1.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
2.
Australian Army
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The Australian Army is Australias military land force. It is part of the Australian Defence Force along with the Royal Australian Navy, while the Chief of the Defence Force commands the ADF, the Army is commanded by the Chief of Army. The CA is therefore subordinate to the CDF, but is directly responsible to the Minister for Defence. Although Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout its history, Australias largest peacekeeping deployment began in 1999 in East Timor, while other ongoing operations include peacekeeping on Bougainville, in the Sinai, and in the Solomon Islands. Humanitarian relief after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake in Aceh Province, Indonesia, Operation Sumatra Assist, the 1st Division comprises a deployable headquarters, while 2nd Division under the command of Forces Command is the main home-defence formation, containing Army Reserve units. 2nd Divisions headquarters only performs administrative functions, the Australian Army has not deployed a divisional-sized formation since 1945 and does not expect to do so in the future. 1st Division carries out training activities and deploys to command large-scale ground operations. It does not have any combat units permanently assigned, Forces Command controls for administrative purposes all non-special-forces assets of the Australian Army. It is neither an operational nor a deployable command,1 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Darwin and Adelaide. 3 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Townsville,6 Brigade – Mixed brigade based in Sydney. 7 Brigade – Multi-role Combat Brigade based in Brisbane,16 Aviation Brigade – Army Aviation brigade based in Enoggera, Brisbane. 17 Combat Service Support Brigade – Logistic brigade based in Sydney, 2nd Division administers the reserve forces from its headquarters located in Sydney. 4 Brigade – based in Victoria,5 Brigade – based in New South Wales. 8 Brigade – based in New South Wales,9 Brigade – based in South Australia and Tasmania. 11 Brigade – based in Queensland,13 Brigade – based in Western Australia. Special Operations Command comprises a command formation of equal status to the commands in the ADF. It includes all of Armys special forces assets, the force will be known as the Amphibious Ready Element and will be embarked on the Navys new Canberra-class amphibious assault ships. Infantry, and some combat units of the Australian Army carry flags called the Queens Colour
3.
3rd Division (Australia)
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The 3rd Division was an infantry division of the Australian Army. Existing during various periods between 1916 and 1991, it is considered the longest serving Australian Army division and it was first formed during World War I, as an infantry division of the Australian Imperial Force and saw service on the Western Front in France and Belgium. During this time it fought battles at Messines, Broodseinde Ridge, Passchendaele, Amiens. After the war the division was demobilised in 1919 before being re-raised in 1921 as part of the Citizen Forces, throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the divisions establishment fluctuated due to the effects of the Great Depression and a general apathy towards military matters. In late 1944 they were sent to Bougainville to take part in their campaign of the war. There they undertook a series of advances across the island before the war came to an end in August 1945. Following the end of hostilities the division was disbanded in December 1945 as part of the demobilisation process, in early 1916, following the unsuccessful Gallipoli campaign, the decision was made to expand the size of the Australian Imperial Force. At the time there were two divisions in Egypt—the 1st and 2nd—and of these, one of them was split up to provide a cadre upon which to raise the 4th and 5th Divisions. Around this time the decision to raise a division from fresh volunteers in Australia was also made. In July the divisions artillery component was formed, consisting of three batteries of 18-pounders and one 4.5 inch howitzer battery, the process of raising and training took some time and consequently the division was not transferred to France until mid November 1916. Prior to this, however, the division endured proposals to break it up to provide reinforcements to the other four Australian divisions that were already in France. Although these threats passed, in early September 1916, following losses around Pozières, throughout October it seemed likely that further drafts would be siphoned away from the division, however, this did not occur and in early November two divisional exercises were undertaken. Finally, on 21 November 1916, the 3rd Division crossed the English Channel, under the command of Major General John Monash, the division was assigned to II ANZAC Corps. For the next two years they would part in most of the major battles that the Australians fought on the Western Front. These brigades were the 7th and the 8th and it was here, in early June 1917, that the division undertook its first major engagement of the war when it was committed to the fighting during the Battle of Messines. Monash tasked the 9th and 10th Brigades to provide the force for the 3rd Divisions part of the operation. In the engagements that followed the division largely played only a supporting role, following this, the divisions next major engagement came on 4 October 1917 when it took part in the Battle of Broodseinde Ridge. This time the 9th Brigade was held back in reserve, while the 10th and 11th Brigades led the division forward, a counterattack late in the day on the 11th Brigades position was turned back, sealing a stunning success for the 3rd Division
4.
4th Brigade (Australia)
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The 4th Brigade is a brigade-level formation of the Australian Army. Originally formed in September 1914 for service during World War I, elements of the brigade served at Gallipoli, in 1921, the brigade was re-raised as a unit of Australias part-time military forces, based in the state of Victoria. During World War II the brigade served in the New Guinea, under the command of Colonel John Monash, at that time the brigade consisted of four infantry battalions which were raised from all Australian states, the 13th, 14th, 15th and 16th Battalions. Following initial training at Broadmeadows in Victoria, they embarked for overseas in the wave of Australian forces to be dispatched. They arrived in Egypt in early 1915, where they were assigned to the New Zealand, in April 1915, the brigade participated in the ANZAC landing at Gallipoli, arriving on the second day as the divisions reserve, before joining the eight-month campaign that followed. During the August Offensive, the brigade attacked Hill 971 and then, later, in December 1915 the decision was made to evacuate Gallipoli and subsequently the brigade was transported back to Egypt. Following this, the AIF underwent a period of reorganisation and expansion, as a part of this process, the 4th Brigade provided a cadre of experienced personnel to the newly formed 12th Brigade. At the same time, the brigade was reassigned to the 4th Division, assigned to the front line around Armentières, they undertook their first operation on 2 July, undertaking an unsuccessful raid. During the next two years, the brigade rotated in and out of the line along with the rest of the 4th Division. In April 1917, the took part in heavy fighting around Bullecourt where, on 11 April, they suffered heavy casualties. In April 1918, the 4th Brigade was involved in significant fighting around Villers-Bretonneux, the liberation was the third anniversary of ANZAC Day,25 April 1918. In commemoration of the sacrifices made by Australians, in 1926 the main street of the town was renamed Rue de Melbourne, the school, which was damaged during the fighting, was rebuilt with donations from Victorian school children and was subsequently called Victoria School. Later, in July, the 4th Brigade took part in the fighting around Le Hamel, the tactics used during the battle on 4 July 1918 were conceived by General John Monash and largely carried out by Australian infantrymen, along with a number of US troops. It was the scene of one of Allies greatest military victories during the war, on 12 August 1918 Monash was knighted in the field by King George V. In early October the rest of the Australian Corps was withdrawn from the line for rest, during the course of the war, eight members of the brigade received the Victoria Cross. These were, Albert Jacka, Martin OMeara, John Dwyer, Harry Murray, Henry Dalziel, Thomas Axford, Maurice Buckley, in 1921, Australias part-time military forces were re-organised to perpetuate the numerical designations and structure of the AIF formations that had existed during World War I. As a result, in May the 4th Brigade was re-raised as part of the Citizens Forces, where possible the decision was made to raise the new formations in the recruiting areas from where the World War I units had drawn their personnel. The four infantry battalions that were assigned to it at time were
5.
13th Brigade (Australia)
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The 13th Brigade is an Army Reserve formation of the Australian Army. Originally formed in 1916, the brigade fought on the Western Front during World War I and it is currently headquartered at Perth in Western Australia and has units located across the state in locations such as Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Albany, Katanning, Joondalup and Rockingham. The current brigade was formed in 1988 and is tasked with the protection of Western Australia and it forms part of the 2nd Division of the Australian Army. This was achieved by splitting the battalions of the first four brigades that had fought at Gallipoli to provide a cadre for the new battalions that were being formed. Through this process, the 3rd Infantry Brigade was divided to form the 13th Infantry Brigade, assigned to the 4th Australian Division, on formation the brigade consisted of four infantry battalions, the 49th, 50th, 51st and 52nd Battalions. After undertaking a period of training in Egypt where it had been formed, upon landing in Marseilles, it was transported north by rail. In mid-May, the brigade entered the front line for the first time, moving into a sector near Petillon, in France. For the next years, the 13th Brigade took part in the fighting in the trenches along the Western Front in France. They continued operations into late September, attacking the Hindenburg Line, early the following month, the majority of the Australian Corps brigade was withdrawn from the line for rest. Following the end of the war the battalions of the 13th Brigade where returned home, in 1921, following the conclusion of the demobilisation process, Australias part-time military force, the Citizens Force, was reorganised to perpetuate the numerical designations of the AIF. In late 1929, the scheme was suspended completely by the Scullin Labor government, the brigade was mobilised for war service in 1939 after the outbreak of the Second World War, but due to the provisions of the Defence Act it was initially only used as a garrison force. Up until 1942 the brigade was the main formation defending the Western Australian coastline from a possible Japanese invasion, during this time, the 44th Battalion was detached from the brigade and for the remainder of the war its principle units were the 11th, 16th and 28th Infantry Battalions. In 1943, after the threat of a Japanese landing in the west subsided, after returning to Australia, the brigade was disbanded in 1946. Between 1940 and mid-1945, the brigade was commanded by Brigadier Eric McKenzie, after the Second World War, Australias wartime military was demobilised and in 1948 the part-time force was re-raised under the guise of the Citizens Military Force. The 13th Brigade was re-raised at this time, once headquartered in Western Australia. Upon formation, it consisted of two battalions, the 11th/44th and the 16th/28th. In 1960, when the CMF was reorganised following the adoption of the Pentropic divisional establishment and it was re-raised again in 1988, and is currently responsible for the bulk of Army Reserve formations in Western Australia. Assigned to the 2nd Division, it is headquartered in Perth and commands units across Western Australia, based in such as Joondalup, Rockingham, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Albany
6.
