1.
John Paul Jones (musician)
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John Richard Baldwin, better known by his stage name John Paul Jones, is an English multi-instrumentalist, songwriter, composer, arranger and record producer. Best known as the bassist, keyboardist, and co-songwriter for the English rock band Led Zeppelin, a versatile musician, Jones also plays organ, guitar, koto, lap steel guitars, mandolin, autoharp, violin, ukulele, sitar, cello, continuum and recorder. According to AllMusic, Jones has left his mark on rock & roll music history as a musician, arranger. Jones is part of the band Them Crooked Vultures with Josh Homme and Dave Grohl, in which he plays guitar, keyboards. In 2014, Jones ranked first on Paste magazines list of 20 Most Underrated Bass Guitarists, John Baldwin was born in Sidcup, Kent. He started playing piano at age six, learning from his father, Joe Baldwin and his mother was also in the music business which allowed the family to often perform together touring around England as a vaudeville comedy act. His influences ranged from the blues of Big Bill Broonzy, the jazz of Charles Mingus, because his parents often toured, Jones was sent to boarding school at a young age. He was a student at Christs College, Blackheath, London where he studied music. The fluid playing of Chicago musician Phil Upchurch on his You Cant Sit Down LP, Jones joined his first band, The Deltas, at 15. He then played bass for jazz-rock London group, Jett Blacks, Jones big break came in 1962 when he was hired by Jet Harris and Tony Meehan of the successful British group The Shadows for a two-year stint. In 1964, on the recommendation of Meehan, Jones began studio session work with Decca Records, from then until 1968, he played on hundreds of recording sessions. He soon expanded his work by playing keyboards, arranging and undertaking general studio direction. As well as recording sessions with Dusty Springfield, Jones also played bass for her Talk of the Town series of performances. Such was the extent of Jones studio work – amounting to hundreds of sessions – that he said later that I cant remember three-quarters of the sessions I was on. It was during his time as a player that Jones adopted the stage name John Paul Jones. This name was suggested to him by a friend, Andrew Loog Oldham and he released his first solo recording as John Paul Jones, Baja / A Foggy Day in Vietnam, as a single on Pye Records in April 1964. Jones has stated that, as a musician, he was completing two and three sessions a day, six and seven days a week. However, by 1968 he was quickly feeling burnt out due to the workload, I was arranging 50 or 60 things a month
2.
Charles Willson Peale
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Charles Willson Peale was an American painter, soldier, scientist, inventor, politician and naturalist. He is best remembered for his paintings of leading figures of the American Revolution. Peale was born in 1741 in Chester, Queen Annes County, Maryland and he had a younger brother, James Peale. Charles became an apprentice to a saddle maker when he was thirteen years old, upon reaching maturity, he opened his own saddle shop, however, when his Loyalist creditors discovered he had joined the Sons of Liberty, they conspired to bankrupt his business. He was also, not very good at saddle making and he then tried fixing clocks and working with metals, but both of these endeavors failed as well. Finding that he had a talent for painting, especially portraiture, Peale studied for a time under John Hesselius, John Beale Bordley and friends eventually raised enough money for him to travel to England to take instruction from Benjamin West. Peale studied with West for three years beginning in 1767, afterward returning to America and settling in Annapolis, Maryland, there, he taught painting to his younger brother, James Peale, who in time also became a noted artist. Peales enthusiasm for the nascent national government brought him to the capital, Philadelphia, in 1776 and his estate, which is on the campus of La Salle University in Philadelphia, can still be visited. He also raised troops for the War of Independence and eventually gained the rank of captain in the Pennsylvania militia by 1776, while in the field, he continued to paint, doing miniature portraits of various officers in the Continental Army. He produced enlarged versions of these in later years and he served in the Pennsylvania state assembly in 1779–1780, after which he returned to painting full-time. Peale was quite prolific as an artist, while he did portraits of scores of historic figures, he is probably best known for his portraits of George Washington. The first time Washington sat for a portrait was with Peale in 1772, in January 2005, a full-length portrait of Washington at Princeton from 1779 sold for $21.3 million, setting a record for the highest price paid for an American portrait. One of his most celebrated paintings is The Staircase Group, a portrait of his sons Raphaelle and Titian. It is in the collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Peale had a great interest in natural history, and organized the first U. S. scientific expedition in 1801. These two major interests combined in his founding of what became the Philadelphia Museum, later known as Peales American Museum and it housed a diverse collection of botanical, biological, and archaeological specimens. Most notably, the museum contained a variety of birds which Peale himself acquired. In 1792, Peale initiated a correspondence with Thomas Hall, of the Finsbury Museum, City Road, Finsbury, eventually, an exchange system was established between the two, whereby Peale sent American birds to Hall in exchange for an equal number of British birds. This arrangement continued until the end of the century, the Peale Museum was the first to display a mastodon skeleton that Peale found in New York State
3.
Arbigland
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Arbigland Estate is an estate in Dumfries and Galloway in Scotland. Arbigland lies on the Solway Firth coast to the south east of Kirkbean, the classically-styled 10,796 square feet Arbigland House was built in 1755 by the improving laird and gentleman architect William Craik. His daughter, the poet and novelist Helen Craik, lived there until 1792, james Craik, the Physician General of the United States Army and personal physician of George Washington, was also born there in 1730. An officer in the Continental Navy, John Paul Jones, whose father was a gardener at Arbigland, was born in a cottage in the grounds on 6 July 1747, the cottage is now the John Paul Jones Cottage Museum and is open from April to September. A small dower house called the House on the Shore was built in 1936 by Kathleen Blackett-Swiny, the gardens at Arbigland are open to the public at selected times during the summer months. Arbigland Estate official site John Paul Jones Cottage Museum official site
4.
Kirkcudbrightshire
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For local government purposes, it forms part of the wider Dumfries and Galloway council area of which it forms a committee area under the name of the Stewartry. The county is referred to as East Galloway, forming the larger Galloway region with Wigtownshire. It included the islands of Hestan and Little Ross. It maintains a regional and distinct political identity. It formed a district in the Dumfries and Galloway region and today the Stewarty is a committee represented by eight councillors. Local administration of the area today is overseen by a Stewartry Area Manager, the current Lord Lieutenant of Kirkcudbright, the Crowns representative in the area, is Lt Col Sir Malcolm Ross. The country west of the Nith was originally peopled by a tribe of Celts called Novantae, there was a Roman temporary marching camp at Shawhead, Irongray Parish. After the retreat of the Romans, the fate of the Novantae is unknown, by the 7th century, much of Galloway became part of the English kingdom of Northumbria. During the next two hundred years the country had no rest from Danish and Saxon incursions and the lawlessness of the Scandinavian rovers. When Malcolm Canmore defeated and slew Macbeth in 1057 he married the kings relative Ingibiorg, a Pictish princess. By the close of the 11th century the boundary between England and Scotland was roughly delimited on what became permanent lines, the feudal system ultimately destroyed the power of the Galloway chiefs, who resisted the innovation to the last. In 1308 the district was cleared of the English and brought under allegiance to the king, later in the 14th century Galloway espoused the cause of Edward Baliol, who surrendered several counties, including Kirkcudbright, to Edward III of England. In 1372 Archibald the Grim, a son of Sir James Douglas the Good, became Lord of Galloway. He appointed a steward to collect his revenues and administer justice, the famous cannon Mons Meg, now in Edinburgh Castle, is said, apparently on limited evidence, to have been constructed in order to aid James III in this siege. After the Battle of Solway Moss the shires of Kirkcudbright and Dumfries fell under English rule for a short period, mcCulloch and Gordon families were of Cardoness Castle, Anwoth Parish and Rev. Rutherford was minister of Anwoth. After the union things mended slowly but surely, curious evidence of growing commercial prosperity being the extent to which smuggling was carried on. No coast could serve the free traders better than the shores of Kirkcudbright, the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 elicited small sympathy from the inhabitants of the shire. In the 1760s a military road was constructed from Bridge of Sark, the north-western part of the former county is rugged, wild and desolate
5.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
6.
