paintings before being published as engravings. The inaugural series was a success and was followed in 1735 by the sequel A Rakes Progress. The original paintings of A Harlots Progress were destroyed in the fire at Fonthill House in 1755, while A Rakes Progress is displayed in the room at Sir John Soanes Museum, London
38.
James Gillray
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James Gillray was a British caricaturist and printmaker famous for his etched political and social satires, mainly published between 1792 and 1810. Gillray has been called the father of the cartoon, with his works satirizing George III, prime ministers. He was born in Chelsea, London and his father, a native of Lanark, had served as a soldier, losing an arm at the Battle of Fontenoy, and was admitted, first as an inmate, and afterwards as an outdoor pensioner, at Chelsea Hospital. Gillray commenced life by learning letter-engraving, at which he became adept. This employment, however, proved irksome to James, so he wandered about for a time with a company of strolling players and his caricatures are almost all in etching, some also with aquatint, and a few using stipple technique. None can correctly be described as engravings, although this term is loosely used to describe them. Hogarths works were the delight and study of his early years, paddy on Horseback, which appeared in 1779, is the first caricature which is certainly his. Two caricatures on Admiral Rodneys naval victory at the Battle of the Saintes, Gillray lived with Miss Humphrey during the entire period of his fame. It is believed that he several times thought of marrying her, and that on one occasion the pair were on their way to the church and we live very comfortably together, we had better let well alone. There is no evidence, however, to support the stories which scandalmongers invented about their relations, Gillrays plates were exposed in Humphreys shop window, where eager crowds examined them. One of his prints, Very Slippy-Weather, shows Miss Humphreys shop in St. Jamess Street in the background. Gillrays eyesight began to fail in 1806 and he began wearing spectacles but they were unsatisfactory. Unable to work to his previous standards, James Gillray became depressed and started drinking heavily. He produced his last print in September 1809, as a result of his heavy drinking Gillray suffered from gout throughout his later life. His last work, from a design by Bunbury, is entitled Interior of a Barbers Shop in Assize Time, while he was engaged on it he became mad, although he had occasional intervals of sanity, which he employed on his last work. The approach of madness may have been hastened by his intemperate habits, in July 1811 Gillray attempted to kill himself by throwing himself out of an attic window above Humphreys shop in St Jamess Street. Gillray lapsed into insanity and was looked after by Hannah Humphrey until his death on 1 June 1815 in London, he was buried in St Jamess churchyard, Piccadilly. A number of his most trenchant satires are directed against George III, during the French Revolution, Gillray took a conservative stance, and he issued caricature after caricature ridiculing the French and Napoleon, and glorifying John Bull
39.
Jacob Marley
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Jacob Marley is a fictional character who appears in Charles Dickens 1843 novella A Christmas Carol. He is Scrooges deceased business partner, now a chained and tormented ghost, damned to wander the earth forevermore as punishment for his greedy, selfish, Marley roams restlessly, witnessing the hardships others suffer and lamenting that he has lost his chance to help them forever. Through unknown means, it is Marley who arranges for the three spirits to visit Scrooge and gives him his opportunity for redemption, which Marley tells him was. a chance, in A Christmas Carol, Marley is the first character mentioned in the first line of the story. Jacob Marley is said to have died seven years earlier on Christmas Eve, in life, Jacob Marley was the business partner of Ebenezer Scrooge. They co-owned the firm of Scrooge and Marley, and he refers to their offices as our money-changing hole and they became successful yet hard-hearted bankers, with seats on the London Stock Exchange. Scrooge is described as Marleys sole friend and sole mourner, the ghost maintains the same voice, hairstyle and sense of dress that he had in life, but is translucent. He wears a handkerchief tied about his jaws, and captive, bound and double-ironed with chains which are described as long, of cash-boxes, keys, padlocks, ledgers, deeds, and heavy purses wrought in steel. He often, in moments of despair or impatience at Scrooges scepticism, flings these upon the ground before him. He explains that it is the chain he unknowingly forged himself in life, as a result of his greed, when the spectre asks, Why do you doubt your senses. Scrooge scoffs that. a little thing affects them, a slight disorder of the stomach makes them cheat. You may be a bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese. Theres more gravy than grave about you, whatever you are, Marleys only reply is a spine-chilling howl that brings Scrooge to his knees, begging for mercy. Even though it is unknown why it took seven years for Marley to haunt Scrooge and this is evident in the fact that Marley seems to be aware that Scrooge was very close to suffering the same fate as him. Thus, Marley was given a chance to save his friends life before it was too late. In the 1935 film Scrooge he is played by an uncredited Claude Rains, also unlike in most versions he is invisible and you only hear his voice. In the 1938 film A Christmas Carol, he is played by Leo G. Carroll, michael Hordern played Marley twice, once in the 1951 film Scrooge and then as the voice of Marley in Richard Williams 1971 animated film. Hordern also played the role of Scrooge in a 1977 television adaptation for the BBC, in the 1969 animated TV film by Famous Classic Tales, Marley is voiced by Bruce Montague. Unlike most versions, this incarnation of Marley has a head with hair dancing up like a flame, a floor-length nightgown
40.