Gallipoli Campaign
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The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles, a strait that provided a sea route to the Russian Empire, one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russias allies Britain and France launched an attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula. The naval attack was repelled and after eight months fighting, with casualties on both sides, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt. The campaign was one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war, in Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the nations history, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled. In 1908, a group of officers, known as the Young Turks. The new régime implemented a program of reform to modernise the political and economic system. An enthusiastic supporter, Germany provided significant investment, German diplomats subsequently found increasing influence, despite Britain previously being the predominant power in the region, while German officers assisted in training and re-equipping the army. Despite this support, the resources of the Ottoman Empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. In December 1913, the Germans sent a mission to Constantinople. The geographical position of the Ottoman Empire meant that Russia and her allies France, during the Sarajevo Crisis in 1914, German diplomats offered Turkey an anti-Russian alliance and territorial gains in Caucasia, north-west Iran and Trans-Caspia. The pro-British faction in the Cabinet was isolated due to the British ambassador taking leave until 18 August, as the crisis deepened in Europe, Ottoman policy was to obtain a guarantee of territorial integrity and potential advantages, unaware that the British might enter a European war. This action strained diplomatic relations between the two empires and the German government offered SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau to the Ottoman navy as replacements, by allowing the German ships to enter the Dardanelles, the Ottomans confirmed their links to Germany. In September, the British naval mission to the Ottomans, which had established in 1912 under Admiral Arthur Limpus, was recalled due to increasing concern that Turkey would soon enter the war. Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon of the Imperial German Navy took over command of the Ottoman navy, the German naval presence and the success of German armies on all fronts, gave the pro-German faction in the Ottoman government enough influence to declare war on Russia. On 27 October, Goeben and Breslau, having been renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm and Midilli, sortied into the Black Sea, bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several Russian ships. The Ottomans refused an Allied demand that they expel the German missions and on 31 October 1914, Russia declared war on Turkey on 2 November. The next day, the British ambassador left Constantinople and a British naval squadron off the Dardanelles bombarded the outer defensive forts at Kum Kale, a shell hit a magazine, knocked the guns off their mounts and killed 86 soldiers. Fighting also began in Mesopotamia, following a British landing to occupy the oil facilities in the Persian Gulf, the Ottomans prepared to attack Egypt in early 1915, aiming to occupy the Suez Canal and cut the Mediterranean route to India and the Far East
7.
Battle of Messines (1917)
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The Nivelle Offensive in April and May had failed to achieve its more ambitious aims, led to the demoralisation of French troops and the dislocation of the Anglo-French strategy for 1917. The offensive at Messines forced the Germans to move reserves to Flanders from the Arras and Aisne fronts, the 4th Army divisions of Gruppe Wijtschate held the ridge, which were later reinforced by a division from Gruppe Ypern. The battle began with the detonation of a series of mines beneath German lines and this was followed by a creeping barrage 700 yards deep, covering the British troops as they secured the ridge, with support from tanks, cavalry patrols and aircraft. The effectiveness of the British mines, barrages and bombardments was improved by advances in artillery survey, flash-spotting, British attacks from 8–14 June advanced the front line beyond the former German Sehnen line. The Battle of Messines was a prelude to the much larger Third Battle of Ypres campaign, in January 1916, General Sir Herbert Plumer recommended to Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig the capture of Messines Ridge before an operation to capture the Gheluvelt plateau further north. The Flanders campaign was postponed because of the Battle of Verdun in 1916, Haig intended to force the Germans to move troops away from the French armies on the Aisne front, where demoralisation amid the failure of the Nivelle Offensive had led to mutinies. The British would gain observation of the slope of Menin Ridge at the west end of the Gheluvelt plateau. The front line around Ypres had changed little since the end of the Second Battle of Ypres. The British held the city, while the Germans held the ground of the Messines–Wytschaete Ridge to the south, the lower ridges to the east. The Ypres front was a salient bulging into the German lines but was overlooked by German artillery observers on the higher ground, the British had little ground observation of the German rear areas and valleys east of the ridges. Gradients varied from negligible, to 1,60 at Hooge and 1,33 at Zonnebeke, underneath the soil was London clay, sand and silt. The area was considered by the British to be drier than Loos, Givenchy, the Second Army devised a centralised artillery plan of great sophistication, following the practice established at the Battle of Arras in April 1917. The use of survey, gun calibration, weather data. Target-finding became systematic, with the use of new sound-ranging equipment, better organisation of flash-spotting, Second Army counter-battery artillery bombardments increased from twelve in the week ending 19 April, to 438 in the last ten days before the attack. A survey of captured ground after the found that 90 percent of the German artillery positions had been plotted. The 2nd Field Survey Company also assisted the mining companies by establishing the positions of objectives within the German lines, using intersection and a special series of aerial photographs. The company surveyed advanced artillery positions, so that moving forward to them once the battle had begun could begin firing as soon as they arrived at the positions. The British had begun an offensive against the German-held Wijtschate salient in 1916
8.
Battle of Broodseinde
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The Battle of Broodseinde was fought on 4 October 1917 near Ypres in Flanders, at the east end of the Gheluvelt plateau, by the British Second and Fifth armies and the German 4th Army. The battle was the most successful Allied attack of the Battle of Passchendaele, the unseasonal heavy rains in August had hampered British attempts to advance more than German attempts to maintain their positions. The plateau ran along the edge of the Ypres Salient and formed an obstacle to further eastward attacks. The battle followed the Battle of Menin Road on 20 September and the Battle of Polygon Wood on 26 September, Haig judged that the next attack, due on 6 October, would conclude the period of strictly limited advances. The following step would be an advance, with provision made for exploitation. Haig wanted XV Corps on the Belgian coast and the force of Operation Hush readied. Reserve formations of infantry, artillery, cavalry and tanks were to be made ready behind the Fifth and Second armies, capturing the ridge would probably take two more steps at three-day intervals, followed by another four days to repair roads over the captured ground. Haig explained that although exploitation of the due on 10 October was not certain. Divisions attacked on narrower fronts and troops advanced no more than 1,500 yards into the German defence zone, the tempo of the British operations added to the difficulty the Germans had in replacing tired divisions through the transport bottlenecks behind the German front. The British artillery preparation before Polygon Wood on 26 September, began 24 hours before the infantry attack, no formal artillery preparation was conducted before 4 October, except for the normal heavy artillery counter-battery fire and destructive fire on German strong-points. Despite the ruse of using practice barrages, a reliable agent informed the Germans that an attack was coming from as early as 1 October. The battle was almost called off when heavy rain began again on 2 October, the attack aimed to complete the capture of the Gheluvelt Plateau by the occupation of Broodseinde Ridge and Gravenstafel Spur. This would protect the flank of the British line and permit attacks on Passchendaele Ridge to the north-east. The attack was planned for 6 October, to give the II Anzac Corps time to prepare, twelve divisions were involved in the attack on a 14, 000-yard front. The original plan was to have the I Anzac Corps relieved after the Battle of Polygon Wood but the corps had fewer casualties and was fresher than expected, the two right flanking corps had 972 field guns and howitzers supported by 417 heavy and medium pieces. In the I Anzac Corps area, the 1st Australian Division objectives required an advance of 1, 200–1,800 yards, the first objective for the Anzac divisions was set just short of the crest of Broodseinde Ridge and the final objective another 200–400 yards beyond. The artillery plan had the first belt of creeping barrage beginning 150 yards beyond the jumping-off tapes, during the pause the barrage was to move 1,000 yards further to hit German counter-attacks and then suddenly return. At zero +130 minutes, it was to advance in 100-yard lifts every eight minutes to the final objective, after another pause the barrage was to creep forward at hourly intervals for 1,500 yards into the German defences
9.
First Battle of Passchendaele
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The First Battle of Passchendaele took place on 12 October 1917, in the Ypres Salient of the Western Front, west of Passchendaele village. The attack was part of the Third Battle of Ypres in the First World War, the British had planned to capture the ridges south and east of the city of Ypres as part of a strategy decided by the Allies at conferences in November 1916 and May 1917. Passchendaele lay on the last ridge east of Ypres,5 miles from a junction at Roulers. During the battle, misleading information and delays in communication left Herbert Plumer, the attackers had managed to advance towards the village but most of the captured ground had been lost to German counter-attacks during the afternoon. Instead of an advance of 1,500 yards to complete the capture of Passchendaele, the real position of the front line was discovered by air reconnaissance but the information arrived too late, to make more than minor changes to the plan. The British offensive was postponed until the improved and communications behind the front were restored. Two German divisions intended for Italy were diverted to Flanders, to replace extraordinarily high losses, the battle had been a German defensive success but was costly for both sides. In July 1917, Field Marshal Douglas Haig began the Third Battle of Ypres campaign, at the Battle of Messines the far side of the Messines Ridge had been captured down to the Oosttaverne Line and a substantial success gained in the subsequent Battle of Pilckem Ridge. At the Battle of Langemarck there was an advance of 1,500 yards around Langemarck village by XIV Corps. The main offensive was switched to the British Second Army under command of General Herbert Plumer, pauses on successive objective lines would become longer and attacks would be protected by a bigger, deeper multi-layered creeping barrage. The British infantry would be in communication with its artillery and have more local support from the Royal Flying Corps. Beyond the creeper, four heavy artillery counter-battery double groups, with 222 guns and howitzers, covered a 7, 000-yard front, ready to engage German guns with gas and high-explosive shell. The German high command had made several changes against the refined British attacking methods, in the lower ground west of the Passchendaele Ridge, three months of constant shelling had blocked the watercourses that normally provided drainage. On the night of 4 October, it began to rain, much of the battlefield again became a quagmire, making movement extremely difficult. On 7 October, this attack had been cancelled by Haig, because of the rain. Encouraged by the unusually high German losses during the Battle of Broodseinde and reports of lowered German morale, Haig sought quickly to renew the Allied offensive and secure Passchendaele Ridge. The Battle of Poelcappelle began on 9 October and was costly to both sides, most of the ground captured opposite Passchendaele was lost later in the day to German counter-attacks. News of this German defensive success was slow in reaching the higher British commanders, because the collapse of communications during an attack was exacerbated by the rain
10.