Naval Academy Chapel
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The United States Naval Academy Chapel in Annapolis, Maryland, is one of two houses of worship on the grounds of the Navys service academy. Protestant and Catholic services are held there, the Naval Academy Chapel is a focal point of the Academy and the city of Annapolis. The chapel is an important feature which led to the Academy being designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961, traditionally, new third-class midshipmen become Youngsters when they sight the chapel dome upon returning from their summer cruise. The Naval Academy Chapel was designed by Ernest Flagg, the cornerstone was laid in 1904 by Admiral George Dewey and the dedication of the Chapel was on May 28,1908. In 1940, the Chapel underwent remodeling which doubled the capacity to 2,500. From 1853 to 1972, chapel attendance was compulsory, after remodeling, the chapel formed a large cross. The dome over the chapel is copper and the cupola is 193 feet above the altar area. In 1995, the Chapel was featured on a U. S. Postal Service postage stamp, in 2009 — nearly seventy years after the 1940 renovation and expansion — the chapel underwent an extensive restoration that included the repair of decades-long deterioration. The restoration uncovered the domes 20 feet -diameter oculus — situated 121 feet above the chapel floor — which had been plastered over for decades because of its deteriorating condition. The cost of the project was nearly $2.5 million, of which $925,000 was donated by the Class of 1969 to cover the cost of replacing the hardwood floors, the remaining $2.3 million came from the government. The two stained-glass windows facing the altar are symbolic, one is of Sir Galahad holding his sheathed sword, portraying the ideals of the naval service. The other signifies the Commission Invisible, a beacon each new officer must follow, four other windows are memorials to LCDR Theodorus B. M. Mason and Admirals David Dixon Porter, David Farragut, and William T. Sampson, the United States Naval Academy Chapel boasts a 268-rank organ controlled by one of the largest drawknob consoles in the world. Beneath the main chapel is the crypt of John Paul Jones, there is also a small chapel of St. Andrew, which has been used for smaller weddings. On January 26,1913, the remains of John Paul Jones were interred in the crypt beneath the Chapel, in the deck around the crypt are inscribed the names of his ships, Bonhomme Richard, Alliance, Serapis, Ariel, Alfred, Providence, and Ranger. Commodore Uriah P. USNA Chaplain Center webpage, John Paul Jones Crypt USNA 150th-anniversary U. S. postage stamp
7.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
8.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
9.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
10.
Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)
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The Merchant Navy is the maritime register of the United Kingdom, and describes the seagoing commercial interests of UK-registered ships and their crews. Merchant Navy vessels fly the Red Ensign and are regulated by the Maritime, king George V bestowed the title of Merchant Navy on the British merchant shipping fleets following their service in the First World War, a number of other nations have since adopted the title. The Merchant Navy has been in existence for a significant period in British history, owing much of its growth to British imperial expansion. As an entity in itself it can be dated back to the 17th century and that registration of merchant seafarers failed, and it was not successfully implemented until 1835. The merchant fleet grew over years to become the worlds foremost merchant fleet, benefiting considerably from trade with British possessions in India. The lucrative trade in sugar, contraband, spices and tea helped to solidify this dominance in the 19th century, in the First and Second World Wars, the Merchant Service suffered heavy losses from German U-boat attacks. A policy of unrestricted warfare meant that merchant seafarers were also at risk of attack from enemy ships, the tonnage lost to U-boats in the First World War was around 7,759,090 tons, and around 14,661 merchant seafarers were killed. In honour of the sacrifice made by merchant seafarers in the First World War, since Edward VIII the title has automatically been held by the sovereigns George VI and Elizabeth II. To each one I would say, Yours is a no less essential to my peoples experience than that allotted to the Navy, Army. Upon you the Nation depends for much of its foodstuffs and raw materials and you have a long and glorious history, and I am proud to bear the title Master of the Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleets. I know that you carry out your duties with resolution and with fortitude. God keep you and prosper you in your great task, in the Second World War, German U-boats sank nearly 14.7 million tons of Allied shipping, which amounted to 2,828 ships. The United Kingdom alone suffered the loss of 11.7 million tons,32,000 merchant seafarers were killed aboard convoy vessels in the war, but along with the Royal Navy, the convoys successfully imported enough supplies to allow an Allied victory. In honour of the made in the two World Wars, the Merchant Navy lays wreaths of remembrance alongside the armed forces in the annual Remembrance Day service on 11 November. Despite maintaining its dominant position for decades, the decline of the British Empire in the mid-20th century inevitably led to the decline of the merchant fleet. For example, in 1939 the Merchant Navy was the largest in the world with 33% of total tonnage, by 2012, the Merchant Navy - yet still remaining one of the largest in the world - held only 3% of total tonnage. According to the CIA World Fact Book, in 2010 the Merchant Navy consisted of 504 UK registered ships of 1,000 gross register tons or over. In addition, UK merchant marine interests possessed a further 308 ships registered in countries and 271 foreign-owned ships were registered in the UK
11.
Continental Navy
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The Continental Navy was the navy of the United States during the American Revolutionary War, and was formed in 1775. The main goal of the navy was to intercept shipments of British matériel, the initial fleet consisted of converted merchantmen because of the lack of funding, manpower, and resources, with exclusively designed warships being built later in the conflict. The vessels that made it to sea met with success only rarely. The fleet did serve to highlight a few examples of Continental resolve and it provided needed experience for a generation of officers who went on to command conflicts which involved the early American navy. With the war over and the Federal government in need of all available capital, the Continental Navy is the first establishment of what is now the United States Navy. The original intent was to intercept the supply of arms and provisions to British soldiers, George Washington had already informed Congress that he had assumed command of several ships for this purpose, and individual governments of various colonies had outfitted their own warships. The measure in the Continental Congress was met with much derision, John Adams later recalled, The opposition. Represented as the most wild, visionary, mad project that had ever been imagined and it was an infant taking a mad bull by his horns. During this time, however, the issue arose of Quebec-bound British supply ships carrying desperately needed provisions that could benefit the Continental Army. The Continental Congress appointed Silas Deane and John Langdon to draft a plan to seize ships from the convoy in question, on June 12,1775, the Rhode Island General Assembly, meeting at East Greenwich, passed a resolution creating a navy for the colony of Rhode Island. The same day, Governor Nicholas Cooke signed orders addressed to Captain Abraham Whipple, commander of the sloop Katy, the first formal movement for the creation of a Continental navy came from Rhode Island, because its merchants widespread shipping activities had been severely harassed by British frigates. On August 26,1775, Rhode Island General Assembly passed a resolution that there be a single Continental fleet funded by the Continental Congress, the resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on October 3,1775 but was tabled. In the meantime, George Washington had begun to acquire ships, Hannah was commissioned and launched on September 5,1775 from the port of Beverly, Massachusetts, after being sold by the future General John Glover of Marblehead, Massachusetts. On this day, Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchant ships, these ships became Andrew Doria and Cabot. The first ship in commission was the USS Alfred which was purchased on November 4, on November 10,1775, the Continental Congress passed a resolution calling for two battalions of Marines to be raised for service with the fleet. John Adams drafted its first governing regulations, which were adopted by Congress on November 28,1775, when it came to selecting commanders for ships, Congress tended to be split evenly between merit and patronage. Among those who were selected for political reasons were Esek Hopkins, Dudley Saltonstall, however, Abraham Whipple, Nicholas Biddle, and John Paul Jones managed to be appointed with backgrounds in marine warfare. On December 22,1775, Esek Hopkins was appointed the naval commander-in-chief, Saltonstall, Biddle, Hopkins, and Whipple were commissioned as captains of the Alfred, Andrew Doria, Cabot, and Columbus, respectively
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Imperial Russian Navy
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It was expanded in the second half of the 18th century and by the early part of the 19th century had reached its peak strength, only behind the British and French fleets in terms of size. The First World War was mixed for the navy, with the Germans generally gaining the upper hand in the Baltic but the Black Sea falling under Russian control. The Russian Revolution marked the end of the Imperial Navy with its sailors fighting on both sides and its surviving ships forming the core of the Soviet Navy upon its creation in 1918. Under Tsar Mikhail I, construction of the first three-masted ship actually built within Russia was completed in 1636 and it was built in Balakhna by Danish shipbuilders from Holstein according to European design and was christened Frederick. During its maiden voyage on the Caspian Sea, Frederick sailed into a storm and was lost at sea. A boyar named Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin founded a shipyard at Tsarevich-Dmitriev fortress, in 1661, however, Russia was once again forced to abide by the harsh terms of a treaty, this time the Peace of Cardis. Russia agreed to surrender to Sweden all captured territories, and all constructed at Tsarevich-Dmitriev were ordered destroyed. Boyar Ordin-Nashchyokin, not grieving long over defeat, turned his attention to the Volga River, with the Tsars approval, the boyar brought Dutch shipbuilding experts to the town of Dedinovo near the confluence of the Oka and Volga Rivers. Shipbuilding commenced in the winter of 1667, within two years, four vessels had been completed, one 22-gun galley, christened Орёл, and three smaller ships. The ill-fated Frederick had been a Holstein vessel, Орёл became Russias first own three-masted, European-designed sailing ship, the ship was captured in Astrakhan by rebellious Cossacks led by Stepan Razin. The Cossacks ransacked Орёл and abandoned it, half-submerged, in an estuary of the Volga, unquestionably, the most celebrated Russian explorer was Semyon Dezhnev, who, in 1648, sailed the entire length of present-day Russia by way of the Arctic Ocean. Rounding the Chukotsk Peninsula, Dezhnev passed through the Bering Sea, the creation of the regular Russian Navy took place during the reign of Peter the Great. During the Second Azov campaign of 1696 against Turkey, the Russians employed for the first time 2 warships,4 fireships,23 galleys and 1300 strugs, built on the Voronezh River. After the occupation of the Azov fortress, the Boyar Duma looked into Peters report of military campaign. This date is considered the birthday of the regular Russian Navy. During the Great Northern War of 1700-1721, the Russians built the Baltic Fleet, the construction of the oared fleet took place in 1702-1704 at several shipyards. From 1703-1723, the base of the Baltic Fleet was located in Saint Petersburg. The bases were created in Reval and in Vyborg after it was ceded from Sweden after the war of 1741-43
13.