Ghost
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In folklore, a ghost is the soul or spirit of a dead person or animal that can appear to the living. Descriptions of ghosts vary widely from a presence to translucent or barely visible wispy shapes, to realistic. The deliberate attempt to contact the spirit of a person is known as necromancy. The belief in the existence of an afterlife, as well as manifestations of the spirits of the dead is widespread, certain religious practices—funeral rites, exorcisms, and some practices of spiritualism and ritual magic—are specifically designed to rest the spirits of the dead. Ghosts are generally described as solitary, human-like essences, though stories of ghostly armies and they are believed to haunt particular locations, objects, or people they were associated with in life. Ghosts exist as a concept only, despite centuries of investigation, the English word ghost continues Old English gást, from a hypothetical Common Germanic *gaistaz. It is common to West Germanic, but lacking in North Germanic, the pre-Germanic form was *ghoisdo-s, apparently from a root denoting fury, anger reflected in Old Norse geisa to rage. The Germanic word is recorded as only, but likely continues a neuter s-stem. The original meaning of the Germanic word would thus have been a principle of the mind, in particular capable of excitation. In Germanic paganism, Germanic Mercury, and the later Odin, was at the time the conductor of the dead. It could also denote any good or evil spirit, such as angels and demons, also from the Old English period, the word could denote the spirit of God, viz. the Holy Ghost. The now-prevailing sense of the soul of a person, spoken of as appearing in a visible form only emerges in Middle English. The synonym spook is a Dutch loanword, akin to Low German spôk, alternative words in modern usage include spectre, the Scottish wraith, phantom and apparition. The term shade in classical mythology translates Greek σκιά, or Latin umbra, haint is a synonym for ghost used in regional English of the southern United States, and the haint tale is a common feature of southern oral and literary tradition. The term poltergeist is a German word, literally a noisy ghost, wraith is a Scots word for ghost, spectre, or apparition. It appeared in Scottish Romanticist literature, and acquired the general or figurative sense of portent or omen. In 18th- to 19th-century Scottish literature, it applied to aquatic spirits. The word has no commonly accepted etymology, the OED notes of obscure origin only, an association with the verb writhe was the etymology favored by J. R. R. Tolkien
41.
Ghost of Christmas Present
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The Ghost of Christmas Present or The Spirit of Christmas Present is a fictional character in the work A Christmas Carol by novelist Charles Dickens. The Spirit closely resembles Father Christmas from local folklore, the Ghost of Christmas Present is the second of the three spirits that haunt the miser Ebenezer Scrooge, in order to prompt him to repent. When he first appears before Scrooge, he invites him to come in and know me better, according to Dickens novel, the Ghost of Christmas Present appears to Scrooge as a jolly giant with dark brown curls. He wears a green robe and on his head a holly wreath set with shining icicles. He carries a torch, made to resemble a cornucopia. He states that he has had more than eighteen hundred brothers and he also bears a scabbard with no sword in it, a representation of peace on Earth and good will toward men. The spirit transports Scrooge around the city, showing him scenes of festivity and also deprivation that are happening as they watch, amongst the visits are Scrooges nephew, and the family of his impoverished clerk, Bob Cratchit. Scrooge takes an interest in Cratchits desperately-ill son, Tiny Tim, if he be like to die, he had better do it, and decrease the surplus population. The spirit finally reveals to Scrooge two emaciated children, subhuman in appearance and loathsome to behold, clinging to his robes, and names the boy as Ignorance and the girl as Want. The spirit warns Scrooge, Beware them both, and all of their degree, but