Battle of Hamel
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The attack was planned and commanded by Lieutenant General John Monash, commander of the Australian Corps and Australian Imperial Force. Many of the employed, such as the use of combined arms, illustrated the evolution of military tactics. All of the Allies objectives were achieved within 93 minutes, just three minutes longer than Monashs calculated battle time, to give the newly-arrived American Expeditionary Force combat experience, the five Australian infantry brigades involved were augmented by 10 companies from US Army battalions. However, six of these US infantry companies were withdrawn from the front line before seeing action, Hamel was the first time during World War I that elements of the AEF were commanded operationally by non-American officers. In early 1918, as a result of the capitulation of Russia, over the space of four months, up to 48 divisions were moved to the west. Concentrating their efforts on the Somme Valley, the Germans launched a major offensive – the Spring Offensive – against the British southern flank on 21 March. After pushing the Allies back towards the railhead at Amiens, the German advance in the sector was checked around Villers-Bretonneux in early April. As the German offensive exhausted itself, in June the Allies began to prepare for their own offensive, capturing the village would help set an aggressive posture and relieve pressure in the sector. Lieutenant General John Monash, commander of the Australian Corps, was chosen to plan the attack, located south of the River Somme, about 1.9 miles north-west of Villers-Bretonneux on a spur between two hills, Hamel was strategically important to both the Allies and Germans. The Allied line was positioned on the slope of a hill 1.5 miles to the west of the village. The village also acted as an obstacle to the eastward advance through the Somme planned for later in the year. The Allied victory owed much to Monashs detailed planning and to the briefing of all the troops on their objectives, the battle was his first as commander of the Australian Corps. The Allies made novel use of a number of tactics, such as drops of medical supplies and rifle ammunition in cases. The supply tanks and aircraft brought stores quickly to the troops as they advanced, the carrying power of the tanks equated to about 1,200 troops doing the same job. Other techniques were more such as the use of pigeons, Lucas lamps. There was advanced co-ordination between infantry, artillery and armour, and the latest, highly manoeuvrable Mark V tank was used after it had demonstrated to Monash. Five companies of the British 5th Tank Brigade were provided for the assault, as such, to ensure co-ordination and overcome the problems the Australians had experienced at Bullecourt, the Australian infantry and tanks trained and lived together prior to the battle. Coloured diagrams were painted on the sides of the tanks, corresponding to the battalions that they would support, the battle plan called for a creeping barrage, in which the artillery barrage moves slowly in front of the advancing troops
11.
Battle of Amiens (1918)
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Allied forces advanced over 11 kilometres on the first day, one of the greatest advances of the war, with Henry Rawlinsons British Fourth Army playing the decisive role. The battle is notable for its effects on both sides morale and the large number of surrendering German forces. This led Erich Ludendorff to describe the first day of the battle as the day of the German Army. On 21 March 1918, the German Army had launched Operation Michael and these offensives were intended to translate this advantage into victory. Operation Michael was intended to defeat the right wing of the British Expeditionary Force, a final effort was aimed at the town of Amiens, a vital railway junction, but the advance had been halted at Villers-Bretonneux by British and Australian troops on 4 April. By the end of the Marne-Rheims offensive, the German manpower advantage had been spent and their supplies, the Allied generalissimo, General Ferdinand Foch, ordered a counteroffensive which led to the Second Battle of the Marne, after which victory he was promoted to Marshal of France. The Germans, recognising their untenable position, withdrew from the Marne to the north, Foch now tried to move the Allies back onto the offensive. Foch disclosed his plan on 23 July 1918, following the Franco-American victory at the Battle of Soissons, the plan called for reducing the Saint-Mihiel salient and freeing the railway lines that ran through Amiens from German shellfire. The commander of the British Expeditionary Force, Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, when the British retreat had ended in April, the headquarters of the British Fourth Army under General Sir Henry Rawlinson had taken over the front astride the Somme. On 30 May, all the Australian infantry divisions were united under the corps HQ, Rawlinson had submitted Monashs proposals to Haig in July and Haig had forwarded them to Foch. At a meeting on 24 July, Foch agreed to the plan but insisted that the French First Army, Rawlinson opposed this as his and Monashs plans depended on the large-scale use of tanks to achieve surprise, by avoiding a preliminary bombardment. The French First Army lacked tanks and would be forced to bombard the German positions before the advance began. Eventually, it was agreed that the French would participate, and it was also agreed to advance the proposed date of the attack from 10 August to 8 August, to strike the Germans before they had completed their withdrawal from the Marne salient. Rawlinson had already finalised his plans in discussion with his Corps commanders on 21 July, for the first time, the Australians would attack side by side with the Canadian Corps. Both had a reputation for aggressive and innovative tactics and a record of success over the past two years. The tactical methods had been tested by the Australians in a local counter-attack at the Battle of Hamel on 4 July, the German defenders of Hamel were deeply dug in, and their position commanded a very wide field of fire. Similar positions had resisted capture for two months in the Battle of the Somme, the Australians had used surprise rather than weight at Hamel. The artillery had opened only at the moment the infantry and tanks advanced
12.
Battle of St Quentin Canal
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American forces were ordered to attack on 27 September, to finish clearing German forces from outposts in front of the line. However, due to a shortage of American officers, the attack was unsuccessful, as a consequence 200 Australian Officers were then assigned to the US troops to provide both experience and leadership. The British high command had realised that any success against the formidable defences of the Hindenburg Line could only be achieved with the use of tanks. The US divisions launched the attack, with the Australian 3rd. The 30th Infantry Division broke through the Hindenburg Line on 29 September 1918 at Bellicourt winning the praise of General Pershing, the 30th Division did especially well. It broke through the Hindenburg Line on its front and took Bellicourt and part of Nauroy by noon of the 29th. The British 46th Division crossed the St Quentin Canal, capturing 4,200 German prisoners, while the attack succeeded in widening the breach in the Beaurevoir Line, it was unable to seize the high ground further on. However, by 2 October, the attack had resulted in a 17 km breach in the Hindenburg Line, by any measure, and especially by World War I standards, it was a stunning and swift victory. Crows Nest, New South Wales, Allen & Unwin, military History Encyclopedia on the Web – Battle of Cambrai-St. Bean, Volume VI – The Australian Imperial Force in France during the Allied Offensive,1918
13.
Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
14.