Captain (naval)
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Captain is the name most often given in English-speaking navies to the rank corresponding to command of the largest ships. The rank is equal to the rank of colonel. Equivalent ranks worldwide include ship-of-the-line captain, captain of sea and war, captain at sea, the NATO rank code is OF-5, although the United States of America uses the code O-6 for the equivalent rank. O. The naval rank should not be confused with the army, air force, or marine ranks of captain, on large US ships, the executive officer may be a captain in rank, in which case it would be proper to address him by rank. Often the XO prefers to be called XO to avoid confusion with the CO, who is also a captain in rank and the captain of the ship. Captains with sea commands generally command ships of size or larger, the more senior the officer, the larger the ship. Even when an officer who is in the ships captains chain of command is present. The following articles deal with the rank of captain as it is used in various navies, Captain Captain Captain Capitaine de vaisseau Kapitän zur See Komandor Kapitan of the 1st rank Sea captain Post captain
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Captain (United States O-6)
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The predecessors of the NOAA Corps, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps and the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps, also used the rank. In the United States Navy, captain is an officer rank. It ranks above commander and below rear admiral and it is equivalent to the rank of colonel in the other uniformed services. Promotion to captain is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980 or its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act, Navy captains with sea commands in the surface warfare officer community generally command ships of cruiser size or larger. The more senior the officer, the larger the ship, others may hold command as commodores of destroyer squadrons consisting of multiple destroyers and frigates. Surface Warfare Officers may also command large amphibious warfare ships or combat support ships. Today, like their surface warfare counterparts, captains in the community may serve as commodores of submarine squadrons. A smaller cohort outside of sea and shore commands may also serve as astronauts on loan to the National Aeronautics, in the Naval Special Warfare Sea Air Land community, captains with sea commands are typically commodores in command of Naval Special Warfare Groups. In addition, in the strike group, the Marine Expeditionary Unit commanding officer will always be a Marine Corps colonel. Adding to the confusion, all commanding officers of commissioned U. S. Navy warships and submarines are called captain regardless of actual rank. The United States Coast Guard also uses the same rank system for its commissioned officers as the U. S. Navy, with a Coast Guard captain ranking above a commander. The sleeve and shoulder board insignia are similar to the Navy insignia, the Coast Guard has no staff corps officers. Like the U. S. Navy, all commanding officers of commissioned cutters are addressed as captain regardless of their actual rank, seagoing NOAA captains command certain National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ships, while NOAA aviators command NOAA flight operations activities. USPHS rapid deployment force teams, containing 105 USPHS physicians, nurses, although it exists largely as a maritime training organization, the United States Maritime Service also uses the rank of captain. Captain DA Pamphlet 600–3, Commissioned Officer Professional Development and Career Management
15.
Rear admiral
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Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the admiral ranks, in many navies it is referred to as a two-star rank. It originated from the days of naval sailing squadrons and can trace its origins to the Royal Navy, each naval squadron would be assigned an admiral as its head, who would command from the centre vessel and direct the activities of the squadron. The admiral would in turn be assisted by a vice admiral and this has survived into the modern age, with the rank of rear admiral the most-junior of the admiralty ranks of many navies. In some European navies, and in the Canadian Forces French rank translations, in the German Navy the rank is known as Konteradmiral, superior to the flotilla admiral. In the Royal Netherlands Navy, this rank is known as schout-bij-nacht, denoting the role junior to the squadron admiral, the Royal Australian Navy maintains a rank of rear admiral, refer to Australian Defence Force ranks and insignia. Since the mid-1990s, the insignia of a Royal Australian Navy rear admiral is the Crown of St. Edward above a crossed sword and baton, like the Royal Navy version, the sword is a traditional naval cutlass. The stars have eight points, unlike the four pointed Order of the Bath stars used by the army, prior to 1995, the RAN shoulder board was identical to the Royal Navy shoulder board. The Royal Navy shoulder board changed again in 2001 and the Australian, rear Admiral Robyn Walker AM, RAN became the first female admiral in the Royal Australian Navy when she was appointed Surgeon-General of the Australian Defence Force on 16 December 2011. In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of rear-admiral is the Navy rank equivalent to major-general of the Army, a rear-admiral is a flag officer, the naval equivalent of a general officer. A rear-admiral is senior to a commodore and brigadier-general, and junior to a vice-admiral and lieutenant-general, the service dress features a wide strip of gold braid around the cuff and, since June 2010, above it a narrower strip of gold braid embellished with the executive curl. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Konteradmiral is an OF-7 two-star rank equivalent to the Generalmajor in the German Army, see also The Guyana Defence Force Coast Guard is the naval component of the Military of Guyana. As such, the ranks of the Coast Guard are naval ranks similar to the practice in the respective Coast Guards of Jamaica and Trinidad, the rank of rear admiral was first awarded to chief of staff commodore Gary Best on August 19,2013. The rank insignia consists of two silver pips with green highlights, beneath a crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by the gold-colored Caciques crown with red, the Indian Navy also maintains a rear admiral rank senior to commodore and captain ranks and junior to vice admiral ranks. The rank insignia for a rear-admiral is two stars beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by Emblem of India, worn on shoulder boards, before Islamic Revolution The Iranian Imperial Navy. After Islamic Revolution The Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, also known as the Iranian Navy, a rear admiral in the Pakistani Navy is a senior and two-star rank naval officer, appointed in higher naval commands. Like most Commonwealth navies, the rear admiral rank is superior to commodore, however, the rank is junior to the three-star rank vice-admiral and four-star rank admiral, who is generally a Chief of Naval Staff of the Navy
16.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
17.