most of all beware this boy, for on his brow I see that written which is Doom unless the writing be erased. The spirit once again quotes Scrooge, who if the grotesque children have no refuge, no resource. The Ghost of Christmas Present, having already aged, reveals that he will only exist on Earth for a single years Christmas holiday as the Present only takes place on the one day of the year. He finally disappears at the stroke of midnight on Twelfth Night, in the 1935 film Scrooge he is played by Oscar Asche. Also unlike in most versions he is bald and clean shaven, in the 1938 film A Christmas Carol he is played by Lionel Braham. In the 1951 film Scrooge he is played by Francis De Wolff, in the 1962 TV special Mister Magoos Christmas Carol, he appears before the Ghost of Christmas Past was meant to. In the 1970 musical adaptation Scrooge, Kenneth More portrays the main character. After a song, the ghost takes Scrooge to Cratchits house to see a brief argument after Bob claims that the dinner is courtesy of Scrooge instead of Bobs compensation, Ignorance and Want do not appear in this adaptation. In the Academy Award-winning animated film A Christmas Carol he is played by Felix Felton, in a 1979 Dutch musical De Wonderbaarlijke Genezing van Ebenezer Scrooge, he is played by Paul van Gorcum
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Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come
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It is the third and final spirit to visit the miser Ebenezer Scrooge on Christmas Eve. The spirit closely resembles the Grim Reaper, the Phantom slowly, gravely, silently, approached. When it came near him, Scrooge bent down upon his knee, for in the air through which this Spirit moved it seemed to scatter gloom. It was shrouded in a black garment, which concealed its head, its face, its form. It thrilled with a vague uncertain horror, to know that behind the mask there were eyes staring at him, although the character never speaks in the story, Scrooge understands it, usually through assumptions from his previous experiences and rhetorical questions. It is notable that, even in satires and parodies of the tale and it looks the way it does because it represents what the future holds for Scrooge if he does not change his ways. When the Ghost makes its appearance, the first thing it shows Scrooge is three wealthy gentlemen making light of a recent death, remarking that it will be a cheap funeral, one businessman said he would go. if lunch is provided. He also sees a corpse, which he implores the Ghost not to unmask. Scrooge asks the ghost to show anyone who feels any emotion over the mans death, the ghost can only show him a poor couple indebted to the man momentarily rejoicing that the man is dead, giving them more time to pay off their debt. After Scrooge asks to see some tenderness connected with death, the ghost shows him Bob Cratchit, the spirit then takes Scrooge to a rundown churchyard and shows the repentant miser his own grave, Scrooge then realizes that the dead man of whom the others spoke ill was himself. Horrified, Scrooge begs the ghost for another chance to redeem his life, for the first time the hand appeared to shake. Good Spirit, he pursued, as down upon the ground he fell before it, Your nature intercedes for me, assure me that I yet may change these shadows you have shown me, by an altered life. Scrooge then awakes to find that the hand has become his bedpost. Along with the visions supplied by the spirits, the ghosts warnings about Scrooges future transform him into a better man. In the 1935 film Scrooge he is played by C. V, in the 1938 film A Christmas Carol he is played by DArcy Corrigan. In the 1951 film Scrooge he is played by Czesław Konarski, in Scrooge, the ghost reveals itself to have a frozen, dirty skeletal face underneath the shrouded robes, as well as bony skeletal hands. In the 1979 Dutch musical De Wonderbaarlijke Genezing van Ebenezer Scrooge, in Mickeys Christmas Carol, Christmas Future smokes a cigar, blowing fog all over Scrooge McDuck. In the graveyard scene, when Scrooge asks the spirit whose grave they are seeing, the strikes a match to light up the inscription on the gravestone
43.