Volunteer Officers' Decoration
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The Volunteer Officers Decoration, post-nominal letters VD, was instituted in 1892 as an award for long and meritorious service by officers of the United Kingdoms Volunteer Force. Award of the decoration was discontinued in the United Kingdom when it was superseded by the Territorial Decoration in 1908, the Volunteer Officers Decoration, post-nominal letters VD and colloquially known as the Volunteer Decoration, was instituted by Queen Victorias Royal Warrant on 25 July 1892. The decoration could be awarded to efficient and thoroughly capable officers of proven capacity for long, the qualifying period of service was twenty years. Half of any service in the Regular Army also counted towards qualification. The award did not confer any individual precedence, but entitled the recipient to use the post-nominal letters VD, the Volunteer Officers Decoration could also be conferred upon any of the Princes of the Royal Family of Great Britain and Ireland. A separate new decoration was instituted, the Volunteer Officers Decoration for India and this decoration was similar in design to the Volunteer Officers Decoration, but bore the Royal Cypher VRI instead of VR. Even so, some Crown Dependencies awarded the Volunteer Officers Decoration instead of the Colonial version, the decoration is an oval skeletal design and was struck in silver, with parts of the obverse in silver-gilt. It is 43 millimetres high and 35.5 millimetres wide with a ring suspender formed of silver wire, obverse The obverse is an oak leaf wreath in silver, tied with gold, with the Royal Cypher below the Royal Crown, both in gold, in the centre. Reverse The reverse is plain with the hallmarks impressed at the bottom, the decoration was awarded unnamed, but was frequently unofficially engraved in various styles. Ribbon The ribbon is green and 1 1⁄2 inches in width and is suspended from a silver bar-brooch decorated with an oak leaf pattern. Three versions of the decoration were struck, the original version of 1892 had the Royal Cypher VR of Queen Victoria below the Royal Crown in the centre. It appears to have continued to be awarded in some Crown Dependencies until 1910, the King George V version, with his Royal Cypher GVR, was introduced after his succession to the throne in 1910. This version appears to have only been awarded in some Crown Dependencies, instead of the Volunteer Officers Decoration for India, the Volunteer Force was the precursor of the Territorial Force, which was established in the United Kingdom in 1908. At the same time, award of the Volunteer Officers Decoration was discontinued in the United Kingdom, the Volunteer Officers Decoration continued to be awarded in some Crown Dependencies until the Efficiency Decoration was instituted in September 1930. Bermuda was the last Dependency to award the decoration in 1930
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Mentioned in dispatches
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In a number of countries, a servicemembers name must be mentioned in dispatches as a condition for receiving certain decorations. In the British Armed Forces, the despatch is published in the London Gazette, for 1914–1918 and up to 10 August 1920, the decoration consisted of a spray of oak leaves in bronze. This decoration was established in 1919, but it had retroactive effect. From 1920 to 1993, the decoration consisted of a bronze oak leaf. In a change introduced in 2014 to the British Armed Forces, prior to this change, even if the soldier was mentioned in dispatches more than once, only a single such decoration was worn. In Britain, since 1993, the decoration is a silver oak leaf. In each case the decoration is pinned or sewn diagonally on to the campaign medal ribbon. If no campaign medal is awarded, the oak leaf is worn on the left breast of the dress uniform, prior to 1979, a mention in dispatches was one of the three awards that could be made posthumously, the others being the Victoria Cross and George Cross. The 1979 reform removed the all or nothing lottery, soldiers can be mentioned multiple times. The British First World War Victoria Cross recipient John Vereker, later Field Marshal Viscount Gort, was mentioned in dispatches nine times, the Australian general Gordon Bennett was mentioned in dispatches a total of eight times during the First World War, as was Field Marshal Sir John Dill. Similarly, the equivalents of the MiD for acts of bravery by civilians, the reformed and comprehensive system is now as follows, The Commendation for Gallantry is now the fourth level decoration for gallantry. The Commendation for Brave Conduct recognises acts of bravery carried by soldiers not directly fighting the enemy, a mention in dispatches – in French, Citation à lordre du jour – gives recognition from a senior commander for acts of brave or meritorious service, normally in the field. The Mention in dispatches is among the list of awards presented by the Governor General of Canada, personnel can be mentioned in dispatches posthumously and multiple awards are also possible. A recipient of a mention in a dispatch is entitled to wear an emblem and they are also issued with an official certificate from the Ministry of Defence. The emblem, which was regarded as a decoration, was worn on the ribbon of the Victory Medal, only one emblem was worn, irrespective of the number of times a recipient had been mentioned. The Afrikaans rendition of mentioned in dispatches is Eervolle Vermelding in Berigte, the mention in dispatches was one of only four awards which could be made posthumously. The others were the Victoria Cross, the George Cross, the oak leaf emblem was worn on the ribbon of the War Medal 1939–1945. The Kings Commendation was denoted by a bronze King Protea flower emblem worn on the ribbon of the Africa Service Medal and it could be awarded posthumously and was the equivalent of a mention in dispatches for services rendered away from the battlefield
16.
Legion of Honour
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The Legion of Honour, full name National Order of the Legion of Honour, is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction, Chevalier, Officier, Commandeur, Grand Officier and Grand-Croix. The orders motto is Honneur et Patrie and its seat is the Palais de la Légion dHonneur next to the Musée dOrsay, in the French Revolution, all French orders of chivalry were abolished, and replaced with Weapons of Honour. The Légion however did use the organization of old French orders of chivalry, the badges of the legion also bear a resemblance to the Ordre de Saint-Louis, which also used a red ribbon. Napoleon originally created this to ensure political loyalty, the organization would be used as a facade to give political favours, gifts, and concessions. The Légion was loosely patterned after a Roman legion, with legionaries, officers, commanders, regional cohorts, the highest rank was not a grand cross but a Grand Aigle, a rank that wore all the insignia common to grand crosses. The members were paid, the highest of them extremely generously,5,000 francs to an officier,2,000 francs to a commandeur,1,000 francs to an officier,250 francs to a légionnaire. Napoleon famously declared, You call these baubles, well, it is with baubles that men are led, do you think that you would be able to make men fight by reasoning. That is good only for the scholar in his study, the soldier needs glory, distinctions, rewards. This has been quoted as It is with such baubles that men are led. The order was the first modern order of merit, under the monarchy, such orders were often limited to Roman Catholics, and all knights had to be noblemen. The military decorations were the perks of the officers, the Légion, however, was open to men of all ranks and professions—only merit or bravery counted. The new legionnaire had to be sworn in the Légion and it is noteworthy that all previous orders were crosses or shared a clear Christian background, whereas the Légion is a secular institution. The jewel of the Légion has five arms, in a decree issued on the 10 Pluviôse XIII, a grand decoration was instituted. This decoration, a cross on a sash and a silver star with an eagle, symbol of the Napoleonic Empire, became known as the Grand Aigle. After Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804 and established the Napoleonic nobility in 1808, the title was made hereditary after three generations of grantees. Napoleon had dispensed 15 golden collars of the legion among his family and this collar was abolished in 1815. The Légion dhonneur was prominent and visible in the French Empire, the Emperor always wore it and the fashion of the time allowed for decorations to be worn most of the time
17.
Order of the Crown (Belgium)
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The Order of the Crown is a national order of the Kingdom of Belgium. It is considered in diplomatic traffic as a gift of very high value, th Order was established on October 15,1897 by King Leopold II in his capacity as ruler of the Congo Free State. The order was first intended to recognize heroic deeds and distinguished service achieved for service in the Congo Free State—many of which soon became highly controversial. In 1908, the Order of the Crown was made a decoration of Belgium. Currently, the Order of the Crown is awarded for services rendered to the Belgian state, the Order of the Crown is also awarded for distinguished artistic, literary or scientific achievements, or for commercial or industrial services in Belgium or Africa. The Order may also be bestowed to foreign nationals and is awarded to military. During the Second World War, the Order of the Crown was extensively authorized for award to Allied military personnel who had helped to liberate Belgium from the forces of Nazi Germany. The Order of the Crown is awarded by royal decree, the badge of the Order is a white-enamelled Maltese cross with straight rays, in silver for the Knight class and in gold for the higher classes. The obverse central disc has a crown on a blue enamelled background. The badge is suspended from a wreath of laurel and oak leaves. The plaque for Grand Cross is a faceted silver five-pointed star with rays between the branches of the star. The centre shows the obverse of a commanders cross, the plaque for Grand Officer is a faceted five-armed Maltese asterisk, with golden rays between the arms. The centre shows the obverse of an officers cross, the medal is round in gold, silver and bronze versions, with a suspension in the form of a royal crown with two pendelia and a ribbon ring. The obverse shows a finely ribbed central area with bead surround, the surrounding circlet carries the motto of the Belgian Congo, Travail et Progrès —the later issues are bilingual including the Dutch Arbeid en Vooruitgang in the lower half of the circlet. The reverse is a stylised double L crowned Leopold II monogram within a palm wreath, the ribbon of the order is usually plain maroon. Stars and borders or stripes can be awarded together, but these deviations are currently only rarely awarded, the ribbon of the palms and medals has a vertical white border on both sides as well as a metal pin showing a reduction of the palm or medal. A number of different regulations rule the award of national orders for the various ministries, in addition, the national orders may be awarded by the king for especially meritorious deeds. The royal decrees are published in the Belgian official journal, Moniteur Belge, for people who are not Belgian honours are not published in the Moniteur and bestowed all year round by the foreign office
18.
Croix de guerre (Belgium)
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The Croix de guerre or Oorlogskruis, both literally translating as War Cross, is a military decoration of the Kingdom of Belgium established by royal decree on 25 October 1915. It was primarily awarded for bravery or other military virtue on the battlefield, the award was reestablished on 20 July 1940 by the Belgian government in exile for recognition of bravery and military virtue during World War II. The post-1940 decoration could also be awarded to units that were cited, the decoration was again reestablished by royal decree on 3 April 1954 for award during future conflicts. The World War I Croix de guerre was established by decree on 25 October 1915 as an award for bravery or other military virtue on the battlefield. It was only awarded to individuals, the Croix de guerre was not only awarded for bravery but also for three years or more of service on the front line, or for good conduct on the battlefield. The World War I Croix de guerre was a 40mm wide bronze Maltese cross with 3mm in diameter balls at its eight points. It had a 14mm in diameter central medallion bearing the image of a lion rampant on its obverse. Two 37mm long crossed swords point upwards between it arms, the World War I Croix de guerres ribbon is red with five 2mm wide light green longitudinal stripes, three at the center separated by 3mm and one on each side 3mm from the edges. The individuals listed below were awarded the World War I Croix de guerre, Sergeant William Mabbott resident of Uttoxeter, Staffs and Mansfield Woodhouse and it was still mainly awarded to individuals, but was now also authorized as a unit award. Award of the fourragère was not automatic and required a specific decree of the Belgian Government, the fourragère is in the same colours as the ribbon of the World War II Croix de guerre. The Belgian fourragère was only worn by those who were members of the unit at the time of the award. The World War II Croix de guerre was constructed in the dimensions as its World War I predecessor. The new ribbon was red with light green stripes but there were now six, 1mm wide. The same ribbon devices were used as in World War I except the palms were now adorned with the monogram L. Dick Winters Christopher Peto General Carl Spaatz William P. Straitiff Sgt. S/Sgt Donald Thad Smith On 3 April 1954, the Belgian government re-established the Croix de guerre and this decoration is intended to be awarded in a manner akin the World War II statute during potential future wars. The 1954 Croix de guerre has not yet been awarded, the post-1954 Croix de guerre is similar to the previous variants but with a different reverse center medallion now bearing the Coat of arms of Belgium in lieu of a royal monogram. The ribbon is a reversal of the World War II Croix de guerre ribbon. Cornet R.1982, Recueil des dispositions légales et réglementaires régissant les ordres nationaux belges, borné A. C.1985, Distinctions honorifiques de la Belgique, 1830–1985 Paul Hieronymussen,1967, Orders Medals and Decorations of Britain and Europe in colour, 2nd Ed.1970
19.