Raid of Nassau
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The Raid of Nassau was a naval operation and amphibious assault by Colonial forces against the British port of Nassau, Bahamas, during the American Revolutionary War. The battle is considered one of the first engagements of the newly established Continental Navy and the Continental Marines, the action was also the marines first amphibious landing. It is sometimes known as the Battle of Nassau, departing from Cape Henlopen, Delaware on February 17,1776, the fleet arrived in the Bahamas on March 1, with the objective of seizing gunpowder and munitions known to be stored there. Two days later the marines came ashore seizing Fort Montagu at the end of the Nassau harbor. That night Nassaus governor had most of the loaded aboard ships sailing for St. Augustine. On March 4, the Continental Marines advanced and took control of the defended town. The Continental forces remained at Nassau for two weeks and took all the remaining gunpowder and munitions found. The fleet returned to New London, Connecticut in early April after capturing a few British supply ships, montfort Browne, the Bahamian governor, was alerted by General Thomas Gage in August 1775 that the rebel colonists might make attempts to seize these supplies. The fleet that Hopkins launched consisted of Alfred, Hornet, Wasp, Fly, Andrew Doria, Cabot, Providence, in addition to ships crews, it carried 200 marines under the command of Samuel Nicholas. In spite of gale winds, the fleet remained together for two days, when Fly and Hornet became separated from the fleet. Hornet was forced to return to port for repairs, and Fly eventually caught up with the fleet at Nassau, after the raid took place. Hopkins did not let the apparent loss of the two ships dissuade him, he had intelligence that much of the British fleet was in due to the high winds. Browne received further intelligence in late February that a fleet was assembling off the Delaware coast. New Providences harbor had two defenses, Fort Nassau and Fort Montagu. Fort Nassau was located in Nassau, but was equipped to defend the port against amphibious attacks. As a result, Fort Montagu had been constructed in 1742 on the end of the harbor. At the time of the raid, it was fortified with 17 cannons, although most of the gunpowder, the fleet arrived at Abaco Island on March 1,1776. The force captured two sloops owned by Loyalists, one of whom was Captain Gideon Lowe of Green Turtle Cay, george Dorsett, a local ships captain, got away from Abaco and alerted Browne to the presence of the rebel fleet
18.
Battle of Block Island
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The Battle of Block Island was a naval skirmish which took place in the waters off Rhode Island during the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Navy under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins was returning from a raid on Nassau when it encountered HMS Glasgow. Glasgow escaped from the fleet of seven ships, although it sustained significant damage, several captains of the Continental fleet were criticized for their actions during the battle, and one was eventually dismissed as a result. Commodore Hopkins was criticized for other actions pertaining to the cruise, including the distribution of seized goods, HMS Glasgow was a sixth-rate 20-gun frigate of the Royal Navy. In early April 1776 under the command of Capt. Tryingham Howe, it was carrying dispatches from Newport, Rhode Island to the British fleet off Charleston and this fleet had been assembled to launch an assault on Charleston, which ultimately failed in the June Battle of Sullivans Island. The Second Continental Congress had established the Continental Navy in late 1775, by February 1776, the first ships of the fleet were ready for their maiden voyage. Commodore Esek Hopkins was to lead a fleet of eight ships on an expedition to the Bahamas, in early March, the fleet landed marines on the island of New Providence and captured the town of Nassau. The fleet sailed north on March 17, now including two captured ships, all loaded up with cargo captured from military stores. One ship was dispatched to Philadelphia, while the rest of the fleet sailed for the Block Island channel, the fleets cruise was marked by outbreaks of a variety of diseases, including fevers and smallpox, which significantly reduced the crews effectiveness. By April 4, the reached the waters off Long Island and proceeded to capture HMS Hawk. The next day brought a second prize in the Bolton, Hopkins continued to cruise off Block Island that night, hoping to catch more easy prizes. He organized the fleet into a formation of two columns. The right or eastern column was headed by USS Cabot and was followed by Hopkins flagship USS Alfred, the left column was headed by the USS Andrew Doria and was followed by USS Columbus. Behind these came USS Providence, with USS Fly and USS Wasp trailing farther behind as escorts for the prizes, the need to provide crews for the prize ships further reduced the fighting effectiveness of the fleet. The battle took place on a clear night with a nearly full moon. USS Andrew Doria and HMS Glasgow spotted each other between 1,00 and 2,00 am on April 6, about eight leagues southeast of Block Island with the fleet headed in a southerly direction. Glasgow was heading west, destined for Charleston, Captain Howe came about to investigate the fleet and closed to within hailing distance over the next 30 minutes. Commodore Hopkins gave no signals during this time, so the fleet formed no battle line and this resulted in a battle that Captain Nicholas Biddle of Andrew Doria later described as helter-skelter
19.
North Channel Naval Duel
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The North Channel naval duel was a single-ship action between the United States Continental Navy sloop of war Ranger and the British Royal Navy sloop of war Drake on the evening of 24 April 1778. The action was one of a series of actions by Jones that brought the American War of Independence to British waters, Captain Day had even been accorded a gun salute by the French admiral at Brest. The risk of a French attack forced the Royal Navy to concentrate its forces in the English Channel, wickes and Day had shown that, despite the narrowness of St. With a single small Continental Navy sloop of war, the Ranger, Jones sailed from Brest on 10 April 1778, and headed for the coasts of the Solway Firth, where he had first learned to sail. Unsuccessful, he returned to Whitehaven, and achieved another objective, landing a party at the harbour on the night of 22–23 April. This raid was followed within hours by another, at the Scottish seashore mansion of the Earl of Selkirk, even as the news of those deeds was racing to alert Britains defences, Ranger was on the way back to Carrickfergus. John Paul Joness crew had been recruited by being offered the opportunity to make their Fortunes, however, more British ships had been sunk on the mission than captured, to avoid diverting crew members to sailing captured merchant ships to France. The crew blamed Jones for what appeared to be an error that allowed a British customs vessel to escape after being fired on by Ranger. Now he was intent on capturing a Royal Navy ship from its moorings, the account of events just after dawn on 24 April that Jones published a few years later may not be greatly exaggerated, I ran a great risk of being killed or thrown in the sea. Although the crew seemed reluctant, the state of the wind, however, it seemed that they might not have to visit Carrickfergus after all, as Drake was preparing to leave port, which seemed to revive the Americans flagging spirits. Absent from the company at this crucial time were the gunner, masters mate, boatswain. The aging captain, George Burdon, was reported to have been in poor health himself. Drake got under way about 8am, but with wind and tide against it, after an hour or so a boat was therefore sent to get a closer look at the intruder. Jones opted to try a slight variant of the plan which had failed to capture the vessel a few days earlier, hiding most of the crew. This time it worked, the crew of the boat was captured. One of the prisoners revealed the number of volunteers who had gone aboard Drake. About 1pm, as Drake moved sluggishly out across Belfast Lough, a boat came out to her, carrying another volunteer, Royal Navy Lieutenant William Dobbs. According to Drakes pilot he brought him a copy of an express letter from Whitehaven
20.
Battle of Flamborough Head
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The Battle of Flamborough Head was a naval battle that took place on 23 September 1779 in the North Sea off the coast of Yorkshire. The battle was led by Continental Navy officer John Paul Jones and it became one of the most celebrated naval actions of the war. The crews included Americans, French volunteers, British sailors previously captured by the Americans and offered the chance to get out of captivity, and many others seeking glory or prize money. On the evening of 22 September, Jones in Bonhomme Richard, accompanied by the brigantine Vengeance, had been off Spurn Head, hoping to catch a few prizes emerging from the Humber estuary. He decided to head northward during the hours of darkness, and rendezvous with his frigates Alliance and Pallas, shortly after midnight, two vessels were seen, so signal lanterns were set. The strangers did not give the response that would identify them as members of his squadron. Early in the afternoon the squadron sighted a brig in Bridlington Bay, so at about 3,30 pm. Shortly after the schooner was dispatched, Alliance, which had been ahead of the others, hoisted a signal. At least two large vessels had been sighted in the distance, so the schooner was immediately recalled by firing a gun. Some ships left the convoy before Britain came in sight, heading for northern ports such as Leith, early in the afternoon, as they approached Flamborough Head, the lookouts of the foremost ships saw the danger in Bridlington Bay for themselves. Hastily tacking, they attempted to run for the safety of Scarborough, Serapis put on all sail to get between the fleeing merchant vessels and a potential attack from the Franco-American squadron, while the smaller Countess of Scarborough shepherded the convoy. About 4 pm, with the convoy to his north. As the squadron caught up, the Royal Navy vessels made sure to position themselves so that the enemy could not easily sail round them to reach the slower merchant ships. As the situation became clear Alliance gradually slowed, allowing the rest of Jones’s squadron to catch up, about 6 pm, Commodore Jones ordered Pallas to ride directly in his wake, to confuse the opposition about the squadron’s strength. Half an hour later he hoisted signals ordering all vessels to form a line of battle. Captain Landais, who unlike Jones had a deal of formal training in naval leadership and tactics. He used Alliances superior handling to sail off to one side, finally, a little after 7 pm, Bonhomme Richard was within pistol-shot of the battle-ready Serapis. In the gathering dark, Pearson then hailed the potentially hostile ship to ask pertinent questions, its name
21.