Romulus and Remus
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In Roman mythology, Romulus and Remus are twin brothers, whose story tells the events that led to the founding of the city of Rome and the Roman Kingdom by Romulus. The killing of Remus by his brother, and other tales from their story, have inspired artists throughout the ages, since ancient times, the image of the twins being suckled by a she-wolf has been a symbol of the city of Rome and the Roman people. Although the tale takes place before the founding of Rome around 750 BC, whether the twins myth was an original part of Roman myth or a later development is a subject of ongoing debate. Romulus and Remus were born in Alba Longa, one of the ancient Latin cities near the site of Rome. Their mother, Rhea Silvia was a virgin and the daughter of the former king, Numitor. In some sources, Rhea Silvia conceived them when their father, through their mother, the twins were descended from Greek and Latin nobility. Seeing them as a threat to his rule, King Amulius ordered them to be killed. They were saved by the god Tiberinus, Father of the River and survived with the care of others, in the most well-known episode, the twins were suckled by a she-wolf, in a cave now known as the Lupercal. Eventually, they were adopted by Faustulus, a shepherd and they grew up tending flocks, unaware of their true identities. Over time, their leadership abilities attracted a company of supporters from the community. When they were adults, they became involved in a dispute between supporters of Numitor and Amulius. As a result, Remus was taken prisoner and brought to Alba Longa, both his grandfather and the king suspected his true identity. Romulus, meanwhile, had organized an effort to free his brother, during this time they learned of their past and joined forces with their grandfather to restore him to the throne. Amulius was killed and Numitor was reinstated as king of Alba, the twins set out to build a city of their own. After arriving back in the area of the seven hills, they disagreed about the hill upon which to build, Romulus preferred the Palatine Hill, above the Lupercal, Remus preferred the Aventine Hill. When they could not resolve the dispute, they agreed to seek the gods approval through a contest of augury, Remus first saw 6 auspicious birds but soon afterward, Romulus saw 12, and claimed to have won divine approval. The new dispute furthered the contention between them, in the aftermath, Remus was killed either by Romulus or by one of his supporters. Romulus then went on to found the city of Rome, its institutions, government, military and he reigned for many years as its first king
44.
Shepherd
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A shepherd /ˈʃɛpərd/ or sheepherder is a person who tends, herds, feeds, or guards herds of sheep. Shepherd derives from Old English sceaphierde, shepherding is among the oldest occupations, beginning some 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor. Sheep were kept for their milk, meat and especially their wool, over the next thousand years, sheep and shepherding spread throughout Eurasia. Some sheep were integrated in the farm along with other animals such as chickens. To maintain a large flock, the sheep must be able to move from pasture to pasture and this required the development of an occupation separate from that of the farmer. The duty of shepherds was to keep their flock intact, protect it from predators, in ancient times, shepherds also commonly milked their sheep, and made cheese from this milk, few shepherds still do this today. In many societies, shepherds were an important part of the economy, unlike farmers, shepherds were often wage earners, being paid to watch the sheep of others. Shepherds also lived apart from society, being largely nomadic and it was mainly a job of solitary males without children, and new shepherds thus needed to be recruited externally. Shepherds were most often the sons of farming peasants who did not inherit any land. Shepherds would normally work in groups either looking after one large flock, or each bringing their own and they would live in small cabins, often shared with their sheep, and would buy food from local communities. Less often shepherds lived in covered wagons that traveled with their flocks, shepherding developed only in certain areas. In the lowlands and river valleys, it was far more efficient to grow grain and cereals than to allow sheep to graze, thus the raising of sheep was confined to rugged and mountainous areas. In pre-modern times shepherding was thus centered on such as the Middle East, Greece, the Pyrenees, the Carpathian Mountains. The shepherds crook is a strong multi-purpose stick or staff, often fashioned with a hooked end, in modern times, shepherding has changed dramatically. The abolition of common lands in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth century moved shepherding from independent nomads to employees of massive estates. Some families in Africa and Asia have their wealth in sheep, in the USA, many sheep herds are flocked over public BLM lands. Wages are higher than was the case in the past, keeping a shepherd in constant attendance can be costly. Also, the eradication of sheep predators in parts of the world have lessened the need for shepherds, in places like Britain, hardy breeds of sheep are frequently left alone without a shepherd for long periods of time
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Marcus Curtius
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Marcus Curtius is a mythological young Roman who offerer himself to the gods of Hades. He is the namesake of the Lacus Curtius in the Roman Forum. After an earthquake in 362 BC, a deep pit suddenly opened in the Roman Forum. Despairing, they consulted an oracle who responded that the demanded the most precious possession of the country. The Romans doubted the warning, and struggled to think of what that was, however, a young soldier named Marcus Curtius castigated them and responded that arms and the courage of Romans were the nations most precious possessions. Astride his horse, fully and meticulously armed and decorated, Marcus rode, immediately, the deep pit closed over him, saving Rome. The Lacus Curtius in the Forum was supposedly built on the site of the pit, curtia Images of the silver coins made by order of the coinage Triunvir Quintus Curtius in 115-116 B. C
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Leech, John". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