U.S. Army Distinguished Service Medal
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The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service that is clearly exceptional. Exceptional performance of duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration. Separate Distinguished Service Medals exist for the different branches of the military as well as a version of the medal which is a senior award of the United States Department of Defense. The Army version of the Distinguished Service Medal is typically referred to simply as the Distinguished Service Medal while the branches of service use the service name as a prefix. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of positions of great importance. The Coat of Arms of the United States in Gold surrounded by a circle of Dark Blue enamel,1 ½ inches in diameter, on the reverse is a scroll for the name of the recipient upon a trophy of flags and weapons. The medal is suspended by a bar attached to the ribbon, the ribbon is 1 3/8 inches wide and consists of the following stripes, 5/16 inch Scarlet 67111, 1/16 inch Ultramarine Blue 67118, 5/8 inch White 67101, 1/16 inch Ultramarine Blue, 5/16 inch Scarlet. Additional awards of the Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by oak leaf clusters, the performance must be such as to merit recognition for service which is clearly exceptional. Exceptional performance of duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of positions of great importance. The following are authorized components of the Distinguished Service Medal and applicable specifications, Decoration, NSN for replacement medal is 8455-00-246-3830. The Distinguished Service Medal was authorized by Presidential Order dated 01-02-1918 and it was announced by War Department General Order No. The Act of Congress on 07-09-1918, recognized the need for different types and degrees of heroism and meritorious service, the current statutory authorization for the Distinguished Service Medal is Title 10, United States Code, Section 3743. From July 1,1941 to June 6,1969, when the Army stopped publishing awards of the DSM in Department of the Army General Orders, General Martin Dempsey has the record for the greatest number of awards received of the Army Distinguished Service Medal at six. He also received a Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, generals of the Army Douglas MacArthur and Dwight Eisenhower are tied with five awards received of the Army Distinguished Service Medal. They also each received one award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, davison, who led the Angels of Bataan and Corregidor during their imprisonment by the Japanese, and Colonel William S. Taylor, Program Manager Multiple Launch Rocket System. Among notable civilian recipients are Harry L. Hopkins, Robert S. McNamara, bliss - US Army Chief of Staff General Peyton C. Ridgeway - US Army Chief of Staff General Maxwell D, Colonel Herbert H. Lehman - Governor of New York and United States Senator
20.
State Electricity Commission of Victoria
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The State Electricity Commission of Victoria was a government monopolistic electricity generation, transmission and supply utility operating in Victoria, Australia. When electricity generation first became practical, the main uses were lighting of buildings, street lighting and later. As a result, electricity generation and distribution tended to be carried out by municipalities, by companies under franchise to the councils. Prior to the establishment of SECV, electricity was generated and distributed by a number of private and municipal generator, the main privately owned company was the Melbourne Electric Supply Company which was established in the 1880s and operated under franchise arrangements with a number of other municipal distributors. The final major generator of electricity was the Victorian Railways who operated the Newport Power Station and these early generators all relied on a fuel supply provided by the strike prone black coal industry of New South Wales. Victoria has large reserves of brown coal located in the Latrobe Valley and he was subsequently appointed to the Victorian Government Brown Coal Advisory Committee, which reported in September 1917. It recommended the establishment of an Electricity Commission to develop the coal reserves. The Electricity Commissioners took over administration of the Electric Light and Power Act from the Public Works Department, sir John Monash was both chairman and General Manager and Harper was the first chief engineer. Funds were also available to the SECV for the development of the works recommended in 1917, the first capital works to be carried out by the SECV was the development of the Yallourn Power Station, briquette factory, and open-cut brown coal mine in the Latrobe Valley. Expansion was also carried out at the Newport Power Station which was fuelled by imported black coal, work on hydroelectric power also commenced with the Rubicon Hydroelectric Scheme to the north-east of Melbourne. Electricity pricing was set by the SECV and had different tariffs for towns of different size, equalisation of tariffs was not brought in until 1965, and it was due to the SECV itself rather than a response to political pressures. During World War II construction and maintenance work had delayed, existing thermal power stations were expanded at Yallourn and Newport, with much bigger generators of 50 MW capacity used, much larger than the 15-25 MW units used pre-war. The hydroelectric resources at Eildon and Kiewa also saw continued development, the Richmond Power Station was also converted to oil firing, and smaller prefabricated power stations were erected in Geelong and Ballarat. These additions resulted in a reduction in the dependence on coal by the 1950s. The Hazelwood mine was not as successful as planned as Morwell coal was unsuitable for making briquettes, by the end of the decade brown coal was used to generate 90 per cent of Victorias electricity supply, with all of the coal sourced from open cut mines under SECV control. As a result, the SECV was not forced to raise power costs during the 1970s oil price shocks and it was not opened until the 1980s and with only half the proposed capacity. In the 1980s work on an open cut commenced at Loy Yang, as the Yallourn. The plan was for two new stations consisting all a total of eight 500 MW units, all fed by the coal mine
21.
University of Melbourne
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The University of Melbourne is a public research university located in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1853, it is Australias second oldest university and the oldest in Victoria, Times Higher Education ranks Melbourne as 33rd in the world, while the Academic Ranking of World Universities places Melbourne 40th in the world. Melbournes main campus is located in Parkville, a suburb north of the Melbourne central business district. Melbourne is a university and a member of the Group of Eight, Universitas 21. Since 1872 various residential colleges have become affiliated with the university, there are 12 colleges located on the main campus and in nearby suburbs offering academic, sporting and cultural programs alongside accommodation for Melbourne students and faculty. Amongst Melbournes 15 graduate schools the Melbourne Business School, the Melbourne Law School, four Australian prime ministers and five governors-general have graduated from Melbourne. Nine Nobel laureates have been students or faculty, the most of any Australian university, the university was established by Act of Incorporation on 22 January 1853, with power to confer degrees in arts, medicine, laws and music. The act provided for an endowment of £9,000. The original buildings were opened by the Lieutenant Governor of the Colony of Victoria, Sir Charles Hotham. The first chancellor, Redmond Barry, held the position until his death in 1880, the inauguration of the university was made possible by the wealth resulting from Victorias gold rush. The institution was designed to be an influence at a time of rapid settlement. In 1881, the admission of women was a seen as victory over the conservative ruling council. The universitys 150th anniversary was celebrated in 2003, as of May 2009 the university suspended the Bachelor of Music Theatre and Puppetry courses at the college and there were fears they may not return under the new curriculum. New dean Sharman Pretty outlined drastic changes under the plan for the college in early April 2009. As a result, it is now being called into question whether the university have upheld that agreement, staff at the college responded to the changes, claiming the university did not value vocational arts training, and voicing fears over the future of quality training at the VCA. Melbourne University has 12 residential colleges in total, seven of which are located in an arc around the oval at the northern edge of the campus. The other five are located outside of university grounds, the residential colleges aim to provide accommodation and holistic education experience to university students. Several of the earliest campus buildings, such as the Old Quadrangle and Baldwin Spencer buildings, the new Wilson Hall replaced the original building which was destroyed by fire
22.
Colonial Auxiliary Forces Officers' Decoration
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It superseded the Volunteer Officers Decoration for India and the Colonies in all these territories, but not in the Indian Empire. In 1892, the Volunteer Officers Decoration was instituted as an award for long, a separate new decoration was instituted, the Volunteer Officers Decoration for India and the Colonies. The Colonial Auxiliary Forces Officers Decoration was established by Queen Victorias Royal Warrant on 18 May 1899, the use of the post-nominal letters VD by recipients of this decoration was approved by Royal Warrant on 9 May 1925. The Colonial Auxiliary Forces Officers Decoration could be awarded for twenty years of service as a commissioned officer in any of the Colonial Auxiliary Forces. Qualifying service could be had by serving in the forces of more than one Colony or Protectorate. Service in the Militia and Volunteer Forces of the United Kingdom was also reckonable, Service on the West Coast of Africa counted as double time, while half the time served in the ranks prior to being commissioned was also reckonable. Service on the permanent staff was not reckonable, the same ribbon was used for all three awards, except during the period from 1921 to 1927, when the decoration was suspended from a wider green ribbon. Preceded by the Volunteer Long Service Medal for India and the Colonies, succeeded by the Colonial Auxiliary Forces Long Service Medal. The decoration is a skeletal design and was struck in silver. The oval is 1 7⁄16 inches high and 1 1⁄4 inches wide and is suspended by a silver wire suspension bar which is attached to a small ring at the top on the reverse. Obverse The obverse is a silver band, inscribed COLONIAL AUXILIARY FORCES and with the Royal Cypher of the reigning monarch in skeletal form. The oval is surmounted by a silver-gilt Imperial Crown, five versions of the decoration are known. The centre of the original version of 1899 has the Royal Cypher VRI of Queen Victoria. The King Edward VII version, with his Royal Cypher ERI VII for Edwardvs Rex Imperator VII, was introduced after his succession to the throne in 1901. The first King George V version, with his Royal Cypher GRI for Georgivs Rex Imperator as illustrated at the top of the page, was introduced after his succession to the throne in 1910. A second King George V version exists, with his Royal Cypher GRI V for Georgivs Rex Imperator V, on this and the third King George V version the crown has two cut-out sections at the top. The third King George V version, of which a miniature is illustrated, has the Roman numeral V to the right of the cypher GRI, the recipients name was usually engraved at either the top on the back of the crown or around the circumference of the decoration. In an amendment to the rules and ordinances pertaining to the decoration, published in the Royal Warrant of King George V on 9 June 1921 and this wider ribbon and brooch was revoked by the Royal Warrant of King George V on 22 June 1927
23.