Order of Military Merit (France)
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The Order of Military Merit, initially known as the Institution of Military Merit was an order of the French Ancien Régime created on 10 March 1759 by King Louis XV. It was created to reward the officers of the French Army. By the 18th Century there were regiments of Swedish, German, and Swiss troops in service to France, since many of these regiments officers were Protestant there lacked a suitable reward for distinguished service. The Order of Saint Louis was intended as a reward for military officers. King Louis XV created the Institution du Mérite militaire to be a sign of distinction. Presented in three grades the names of which were formalized as Knight, Grand Cordon, and Grand Cross in 1785, King Louis was careful to promote the prestige of the award by appointing the most talented officers. The first Grand Crosses were presented to Swiss Field Marshal Count Waldner, in 1791, during the French Revolution, the Orders of St. Louis and Military Merit were merged into the single Décoration Militaire. In 1792, after the proclamation of the Republic the Décoration Militaire was abolished, King Louis XVIII continued to make awards of the order while in exile. On 28 November 1814, during the restoration Louis XVIII reaffirmed the Order of Military Merit, increasing the number of Grand Crosses to four, the ribbon color was also changed to match that of the Order of St. Louis. The last appointment to the order was made in 1829, knights Cross Officer or Grand Cordon Grand Cross John Paul Jones Axel Fersen Władysław Grzegorz Branicki Charles-Daniel de Meuron Thomas Moody
22.
Congressional Gold Medal
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A Congressional Gold Medal is an award bestowed by the United States Congress, the Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are the highest civilian awards in the United States. However, There are no permanent statutory provisions relating to the creation of Congressional Gold Medals. When a Congressional Gold Medal has been deemed appropriate, Congress has, by legislative action, American citizenship is not a requirement. Since the American Revolution, Congress has commissioned gold medals as its highest expression of appreciation for distinguished achievements. The medal was first awarded in 1776 by the Second Continental Congress to General George Washington, the medal normally is awarded to persons, but in 1979 the American Red Cross became the first organization to be honored with a gold medal. In 2014 the Civil Air Patrol was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal for the service in World War II. As of 2013 four people had been awarded more than one medal, Winfield Scott, Zachary Taylor, Lincoln Ellsworth. The Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom are generally considered to carry the same level of prestige. The chief difference between the two is that the Freedom Medal is personally awarded by the President of the United States, a Congressional Gold Medal is designed by the United States Mint to specifically commemorate the person and achievement for which the medal is awarded. Medals are therefore different in appearance, and there is no standard design, Congressional Gold Medals are considered non-portable, meaning that they are not meant to be worn on a uniform or other clothing, but rather displayed. This was authorized in 1935 by Pub. L, 74–43 allowing the Secretary of the Navy to authorize—at his discretion—the wearing of commemorative or other special awards on Navy or Marine Corps uniforms, in military sized form. The rules have broadened since its beginning and now includes different people groups such as actors, authors, entertainers, often, bronze versions of the medals are struck for sale by the U. S. Mint, and may be available in both larger and smaller sizes. In at least one case, the John Wayne medal, private dealers bought large numbers of the bronze version and they were then gold plated and resold to the public for a significant profit. List of Congressional Gold Medal recipients Awards and decorations of the United States government Congressional Silver Medal Congressional Bronze Medal Thanks of Congress Snowden, a Description of the Medals of Washington, and of Other Objects of Interest in the Museum of the Mint. Illustrated, to Which Are Added Biographical Notices of the Directors of the Mint from 1792 to the year 1851, list of recipients Loubat, J. F. and Jacquemart, Jules, Illustrator, The Medallic History of the United States of America 1776–1876
23.
Order of Saint Anna
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The motto of the Order is Amantibus Justitiam, Pietatem, Fidem. Its festival day is 3 February, originally, the Order of Saint Anna was a dynastic order of knighthood, but between 1797 and 1917 it had dual status as a dynastic order and as a state order. The Head of the Imperial House of Russia always is Master of the imperial Order of Saint Anna, the Order of St. Anna continued to be awarded after the revolution by Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich, Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich, and Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna. Today, the Russian Imperial Order of St, membership of the Order was awarded for a distinguished career in civil service or for valour and distinguished service in the military. The Order of Saint Anna entitled recipients of the first class to hereditary nobility, for military recipients, it was awarded with swords. It is now awarded for meritorious service to the Imperial House of Russia. At first, the Order had but one class and was named the Order of Anna. I. P. F, the same letters also abbreviate the Latin motto. In 1742, Karl Peter Ulrich, Duke Karl Friedrichs son, was declared the Russian heir apparent, after arriving in Russia, he presented the Order to several courtiers. Emperor Alexander I added a class in 1815. Recipients of the Order of St. Andrew simultaneously received the first class of the Order of Saint Anna, the Emperor himself was the hereditary chief of the Order. The title of Chekhovs well-known story Anna on the Neck refers both to the Order and to the heroine, the medal ribbon was red with narrow yellow edging. A recipient of higher classes of the Order would not wear insignia of lower classes, alan W. Hazelton, The Russian Imperial Orders, New York, The American Numismatic Society,1932. Order of St. Anna History of the order of St. Anna
24.
Piracy
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Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship- or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable items or properties. Those who engage in acts of piracy are called pirates, the earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, a land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land, or in major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the vessel as the perpetrator. Piracy or pirating is the name of a crime under customary international law. They also use larger vessels, known as ships, to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice. In the 2000s, a number of nations have used their naval forces to protect ships from pirate attacks. The English pirate is derived from the Latin term pirata and that from Greek πειρατής, brigand, in turn from πειράομαι, I attempt, from πεῖρα, attempt, the meaning of the Greek word peiratēs literally is one who attacks. The word is cognate to peril. The term is first attested to c, spelling was not standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as pirrot, pyrate and pyrat were used until this period. It may be reasonable to assume that piracy has existed for as long as the oceans were plied for commerce, the earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians, Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession, it apparently was widespread and regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living. References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence many texts including in Homers Iliad and Odyssey, by the era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a disgrace to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympos brought impoverishment, among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the Adriatic Sea, the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the Roman Republic and it was not until 229 BC when the Romans finally decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended
25.
John Barry (naval officer)
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John Barry was an officer in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War and later in the United States Navy. He came to be credited as The Father of the American Navy and was appointed a captain in the Continental Navy on December 7,1775. He was the first captain placed in command of a US warship commissioned for service under the Continental flag, after the war, he became Americas first commissioned naval officer, at the rank of commodore, receiving his commission from President George Washington in 1797. Barry was born on March 25,1745, in Tacumshane, County Wexford, when Barrys family was evicted from their home by their British landlord, they moved to Rosslare on the coast, where his uncle worked a fishing skiff. As a young man, Barry determined upon a life as a seaman, Barry received his first captains commission in the Continental Navy on March 14,1776, signed by John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress. Barry was a man and began each day at sea with a reading from the Bible. He had great regard for his crew and their well being, during his naval career Barry commanded United States Ships Delaware, Lexington, Raleigh, and Alliance. In 1777 Barry commanded the ship USS Delaware, a brig sailing under a letter of marque capturing English vessels in the Delaware River, in 1778 Barry assumed command of the USS Raleigh, capturing three prizes before being run aground in action on September 27,1778. Her crew scuttled her, but she was raised by the British, Captain Barry was given command of USS Lexington, of 14 guns, on December 7,1775. It was the first commission issued by the Continental Congress, the Lexington sailed March 31,1776. On June 28, Pennsylvanias brig Nancy arrived in the area with 386 barrels of powder in her hold, Barry ordered the precious powder rowed ashore during the night leaving only 100 barrels in Nancy at dawn. A delayed action fuse was left inside the brig, which exploded the powder just as a boatload of British seamen boarded Nancy and this engagement became known as the Battle of Turtle Gut Inlet. Barry continued in command of Lexington until October 18,1776, Barry authored a signal book published in 1780 to improve communications at sea among vessels traveling in formation. He and his crew of the USS Alliance fought and won the naval battle of the American Revolution off the coast of Cape Canaveral on March 10,1783. He was seriously wounded on May 29,1781, while in command of Alliance during her capture of HMS Atalanta, Barry was successful in suppressing three mutinies during his career as an officer in the Continental Navy. John Barry was once offered 100,000 British pounds and command of any frigate in the entire British Navy if he would desert the American Navy. Outraged at the offer, Captain Barry responded that not all the money in the British treasury or command of its entire fleet could tempt him to desert his adopted country. On February 22,1797, he was issued Commission Number 1 by President George Washington and he is recognized as not only the first American commissioned naval officer but also as its first flag officer
26.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
27.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
28.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
29.
New Abbey
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New Abbey is a village in Dumfries and Galloway, south-west Scotland. It is around 6 miles south of Dumfries, the summit of the prominent hill Criffel is 2.5 miles to the south. The village has a wealth of history including the ruined Cistercian abbey Sweetheart Abbey, the monks named the abbey dulce cor. The village has a watermill, the New Abbey Corn Mill, loch Kindar has a crannog and the village has the remains of Kirk Kindar on an island located just outside the village. Two burns flow through the village, the New Abbey Pow which runs into the River Nith Estuary, dougie Sharpe - Scottish League internationalist footballer and long time servant to Queen of the South from the clubs days in Scotlands top division. Sir William Patterson, founder of the Bank of England, was buried in the village in 1719, james MacKenzie, recipient of the Victoria Cross for bravery List of listed buildings in New Abbey, Dumfries and Galloway Parish of New Abbey on historical Kirkcudbright County website
30.
Kirkcudbright
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Kirkcudbright, is a town and parish in Kirkcudbrightshire, of which it is traditionally the county town, within Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. The town lies southwest of Castle Douglas and Dalbeattie at the mouth of the River Dee, spottiswood, in his account of religious houses in Scotland, mentions that the Franciscans or Grey Friars had been established at Kirkcudbright from the 12th century. No traces of the Greyfriars or Franciscan dwellings remain in the parish of Kirkcudbright, in 1453 Kirkcudbright became a royal burgh, and about a century later, the magistrates of the town obtained permission from Queen Mary to use part of the convent and nunnery as a parish church. From around 1570, Sir Thomas MacLellan of Bombie, the magistrate, received a charter for the site, its grounds. MacLellan dismantled the church in order to obtain material for his new castle, a fine house. After defeat at the Battle of Towton, Henry VI of England crossed the Solway Firth in August 1461 to land at Kirkcudbright in support of Queen Margaret at Linlithgow. The town also for some time withstood a siege in 1547 from the English commander Sir Thomas Carleton but after the surrounding countryside had been overrun was compelled to surrender. Kirkcudbright Tolbooth was built between 1625 and 1629 and served not only as the tolbooth, but also the offices, the burg and sheriff courts, the criminal prison. One of the most famous prisoners was John Paul Jones, hero of the American navy, the Kirkcudbright Railway opened in 1864 but the railway line and station closed in 1965. The war memorial dates from 1922 and is by George Henry Paulin, the area remains in active use for live-firing exercises to this day. Part of the area is the Dundrennan Range, a weapons development. The use of range for the testing of depleted uranium shells has been controversial. The range also contains one of the two surviving A39 Tortoise heavy assault tanks from the six prototypes originally produced, the 32-pdr gun has been removed and the tank is used for target practice. Due to the designation as a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The Stewartry Museum was founded in 1879 and was at first based in the Town Hall until it too small to house the collections. The collection moved to a purpose built site and contains the local and natural history of the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, britains earliest surviving sporting trophy, the Siller Gun, is part of the collection, as are paintings by many local artists. The Tolbooth building is now used as an Arts Centre, many of them moved to the town from Glasgow, including Edward Hornel, George Henry and Jessie M. King. Later another small group of Glasgow trained artists built their studios across the river at The Stell, including John Charles Lamont and Robert Sivell
31.
Whitehaven
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Whitehaven is a town and port on the coast of Cumbria, England. Historically a part of Cumberland, it lies equidistant between Cumbrias two largest settlements, Carlisle and Barrow-in-Furness, and is served by the Cumbrian Coast Line and it is the administrative centre of the Borough of Copeland and an unparished area. The population of the town was 23,986 at the 2011 Census, the major industry is the nearby Sellafield nuclear complex, with which a large proportion of the population has links. Although there was a Roman fort at Parton, around 1.2 miles to the north, the area was settled by Irish-Norse Vikings in the 10th century. The area name of Copeland, which includes Whitehaven, indicates that the land was purchased from the Kingdom of Strathclyde, the Priory of St Bees owned the village of Whitehaven until Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries in 1539. The towns churches were chapels-of-ease of St Bees until 1835 when three districts were created in Whitehaven. The town was largely the creation of the Lowther family in the 17th century, Sir Christopher Lowther purchased the estate in 1630 and used Whitehaven as a port for exporting coal from the Cumberland Coalfield, particularly to Ireland. In 1634 he built a pier where ships could load and unload their cargo. Whitehaven’s prosperity during the 18th and 19th centuries was based on tobacco, by 1685, there were ships plying between the town and the American colonies of Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania. M. The tobacco would then be re-exported to Ireland, France, Holland, however, after the Acts of Union 1707 with Scotland the port of Glasgow began to take over Whitehavens tobacco trade. By the second half of the 18th century there was a decline in shipping tobacco via Whitehaven. By 1820 the Customs Collector did not mention tobacco in his report on Whitehaven, Whitehaven grew into a major coal mining town during the 18th and 19th centuries and also became a substantial commercial port on the back of this trade. They have of late fallen into some merchandising also, occasioned by the great number of their shipping, and there are now some considerable merchants. There is little evidence to suggest that Whitehaven was involved in the slave trade, due to the coal trade Whitehaven was, after London, the second port of England in terms of tonnage of shipping from 1750 to 1772. Even by 1835 Whitehaven was still the fifth placed port with 443 ships registered, Whitehaven was during the 19th century overtaken by Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow. John Paul Jones led a raid upon the town in 1778 during the American War of Independence. Whitehaven was, with Falmouth, the first post medieval foundation in England and it is the most complete example of planned Georgian architecture in Europe and recently has been pursuing growth through tourism. Whitehavens planned layout was with streets in a right-angled grid, james Robinson is officially credited as the original architect but some contest the claim
32.
Cumberland
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Cumberland is a historic county of North West England that had an administrative function from the 12th century until 1974. It was bordered by Northumberland to the east, County Durham to the southeast, Westmorland and Lancashire to the south and it formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now forms part of Cumbria. The first record of the term Cumberland appears in 945, when the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the area was ceded to Malcolm I by King Edmund of England, in 1092 King William Rufus of England invaded the Carlisle district, settling it with colonists. He created an Earldom of Carlisle, and granted the territory to Ranulf Meschyn, in 1133 Carlisle was made the see of a new diocese, largely identical with the area of the earldom. However, on the death of King Henry I in 1135 and he was able to consolidate his power and made Carlisle one of his chief seats of government, while England descended into a lengthy civil war. The lead and silver-mining area of Alston, previously associated with the Liberty of Tynedale was later added to the new county of Carliol for financial reasons. By 1177 the county of Carliol was known as Cumberland, the border between England and Scotland was made permanent by the Treaty of York in 1237. The boundaries formed in the 12th century did not change substantially over the countys existence and it bordered four English counties and two Scottish counties. These were Northumberland and County Durham to the east, Westmorland to the south, to the west the county was bounded by the Solway Firth and the Irish Sea. The northern boundary was formed by the Solway Estuary and the border with Scotland running east to Scotch Knowe at Kershope Burn, the boundary ran south from Scotch Knowe along the Cheviot Hills, then followed a tributary of the River Irthing and crossed Denton Fell to the River Tees. From Tees Head the boundary crossed the Pennines to descend Crowdundale Beck, from where it followed the rivers Eden, the line then followed the Glencoin Beck to the top of the Helvellyn ridge, thence to Wrynose Pass and along the River Duddon to the sea near Millom. The highest point of the county was Scafell Pike, at 3,208 feet the highest mountain in England, the Earldom of Carlisle was divided into baronies, but on the creation of the county these were replaced by wards. These took the place of hundreds found in most other English counties, each ward was composed of a number of parishes, areas originally formed for ecclesiastical administration. In common with other counties of northern England, many parishes in Cumberland were very large, often consisting of a number of distinct townships, many of these subdivisions were eventually to become civil parishes and form the lowest level of local government. The wards and their constituent parishes in 1821 were, Parts or all of parishes and townships constituted the City of Carlisle. The ward of Cumberland was one of the ancient divisions of the county of Cumberland, England. In most other counties these divisions were called hundreds or Wapentakes, the ward included Carlisle and Wigton and took in parts of Inglewood Forest. It was bounded on the north and east by Eskdale Ward, on the south by Leath Ward, the parish of Stanwix just to the north of Carlisle was partly in both Eskdale and Cumberland wards
33.