Civil engineer
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The term civil engineer was established in 1750 to contrast engineers working on civil projects with the military engineers, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various sub-disciplines of civil engineering have become recognized, other engineering practices became recognized as independent engineering disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering. In some places, an engineer may perform land surveying, in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying. Civil engineers generally work in a variety of locations and conditions, many spend time outdoors at construction sites so that they can monitor operations or solve problems onsite. The job is typically a blend of in-office and on-location work, in many countries, civil engineers are subject to licensure. In some jurisdictions with mandatory licensing, people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves civil engineers, in Belgium, Civil Engineer is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five-year engineering course of one of the six universities and the Royal Military Academy. Their speciality can be all fields of engineering, civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and this use of the title may cause confusion to the English speaker as the Belgian civil engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. In fact, Belgians use the adjective civil in the sense of civilian, traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. This exam was abolished in 2004 for the Flemish Community, but is organised in the French Community. Today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science, electronics engineering. A civil engineer is the most well-known of the two, still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. A noteworthy difference is the courses in mathematics and physics, regardless of the equivalent masters degree. This is because the educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system. Today this is starting to change due to the Bologna process, a Scandinavian civilingenjör will in international contexts commonly call herself Master of Science in Engineering and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. At the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the tradition with an NTH Ring goes back to 1914, in Norway, the title Sivilingeniør will no longer be issued after 2007, and has been replaced with Master i teknologi. In the English translation of the diploma, the title will be Master of Science, since Master of Technology is not a title in the English-speaking world. The extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make Norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts, in Spain, a civil engineering degree can be obtained after four years of study in the various branches of mathematics, physics, mechanics, etc. The earned degree is called Grado en Ingeniería Civil, further studies at a graduate school include masters and doctoral degrees
24.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
25.
Allies of World War I
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The Allies of World War I were the countries that opposed the Central Powers in the First World War. The members of the original Triple Entente of 1907 were the French Republic, the British Empire, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Romania were affiliated members of the Entente. The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres defines the Principal Allied Powers as the British Empire, French Republic, Italy, the Allied Powers comprised, together with the Principal Allied Powers, Armenia, Belgium, Greece, Hejaz, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serb-Croat-Slovene state and Czechoslovakia. The U. S. declaration of war on Germany, on 6th April 1917 was on the grounds that Germany had violated its neutrality by attacking international shipping and it declared war on Austria-Hungary in December 1917. The U. S. entered the war as a power, rather than as a formal ally of France. Although the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria severed relations with the United States, the Dominion governments did control recruiting, and removed personnel from front-line duties as they saw fit. From early 1917, the War Cabinet was superseded by the Imperial War Cabinet, in April 1918, operational control of all Entente forces on the Western Front passed to the new supreme commander, Ferdinand Foch of France. The Austrian Empire followed with an attack on the Serbian ally Montenegro on 8 August, on the Western Front, the two neutral States of Belgium and Luxembourg were immediately occupied by German troops as part of the German Schlieffen Plan. On 23 August Japan joined the Entente, which then counted seven members, the entrance of the British Empire brought Nepal into the war. In 1916, Montenegro capitulated and left the Entente, and two nations joined, Portugal and Romania, on 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war. Liberia, Siam and Greece also became allies and this was followed by Romanian cessation of hostilities, however the Balkan State declared war on Central Powers again on 10 November 1918. In response to the Germans invasion of neutral Belgium, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, gibraltar, Cyprus and Malta were British dependencies in Europe. The UK held several colonies, protectorates, and semi-autonomous dependencies at the time of World War I, in Eastern Africa the East Africa Protectorate, Nyasaland, both Northern and Southern Rhodesia, the Uganda Protectorate, were involved in conflict with German forces in German East Africa. In Western Africa, the colonies of Gold Coast and Nigeria were involved in actions against German forces from Togoland. In Southwestern Africa, the dominion of South Africa was involved in military actions against German forces in German South-West Africa. Canada and Newfoundland were two autonomous dominions during the war that made major contributions to the British war effort. Other British dependent territories in the Americas included, British Honduras, the Falkland Islands, British Guiana, and Jamaica. The UK held large possessions in Asia, including the Indian Empire which was an assortment of British imperial authorities in the territory now defined as India, Bangladesh, Burma, australia and New Zealand were two autonomous dominions of the UK in Oceania during the war
26.
Arthur Currie
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General Sir Arthur William Currie, GCMG, KCB was a senior officer of the Canadian Army who fought during World War I. Curries success was based on his ability to rapidly adapt brigade tactics to the exigencies of trench warfare, using set piece operations and he is generally considered to be among the most capable commanders of the Western Front, and one of the finest commanders in Canadian military history. Currie began his career in 1897 as a part-time soldier in the Canadian militia while making his living as a teacher and later as an insurance salesmen. Currie rose quickly through the ranks, commissioned as an officer in 1900, promoted to captain in 1901, then major in 1906, in 1913, Currie accepted the command of the newly created 50th Regiment Gordon Highlanders of Canada. Finding himself in following a real estate crash in Victoria. When the First World War broke out Canadian Minister of Militia Sam Hughes appointed Currie as commander of the 2nd Canadian Brigade, following the Second Battle of Ypres Currie was promoted to Major General and commander of the 1st Canadian Division. Upon returning to Canada, Currie was promoted to General and was made inspector-general of the Canadian Army, although he only held a high school diploma, Currie became the principal and vice-chancellor of McGill University in 1920, holding this post until his death in 1933. Arthur Currie was born to William Garner Curry and Jane Patterson on 5 December 1875 at farm near the hamlet of Napperton, Ontario and he was the third in a family of eight children and grew up on the homestead of his grandparents, John Corrigan and Jane Garner. Arthur Currie modified the spelling of his surname from Curry to Currie in 1897, Currie was educated in local common schools and at the Strathroy District Collegiate Institute, where he proved to be a good student especially interested in literature. He had plans to pursue a career in law or medicine. Currie instead pursued teacher training, but he was unable to secure a job, however, Currie found no prospects outside of teaching, so he qualified as a teacher in British Columbia and took a teaching position on the Saanich Peninsula north of Victoria, British Columbia. In 1896, Currie moved to Victoria, taking a position at Boys Central School, on 6 May 1897, Currie joined the Canadian Militia as a part-time gunner for the 5th Field Artillery Regiment. Currie achieved the rank of corporal in 1900 and was soon offered an officers commission. A military commission was however an expensive proposition, since officers were expected to provide their own set of tailored uniforms, Currie took on his role as militia officer seriously. He was a keen marksmen and was elected president of the British Columbia Rifle Association in 1905, Currie was promoted to captain in November 1901, and then to major in 1906. By September 1909, he had risen to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel, apart from his interest in the militia, Currie was also an active Freemason, rising to the position of deputy grandmaster of the Victoria District of Freemasonry in 1907. He also served two years as president of the Young Mens Liberal Association of Victoria, and several times was suggested as a candidate for the provincial legislature, in addition to his military career, Currie continued to be active in business. With a land boom in Victoria in full swing, Currie and a Victoria businessman, R. A. Power, formed Currie & Power in 1908
27.
West Melbourne, Victoria
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West Melbourne is an inner suburb of Melbourne, Australia,3 km north-west of Melbournes Central Business District. Its local government area is the City of Melbourne, at the 2011 census, West Melbourne had a population of 3,744. West Melbourne is bounded by Victoria Street and the Sunbury/Werribee railway lines in the north, Footscray Road, the Moonee Ponds Creek and the Yarra River in the south. Being largely an area, a significant portion of West Melbourne is occupied by the Port of Melbourne, the Dynon Railway Yards. These include the Wholesale Fruit and Vegetable and Fish Markets, as well as the National Flower Centre and it is also adjacent to the Queen Victoria Market, located on corner of Victoria and Peel Streets. West Melbourne Post Office opened on 1 March 1937 and was replaced by the Queen Vic Market Newsagency office in 1990, the North Melbourne railway station is actually located in West Melbourne, opposite the Railway Hotel on Ireland Street. 401 North Melbourne – University of Melbourne via Royal Melbourne Hospital, a number of tram routes run along the periphery of the suburb, along Victoria Street, Peel/William Street and La Trobe Street. While the region has always been mixed industry and residential, the flavour of the area has diminished rapidly. In Dryburgh, Laurens, Ireland, Stanley and Adderley Streets, West Melbourne lays claim to the southern side of Victoria Street, meaning that a small range of restaurants and shops lie within its boundaries. Otherwise it has no shopping area of its own, however the Direct Factory Outlet development on Spencer Street in the CBD, and Errol Street, North Melbourne are just outside the boundary of West Melbourne. Coode Island is a locality in West Melbournes industrial zone and it is the site of Victorias major petrochemical storage facility. The area is named after engineer John Coode and retains the Island name, local history of West Melbourne http, //www. melbourne. vic. gov. au/info. cfm. top=66&pa=779&pg=1386
28.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
29.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
30.