Fredericksburg, Virginia
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Fredericksburg is an independent city in Virginia, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 24,286, the city population was estimated at 28,118 in 2015. The Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the city of Fredericksburg with neighboring Spotsylvania County for statistical purposes, located near where the Rappahannock River crosses the Fall Line, Fredericksburg was a prominent port in Virginia during the colonial era. Fredericksburg is home to major commercial centers including Central Park and Spotsylvania Towne Centre. Major employers include the University of Mary Washington, Mary Washington Healthcare, many Fredericksburg-area residents commute to work by car, bus, and rail to Washington and Richmond, as well as Fairfax, Prince William, and Arlington counties. At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Fredericksburg were a Siouan-speaking tribe called the Manahoac, english colonists recorded the name of the Manahoac village there as Mahaskahod. Located on the Rappahannock River near the head of navigation at the fall line, the land on which the city was founded was part of a tract patented in 1671. The Virginia General Assembly established a fort on the Rappahannock in 1676, in 1714, Lt. Gov. Named for Frederick, Prince of Wales, son of King George II, the colonial towns streets bore the names of members of the royal family. The county court was moved to Fredericksburg in 1732, and the served as county seat until 1780. In 1781, Fredericksburg was incorporated as a town, with its own court, council and it received its charter as a city in 1879, and under Virginia law was separated from Spotsylvania County. The city adopted its present city manager/council form of government in 1911, the city has close associations with George Washington, whose family moved to Ferry Farm in Stafford County just off the Rappahannock River opposite Fredericksburg in 1738. Washingtons mother Mary later moved to the city, and his sister Betty lived at Kenmore, other significant early residents include the Revolutionary War generals Hugh Mercer and George Weedon, naval war hero John Paul Jones, and future U. S. president James Monroe. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom in Fredericksburg, during the 19th century, Fredericksburg sought to maintain its sphere of trade, but with limited success. It promoted the development of a canal on the Rappahannock and construction of a turnpike, by 1837, a north-south railroad, which became the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad, linked the town to Richmond, the state capital. A much-needed railroad joining the town to the region to the west was not finished until after the Civil War. During the Civil War, Fredericksburg gained strategic importance due to its location midway between Washington and Richmond, the capitals of the Union and the Confederacy. During the Battle of Fredericksburg, December 11–15,1862, the town sustained significant damage from bombardment, a Second Battle of Fredericksburg was fought in and around the town on May 3,1863, in connection with the Chancellorsville campaign. The battles of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court House were fought nearby in May 1864, after the war, Fredericksburg recovered its former position as a center of local trade and slowly grew beyond its prewar boundaries
34.
Slave ship
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Slave ships were large cargo ships specially converted for the purpose of transporting slaves. Only a few decades after the arrival of Europeans to America, the peak time of slave ships to the Atlantic passage was between the 18th and early-19th centuries, when large plantations developed in the colonies of America. In order to profit, the owners of the ships divided their hulls into holds with little headroom. Unhygienic conditions, dehydration, dysentery and scurvy led to a mortality rate, on average 15%. Often the ships, also known as Guineamen, transported hundreds of slaves, for example, the slave ship Henrietta Marie carried about 200 slaves on the long Middle Passage. They were confined to cargo holds with each slave chained with little room to move, the most significant routes of the slave ships led from the north-western and western coasts of Africa to South America and the south-east coast of what is today the United States, and the Caribbean. As many as 20 million Africans were transported by ship, the transportation of slaves from Africa to America was known as the Middle Passage. These people also were not treated as human, living like animals throughout their voyage to the New World. The enslaved were naked and shackled together with different types of chains. They spent a portion of time pinned to floorboards which would wear skin on their elbows down to the bone. Firsthand accounts from former slaves, such as Olaudah Equiano, describe the conditions that enslaved people were forced to endure. The Slave Trade Act 1788 regulated conditions on board British slave ships for the first time and it was introduced to the United Kingdom parliament by Sir William Dolben, an advocate for the abolition of slavery. For the first time, limits were placed on the number of enslaved people that could be carried. Under the terms of the act, ships could transport 1.67 slaves per ton up to a maximum of 207 tons burthen, the well-known slave ship Brookes was limited to carrying 454 people, it had previously transported as many as 609 enslaved. This limited reduction in the overcrowding on slave ships may have reduced the death rate. In the eighteenth and early centuries, the sailors on slave ships were often badly paid. Furthermore, a mortality rate of around 20% was expected during a voyage, with sailors dying as a result of disease. While conditions for the crew were vastly better than those of the people, they remained harsh
35.
Third mate
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A third mate or third officer is a licensed member of the deck department of a merchant ship. The third mate is a watchstander and customarily the ships safety officer, the position is an apprenticeship to become a second mate, and has been for centuries. Other duties vary depending on the type of ship, its crewing, duties related to the role of safety officer focus on responsibility for items such as firefighting equipment, lifeboats, and various other emergency systems. International Maritime Organization regulations require the officer be fluent in the English language and this is required for a number of reasons. Emergencies can happen at any time, the officer must be ready at all times to safeguard passengers and crew. The officer must understand distress signals and know the IMO Merchant Ship Search, the officer has special responsibilities to keep the ship, the people on board and the environment safe. This includes keeping the ship seaworthy during fire and loss of stability, and providing aid and maintaining safety during man overboard, abandoning ship, understanding ships stability, trim, stress, and the basics of ships construction is a key to keeping a ship seaworthy. The mate must know what to do in cases of flooding, fire is also a constant concern. Knowing the classes and chemistry of fire, fire-fighting appliances and systems prepares the officer to act fast in case of fire, in case it is necessary to abandon ship, it is important to be expert in the techniques for survival at sea techniques. Officers are trained to perform tasks and to follow instructions given by radio or obtained from guides. This training includes what to do in case of common shipboard accidents, at sea, the mate on watch has three fundamental duties, to navigate the ship, to safely avoid traffic, and to respond to any emergencies that may arise. Mates generally stand watch with able seamen who act as helmsman, the helmsman executes turns and the lookout reports dangers such as approaching ships. These roles are combined to a single helmsman/lookout and, under some circumstances. The ability to handle a ship is key to safe watchstanding. A ships draught, trim, speed and under-keel clearance all affect its turning radius, other factors include the effects of wind and current, squat, shallow water and similar effects. Ship handling is key when the need arises to rescue a person overboard, the officer must also be able to transmit and receive signals by Morse light and to use the International Code of Signals. Celestial, terrestrial, electronic, and coastal navigation techniques are used to fix a position on a navigational chart. Accounting for effects of winds, tides, currents and estimated speed, safety demands the mate be able to quickly solve steering control problems and to calibrate the system for optimum performance
36.
Chief mate
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A chief mate or chief officer, usually also synonymous with the first mate or first officer, is a licensed member and head of the deck department of a merchant ship. The chief mate is customarily a watchstander and is in charge of the ships cargo, the actual title used will vary by ships employment, by type of ship, by nationality, and by trade. Informally, the Chief Mate will often simply be called The Mate, the term Chief Mate is not usually used in the Commonwealth, although Chief Officer and First Mate are. The chief mate is responsible to the Captain for the safety and security of the ship, responsibilities include the crews welfare and training in areas such as safety, firefighting, search and rescue. As cargo officer, a chief mate oversees the loading, stowage, moreover, the chief mate is accountable for the care of cargo during the voyage. This includes a responsibility for the ships stability and special care for cargoes that are dangerous, hazardous or harmful. Even under the best of conditions, a ship is balanced precariously upon the water and is subject to a number of forces, such as wind, swells, and storms, which could capsize it. The cargo officer uses tools like ballasting and load balancing to optimize the performance for the expected type of environment. Traditionally, the chief mate stands a 4-8 watch, from 4 AM until 8 AM and 4 PM until 8 PM. in port and at sea, the mate is responsible to the captain for keeping the ship, crew. On watch, the mate must enforce all regulations, such as the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea. In port, the focuses on duties such as cargo operations, fire and security watches, monitoring communications. IMO regulations require the officer be fluent in English, at sea, the mate on watch has three fundamental duties, navigate the ship, safely avoid traffic, and respond to any emergencies that may arise. Mates generally stand watch with able seamen who act as helmsman, the helmsman executes turns and the lookout reports dangers such as approaching ships. These roles are combined to a single helmsman/lookout and, under some circumstances, are eliminated completely. The ability to handle a ship is key to safe watchstanding. A ships draught, trim, speed and under-keel clearance all affect its turning radius, other factors include the effects of wind and current, squat, shallow water and similar effects. Shiphandling is key when the need arises to rescue a man overboard, the officer must also be able to transmit and receive signals by Morse light and to use the International Code of Signals. Celestial, terrestrial, electronic, and coastal navigation techniques are used to fix a position on a navigational chart
37.