Province of Posen
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The Province of Posen was a province of Prussia from 1848 and as such part of the German Empire from 1871 until 1918. The area, roughly corresponding to the region of Greater Poland annexed during the 18th century Polish partitions, was about 29,000 km2. For more than a century, it was part of the Prussian Partition, incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Posen after the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the territory was administered as a Prussian province upon the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848. In 1919 according to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to return the bulk of the province to the newly established Second Polish Republic, the land is mostly flat, drained by two major watershed systems, the Noteć in the north and the Warta in the center. Ice Age glaciers left moraine deposits and the land is speckled with hundreds of lakes, streams flowing in. Agriculture was the industry, as one would expect for the 19th century. The three-field system was used to grow a variety of crops, primarily rye, sugar beet, potatoes, other grains, significant parcels of wooded land provided building materials and firewood. Small numbers of livestock existed, including geese, but an amount of sheep were herded. When this area came under Prussian control, the system was still in force. It was officially ended in Prussia in 1810, but lingered in some practices until the late 19th century, the situation was thus that Polish serfs lived and worked side by side with free German settlers. Though the settlers were given initial advantages, in time their lots were not much different, serfs worked for the noble lord, who took care of them. Settlers worked for themselves and took care of themselves, but paid taxes to the lord, typically, an estate would have its manor and farm buildings, and a village nearby for the Polish laborers. Near that village, there might be a German settlement, and in the woods, there would be a foresters dwelling. The estate owners, usually of the nobility, owned the local grist mill, in many places, windmills dotted the landscape, reminding one of the earliest settlers, the Dutch, who began the process of turning unproductive river marshes into fields. This process was finished by the German settlers employed to reclaim unproductive lands for the host estate owners, the territory of later province had become Prussian in 1772 and 1793 during the First and Second Partition of Poland. After Prussias defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, the territory was attached to the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807 upon the Franco-Prussian Treaty of Tilsit. In 1815 during the Congress of Vienna, Prussia gained the third of the Warsaw duchy. Instead Prussian Germanisation measures increased under Oberpräsident Eduard Heinrich von Flottwell, a first Greater Poland Uprising in 1846 failed, as the leading insurgents around Karol Libelt and Ludwik Mierosławski were reported to the Prussian police and arrested for high treason
31.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
32.
Krotoszyn
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Krotoszyn is a town in central Poland with 30,010 inhabitants as of 2005. It has been part of the Greater Poland Voivodeship since 1999, historically part of the Kingdom of Poland, during the German rule in the 19th century after the Partitions of Poland, the town was located in the Prussian province of Posen. The dominant trade is in grain and seeds, and the headquarters of the Polish branch of Mahle GmbH is located there, katarzyna Grochola – Famous Polish writer Sir John Monash – Australian general Georg Huth – German Orientalist Olivier Janiak – Polish TV presenter Isidor Kalisch – Reform rabbi. Theodor Kullak – Pianist and composer, marian Langiewicz – A military leader of the January Uprising. Marcin Lijewski – Handballer Otto Roquette – German author Maria Siemionow - World renowned scientist and microsurgeon
33.
Greater Poland Voivodeship
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Greater Poland Voivodeship, also known as Wielkopolska Voivodeship or Wielkopolska Province, is a voivodeship, or province, in west-central Poland. It was created on 1 January 1999 out of the former Poznań, Kalisz, Konin, Piła and Leszno Voivodeships, the province is named after the region called Greater Poland or Wielkopolska. The modern province includes most of historic region, except for some south-western parts. Greater Poland Voivodeship is second in area and third in population among Polands sixteen voivodeships, with an area of 29,826 square kilometres and its capital city is Poznań, other important cities include Kalisz, Konin, Piła, Ostrów Wielkopolski, Gniezno and Leszno. The city of Poznań has international twinning arrangements with the English county of Nottinghamshire, Greater Poland, sometimes called the cradle of Poland, formed the heart of the 10th-century early Polish state. In the testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth, which initiated the period of fragmentation of Poland, the eastern part, with Gniezno and Kalisz, was part of the Duchy of Kraków, granted to Władysław II the Exile. However, for most of the period the two parts were under a ruler, and were known as the Duchy of Greater Poland. The region came under the control of Władysław I the Elbow-High in 1314, in the reunited kingdom, and later in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the country came to be divided into administrative units called voivodeships. In the case of the Greater Poland region these were Poznań Voivodeship, the Commonwealth also had larger subdivisions known as prowincja, one of which was named Greater Poland. However, this covered an larger area than the Greater Poland region itself, also taking in Masovia. In 1768 a new Gniezno Voivodeship was formed out of the part of Kalisz Voivodeship. However more far-reaching changes would come with the Partitions of Poland, in the first partition, northern parts of Greater Poland along the Noteć were taken over by Prussia, becoming the Netze District. In the second partition the whole of Greater Poland was absorbed by Prussia and it remained so in spite of the first Greater Poland Uprising, part of the unsuccessful Kościuszko Uprising directed chiefly against Russia. More successful was the Greater Poland Uprising of 1806, which led to the regions becoming part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, however, following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Greater Poland was again partitioned, with the western part going to Prussia. The eastern part joined the Russian-controlled Kingdom of Poland, where it formed the Kalisz Voivodeship until 1837, within the Prussian empire, western Greater Poland became the Grand Duchy of Posen, which theoretically held some autonomy. Following an unrealized uprising in 1846, and the substantial but still unsuccessful uprising of 1848. Following the end of World War I, the Greater Poland Uprising ensured that most of the region part of the newly independent Polish state. Northern and some parts of Greater Poland remained in Germany
34.
Jerilderie
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Jerilderie /dʒəˈrɪldəri/ is a town in the southern Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. It is the largest town in the Murrumbidgee Council local government area, at the 2011 census, Jerilderie had 1,070 people. It can be found along the Newell Highway 674 kilometres south-west of Sydney and 45 kilometres north of the Victorian state border and this is also where Ned Kelly and his Gang robbed the Jerilderie Bank. Jerilderie is a farming centre, the area around Jerilderie produces a quarter of all tomatoes grown in Australia. The town has an Australian rules football team competing in the Picola & District Football League, Jerilderie is also the home of the biannual Ned Kelly weekend, the Jerilderie Letter Event. This event was first held in 2006, it is held on the first weekend of February, the event consists of a parade up the main street, a car bike truck and tractor show and shine, there is also a small show and farmers market. One of the attractions on this weekend is the reading of the famous Jerilderie letter. The first Australian Ned Kelly Songwriting Awards was a feature of the 2010 event, the Jerilderie Shire Council have rare windmills of unusual design. Both are situated on National Route 39, which provides a straight run from Victoria to the Queensland tropical coast, the windmill was produced by the Steel Wings Company, in North Sydney between 1907 and 1911 with only six models ever erected. The windmills comprise a steel frame and fan which turns to the wind between a bearing at the bottom and a swivel at the top, all supported by guy-wires. The fully restored windmills, the two known working examples in the world, are unique because their fan is contained and spins within the fully pivoting frame. The Jerilderie Steel Wings windmill, built in 1910, was transported by rail from Sydney and it provided water to the stations homestead, ram sheds and dams along a 43-kilometre channel system. Shortly after the lake was completed Tommy Luke died while water-skiing on the lake he had been so instrumental in creating, a secondary use for the lake was to hold excess water from the Billabong Creek which flooded annually. The Jerilderie windmill, the larger of the two stands 17 metres high with a 9-metre fan, Jerilderie was visited by Ned Kelly and his gang in 1879. The outlaws captured the two policemen and imprisoned them in their own cell before dressing in the police uniforms. They then told the locals that they were reinforcements from Sydney sent to them from the notorious Kelly Gang. Later the gang held up the local Bank, more than two thousand pounds were stolen before Kelly and his gang walked to the Telegraph Office and chopped down the telegraph poles. It has also described as the Ned Kelly manifesto and remains the only source providing a direct link between the Kelly Gang and the actions they are accused of
35.
Riverina
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The Riverina /rɪvəˈriːnə/ is an agricultural region of south-western New South Wales, Australia. The Riverina is distinguished from other Australian regions by the combination of plains, warm to hot climate. This combination has allowed the Riverina to develop one of the most productive. In the 20th century, the development of irrigation areas in the Murray and Murrumbidgee valleys has led to the introduction of crops such as rice. The Riverina has strong ties to Victoria, and the region was the source of much of the impetus behind the federation of Australian colonies. Major population and service centres in the Riverina include the cities of Wagga Wagga, Albury, Albury and Wagga Wagga are home to campuses of Charles Sturt University, the only local provider of higher education for the region. Wagga Wagga is home to two major Australian Defence Force establishments, the northern boundary beyond the Riverina is determined by the Lachlan River catchment area and is referred to as the Central West. Along the Murray to the south, the Riverina borders the state of Victoria, West of the confluence of the Murray and Murrumbidgee is the beginning of the more arid Far West region. In general, the Riverina is a plain formed by deposition carried from the Great Dividing Range by streams between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago. The terrain includes rolling hills to the east but then becomes flatter to the west with most of that plain reaching less than 200 metres above sea level, the western Riverina consists largely of featureless saltbush plain. The geology of the Riverina comprises several troughs and sedimentary basins, the western Riverina is presumed to be a continuation of the Ballarat and Bendigo geological zone while eastern sections are underlain by western portions of the Lachlan Fold Belt. Riverina soils are generally sandy along the channels, with more saline grey. As the Murrumbidgee passes downstream, the water and soil become more saline, the Riverina is drained by the large Murray-Darling Basin. Rivers and streams in the Riverina generally flow east to west, as well as the Murray, Murrumbidgee and Lachlan, other streams include Billabong Creek and the Edward River, an anabranch of the Murray. Much of the water carried by these streams is diverted, in 2001–2002, 52% of the Murray and Murrumbidgee water runoff was diverted, 77% of which was used for irrigation. The Bureau of Meteorology classify the Riverina in the Hot Dry Zone climatic zone, places in this zone can be very hot in the summer months while in the winter, nights can be considerably cold with cool to mild days. Mean daily maximum temperatures in the Riverina range from 31.0 °C in January and 12.4 °C in July in Wagga Wagga to 33.2 °C in January and 14.8 °C in July in Hillston. Rainfall levels in the Riverina are generally low with the annual rainfall over most of the region between 250–500 millimetres, rising to between 500–800 mm on the eastern fringe
36.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
37.