Brig
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A brig is a sailing vessel with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and they were especially popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size and were difficult to sail into the wind. They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging, in sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts. The main mast of a brig is the aft one, to improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small fore-and-aft sail. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail, on the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair, the wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i. e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc. The brig’s foremast is smaller than the main mast, the fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, all the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast. A brig is generally built on a scale than a schooner. Brigs vary in length between 75 and 165 ft with tonnages up to 480, a notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudies Little Brigs, which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls, a brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years. The word brig has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine, the brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power, the square-rigged brigs advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or hands to work them. The variant was so popular that the term came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined brig as having two square rigged masts, Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns
38.
Tobago
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Tobago /təˈbeɪɡoʊ/ is an autonomous island within the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It is located northeast of the mainland of Trinidad and southeast of Grenada, the island lies outside the hurricane belt. According to the earliest English-language source cited in the Oxford English Dictionary, the national bird of Tobago is the cocrico. The population was 60,874 at the 2011 census, the capital, Scarborough, has a population of about 25,550. While Trinidad is multiethnic, Tobagos population is primarily of African descent, although with a proportion of Trinidadians of East Indian descent. Between 2000 and 2011, the population of Tobago grew by 12.55 percent, making it one of the areas of Trinidad. Christopher Columbus first sighted Tobago in 1498, subsequently, several powers fought over possession of the island. The original Island Carib population had to defend the island against other Amerindian tribes, from about 1672, during the temporary British rule of 1672-1674, Tobago had a period of stability during which plantation culture began. Sugar, cotton and indigo factories sprang up and Africans were imported to work as slaves, france had abandoned the island to Britain in 1763, and by 1777 Tobago was exporting great quantities of cotton, indigo, rum and sugar. But in 1781, the French re-invaded Tobago, and destroyed the plantations, the islands buoyant economy fell into decline. In 1814, when the island came under British control. But a severe hurricane in 1847, combined with the collapse of plantation underwriters, in 1889 the island became a ward of Trinidad. Without sugar, the islanders had to other crops, planting acres of limes, coconuts and cocoa. In 1963 Hurricane Flora ravaged Tobago, destroying the villages and crops, a restructuring programme followed and attempts were made to diversify the economy. The development of a tourist industry began, local Government and Central Government functions in Tobago are handled by the Tobago House of Assembly. The current Chief Secretary of the THA is Kelvin Charles, the island was most recently featured in the international press in early 2007, for its establishment of a Minister of Mental Health. Minister Ellen Tang was appointed on the first anniversary of the launch of the Happiness Project and her aide, Melody Williams, has been allocated a major proportion of the annual housing funding to revamp government housing projects all over the island. Tobago is divided into seven parishes – three in the Western Region and four in the Eastern Region, Tobago has an area of 300 km² and is approximately 40 kilometres long and 10 kilometres wide
39.
Willie Jones (statesman)
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Willie Jones was an American planter and statesman from Halifax County, North Carolina. He represented North Carolina as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1780 and his brother Allen Jones was also a delegate to the congress. In 1774,1775 and 1776, Jones was elected to represent either the county of Halifax or the town of Halifax in the North Carolina Provincial Congress. For a brief time in 1776, as the head of North Carolinas centralized Council of Safety, richard Caswell took over after being elected as Governor. Thereafter, Jones was elected to the North Carolina House of Commons and he was elected to the United States Constitutional Convention in 1787 but declined to accept his seat. He led the faction that opposed North Carolinas ratification of the Constitution in 1788 because he feared that the government would be too powerful. Among his last public roles was helping to determine the site for the new capital in 1791. He moved to Raleigh and lived there until his death in 1801 and he was buried in an unmarked grave on ground that is now occupied by St. Augustine’s College. Jones Street in Raleigh, where the North Carolina General Assembly building is located, is named for him and he was named for one of his godfathers, the Reverend William Willie of Albemarle Parish, Virginia. Sometime prior to 1753, the Joneses moved to Northampton County, North Carolina, at the age of 12, Jones sailed to England to attend his father’s alma mater, Eton, where he studied from 1753 to 1758. Afterward he made the Grand Tour of the Continent, historians have long speculated as to why he changed his views. While an aristocrat in social life, Jones fervently believed in political democracy and he interpreted the struggle with Great Britain as a democratic movement and was determined to embody its revolutionary ideals in the government of the state and nation. His later opposition to the United States Constitution was inspired by his fear of a government that might become too powerful. From the beginning of the quarrel with England, Jones was an ardent supporter of colonial rights, in 1774 he was recommended by the Board of Trade for a place on the colonial council but was not appointed because of his radical views. He served instead as chairman of the Halifax Committee of Safety and he supported the call for a provincial congress in 1774. This body remained in session for three days, but during that time it fully launched North Carolina into the revolutionary movement. After a fifth provincial congress, with a liberal majority behind him, Jones served on the committee to draft the state constitution and he used his influence in shaping the state constitution. When it was completed, it was a compromise satisfactory to all, during the next twelve years, Jones was politically the most powerful man in the state
40.
Joan Derk van der Capellen tot den Pol
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Joan Derk, Baron van der Capellen tot den Pol was a Dutch nobleman who played a prominent role in the revolutionary events that preceded the formation of the Batavian Republic. He was also an ardent supporter of the recognition of the recently created United States of America. Van der Capellen became a member of the States of Overijssel in 1772 and it was the beginning of his political career. He described himself as a regent, but that did not prevent him from being an ardent champion of the Enlightenment ideals. For that reason, his opponents compared Van der Capellens public appearance with the style of the English politician John Wilkes, Wilkes criticized the policy of King George III and his ministers, but became very popular. This was partly due to his use of the political press. The press also became a weapon in the hands of Van der Capellen. This relic from medieval times was wrongfully applied in his opinion, in an address to the States in 1778, he pointed out that these rights had been officially abolished in 1631. He ensured his statement was distributed widely and free of charge among the farmers in the Twenthe region, the reverend François Adriaan van der Kemp was his assistant or ghostwriter. In the end he won his case but his fellow members in the States excluded him from participation in their deliberations until November 1782. Previously, he had fallen foul of the Stadholder prince William V of Orange and the members of the States when he proclaimed himself against expansion of the army and the fleet. When in 1776 the British King George III asked the Dutch whether he could borrow the Scotch Brigade to be deployed in the war with the American Republic and his overt support for the American revolutionaries was not appreciated either. Nevertheless, he continued to dedicate himself to the American War of Independence and he regarded the American struggle as an example for Dutch patriots. To lend support to his views he translated Observations on Civil Liberty by the Welshman Richard Price into Dutch, the book was an important inspiration to the American revolutionaries. The Dutch translation was banned in 1789, together with other patriot writings, in 1782 Van der Capellen arranged a loan for the American cause. A consortium was set up by Nicolaas van Staphorst and Wilhelm Willink, eventually an amount of two hundred thousand guilders was raised. He contributed twenty thousand guilders himself, the year 1781 was to be the most important in his political career. In that year a pamphlet appeared entitled Aan het Volk van Nederland, in this anonymous pamphlet the disadvantages of the hereditary stadholderate were explained
41.
Plantations in the American South
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
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Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
Kingdom of Great Britain (1760–1776)
United States of America (1776–1787)
Russian Empire (1787–1788)
Merchant Navy
Continental Navy
Imperial Russian Navy
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Jones, John Paul". Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 499–500.