Bushranger
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By the 1820s, the term bushranger had evolved to refer to those who abandoned social rights and privileges to take up robbery under arms as a way of life, using the bush as their base. Bushranging thrived during the rush years of the 1850s and 1860s when the likes of Ben Hall, Frank Gardiner. In other infamous cases, such as that of Dan Morgan, the Clarke brothers, the number of bushrangers declined due to better policing and improvements in rail transport and communication technology, such as telegraphy. Kellys capture and execution in 1880 effectively represented the end of the bushranging era, bushranging exerted a powerful influence in Australia, lasting for almost a century and covering much of the continent. Its origins in a convict system bred a kind of desperado. Native-born bushrangers also expressed nascent Australian nationalist views and are recognised as the first distinctively Australian characters to gain general recognition, as such, many bushrangers became folk heroes and symbols of rebellion against the authorities, admired for their bravery, rough chivalry and colourful personalities. For these and other reasons, attitudes to bushrangers in Australia are at times complex, from this time onwards, the term was used to denote criminals who attacked people on the roads or in the bush. John Bigge described bushranging in 1821 as absconding in the woods and living upon plunder, charles Darwin likewise recorded in 1835 that a bushranger was an open villain who subsists by highway robbery, and will sooner be killed than taken alive. Over 2,000 bushrangers are estimated to have roamed the Australian countryside, beginning with the convict bolters, bushranging began soon after British colonisation with the establishment of Sydney, New South Wales as a penal colony in 1788. The majority of early bushrangers were convicts who had escaped prison and these bushrangers, also known as bolters, preferred the hazards of wild, unexplored bushland surrounding Sydney to the deprivation and brutality of convict life. The first bushranger gang, led by African convict John Caesar, robbed settlers for food, Aboriginal trackers would play a significant role in the hunt for bushrangers. Colonel Godfrey Mundy described convict bushrangers as desperate, hopeless, fearless, rendered so, perhaps, by the tyranny of a gaoler, of an overseer, or of a master to whom he has been assigned. Liberty or Death. was the cry of convict bushrangers, and in numbers they roamed beyond Sydney, some hoping to reach China. Bolters such as the Norfolk Island mutineers seized boats and set sail for foreign lands, others attempted to inspire an overhaul of the convict system, or simply sought revenge on their captors. This latter desire found expression in the convict ballad Jim Jones at Botany Bay, in which Jones, Donahue was the most notorious bushranger of the 1820s, terrorising settlements outside Sydney from 1827 until he was fatally shot by a trooper in 1830. That same year, west of the Blue Mountains, brutalised convict Ralph Entwistle sparked a bushranging insurgency known as the Bathurst Rebellion and he and his gang raided farms, liberating assigned convicts by force in the process, and within a month, his personal army numbered 130 bushrangers. Following battles with vigilante posses, mounted policemen and soldiers of the 39th Regiment of Foot, he, convict bushrangers were particularly prevalent in the penal colony of Van Diemens Land, established in 1803. He was killed by soldiers in 1818, other notorious Vandemonian bolters include the cannibal serial killers Thomas Jeffries and Alexander Pearce
38.
Ned Kelly
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Edward Ned Kelly was an Australian bushranger of Irish descent. Kelly was born in the British colony of Victoria as the third of eight children to an Irish convict from County Tipperary and his father died after serving a six-month prison sentence, leaving Kelly, then aged 12, as the eldest male of the household. The Kellys were a poor family who saw themselves as downtrodden by the Squattocracy. Arrested in 1870 for associating with bushranger Harry Power, Kelly was first convicted of stealing horses and he fled to the bush in 1878 after being indicted for the attempted murder of a police officer at the Kelly familys home. After he, his brother Dan, and two associates fatally shot three policemen, the Government of Victoria proclaimed them outlaws. During the remainder of the Kelly Outbreak, Kelly and his associates committed armed robberies in Euroa and Jerilderie, and murdered Aaron Sherritt. In a manifesto letter, Kelly—denouncing the police, the Victorian government, threatening dire consequences against those who defied him, he ended with the words, I am a widows son outlawed and my orders must be obeyed. All were killed except Kelly, who was wounded by police fire. Despite support for his reprieve, Kelly was tried, convicted and sentenced to death by hanging and his final words are famously reported to have been, such is life. Even before his execution, Kelly had become a figure in Australia. Despite the passage of more than a century, he remains an icon, inspiring countless works in the arts. Kelly continues to cause division in his homeland, some celebrate him as Australias equivalent of Robin Hood, journalist Martin Flanagan wrote, What makes Ned a legend is not that everyone sees him the same—its that everyone sees him. Like a bushfire on the horizon casting its red glow into the night. Kellys father, John Kelly, was born in 1820 in County Tipperary, Ireland, to Thomas and Mary, after his release in 1848, Red Kelly moved to Victoria and found work at James Quinns farm at Wallan Wallan as a bush carpenter. He subsequently turned his attention to gold-digging, at which he was successful and he soon became notorious as a cattle thief and his house was a rendezvous of criminals. On 18 November 1850, at the age of 30, Red Kelly married Ellen Quinn, his employers 18-year-old daughter, Ned Kelly was his parents third child. The exact date of his birth is not known but, among other things, on passing Beveridge for the last time he told an officer, do you see a little hill there. That is where I was born about 28 years ago, now, I am passing through it, I suppose, to my doom
39.
Scotch College, Melbourne
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Scotch College is an independent Presbyterian day and boarding school for boys, located in Hawthorn, an inner-eastern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Studies have found that Scotch had more alumni mentioned in Whos Who in Australia than any other school and it is one of the wealthiest schools in Australia. The College was established in 1851 as The Melbourne Academy, in a house in Spring Street, Melbourne and it is the oldest extant secondary school in Victoria and celebrated its sesquicentenary in 2001. The School is also a member of the G20 Schools Group, Scotch College is the oldest surviving secondary school in Victoria. It is the outcome of the old Scottish ideal of education, in which church and school were inextricably connected. The School opened on 6 October 1851, under the name of the Melbourne Academy in a house in Spring Street, with Robert Lawson. The house was outgrown, as was a larger one on the north-west corner of Spring and Little Collins Streets. Two acres were reserved for the school on Eastern Hill and substantial new buildings were erected there in 1853, the cost was met partly by a government grant and partly from funds raised by the friends of the school. Under his successor, Alexander Morrison, the school grew and prospered, Morrison had been Rector of Hamilton Academy and remained at Scotch for forty six years. William Still Littlejohn, who took over the school in 1904, served for twenty nine years and his successor, Colin Macdonald Gilray, so, when the school became the first in Victoria to celebrate its centenary, Gilray was only the fourth principal. Gilray was succeeded in 1953 by R Selby Smith, an Old Rugbeian who had served in the Royal Navy during the war and was at the time of his appointment Deputy Director of Education for Warwickshire. Smith resigned in 1964 to become the Foundation Dean of Education at Monash University, C O Healey who had been Headmaster of Sydney Grammar School since 1951 succeeded Smith. In the following May, P A V Roff, formerly Headmaster of Scotch College and his last few years saw the school in dispute over ownership and, for the principal and his school community, it was a time of stress. F G Donaldson, a vice principal from Wallace High School, with a Doctorate of Philosophy in Atomic Physics from Queens University Belfast, I Tom Batty, was appointed as the ninth principal of Scotch and installed into office on Monday 14 July 2008. Prior to his appointment he was Housemaster of Villiers House, Eton College in the UK, the early years of Batty’s tenure have seen the introduction of a new House-based pastoral care structure in the Upper School, which began at the start of the 2011 school year. The School was originally called The Melbourne Academy, after its location, a white cross on a blue background - the flag of Scotland representing the Schools Scottish heritage. The Southern Cross - the Southern Cross constellation common symbol for Australia, representing the Schools location, a crown - representing loyalty to the sovereign and legitimate government. A lymphad - a Greek ship with oars in use, thus rowing into the wind, a torch - representing the torch of knowledge and learning
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Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
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Bachelor of Laws
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The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law jurisdictions. The LL. of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum, creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter, thus LL. B. Stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin, today in Canada the predominant first degree in common law is the Juris Doctor degree having replaced the LL. B. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, the first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, the first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for law schools of the medieval age. The bachelors degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford, the arts designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford, the teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford, with the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729, therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is less common. In most common law countries, the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school, Masters courses are also offered to university graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL. M. Additionally, of the thirty-six Law Schools thirteen of those universities have started offering the Juris Doctor as a Graduate entry degree. Bangladesh is a common law country, like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL. B. and LL. B. degrees are offered in different Public, only seven Public Universities offer LL. B. degree
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Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
