1.
Foreign policy of the United States
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U. S. foreign policy and foreign aid have been the subject of much debate, praise and criticism, both domestically and abroad. The United States Secretary of State is the minister of the United States and is the primary conductor of state-to-state diplomacy. Both the Secretary of State and ambassadors are appointed by the President, with the advice, Congress also has power to regulate commerce with foreign nations. The main trend regarding the history of U. S, since the 19th century, U. S. foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from the realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations. These policies became the basis of the Federalist Party in the 1790s, but the rival Jeffersonian feared Britain and favored France in the 1790s, declaring the War of 1812 on Britain. After the 1778 alliance with France, the U. S. did not sign another permanent treaty until the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949, over time, other themes, key goals, attitudes, or stances have been variously expressed by Presidential doctrines, named for them. Initially these were uncommon events, but since WWII, these have made by most presidents. The U. S. bought Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867, victory over Spain in 1898 brought the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, as well as oversight of Cuba. The short experiment in imperialism ended by 1908, as the U. S. turned its attention to the Panama Canal, the 20th century was marked by two world wars in which the United States, along with allied powers, defeated its enemies and increased its international reputation. President Wilsons Fourteen Points was developed from his idealistic Wilsonianism program of spreading democracy and it became the basis of the German Armistice and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. In the 1920s, the United States followed an independent course, and succeeded in a program of naval disarmament, operating outside the League it became a dominant player in diplomatic affairs. New York became the capital of the world, but the Wall Street Crash of 1929 hurled the Western industrialized world into the Great Depression. American trade policy relied on high tariffs under the Republicans, and reciprocal trade agreements under the Democrats, but in any case exports were at very low levels in the 1930s. As a result of internal debate, the national policy was one of becoming the Arsenal of Democracy. Roosevelt mentioned four fundamental freedoms, which ought to be enjoyed by people everywhere in the world, American policy was to threaten Japan, to force it out of China, and to prevent its attacking the Soviet Union. However, Japan reacted by an attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, and the United States was at war with Japan, Germany, and Italy. Instead of the given to allies in World War I. The American economy roared forward, doubling industrial production, and building vast quantities of airplanes, ships, tanks, munitions, and, finally, much of the American war effort went to strategic bombers, which flattened the cities of Japan and Germany
2.
Foreign relations of Australia
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Foreign relations of Australia are influenced by its position as a leading trading nation and as a significant donor of humanitarian aid. Australias foreign policy is guided by a commitment to multilateralism and regionalism, key concerns include free trade, terrorism, refugees, economic co-operation with Asia and stability in the Asia-Pacific. Australia is active in the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations, given its history of starting and supporting important regional and global initiatives, it has been described as a regional middle power par excellence. Australias imports of major weapons increased 65 per cent between 2005–2009 and 2010–14, making it the sixth largest importer in the according to SIPRI. It has become allied with New Zealand, through long-standing ANZAC ties dating back to the early 1900s, as well as the United States, throughout the Cold War. With the rapid growth in trade relations with China, however, a major debate has been underway with a large numbers of refugees streaming into Australia. Before the Second World War, the British Government handled most of Australias foreign policy, the critical decision during the war was to more closely align the military and the diplomacy with the United States. The first accredited diplomat sent to any country was B. G. Casey. Since 1941, United States has been the most important ally, Australian concluded an agreement in 1944 with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific. After the war, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan, Australia was one of the founders of both the United Nations and the South Pacific Commission, and in 1950, it proposed the Colombo Plan to assist developing countries in Asia. Australia sent troops to repel communism and assist South Vietnamese and American forces in the Vietnam War and it joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War in 1991. In 1999 Australian peace keeping forces intervened in East Timor following its referendum to secede from Indonesia, in 2006 Australia sent a contingent of Australian troops to the state to assist in the 2006 East Timor crisis. One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given support to the United Nations. It was a member of the Security Council in 1986–87, a member of the Economic and Social Council in 1986–89, Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum, which promotes regional co-operation on security issues. Australia was a participant at the inaugural ASEAN sponsored East Asia Summit in 2005, Australias place at the summit was only secured after it agreed to reverse its policy and accede to ASEANs Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia. Australia had been reluctant to sign the treaty out of concerns regarding how it would affect Australias obligation under other treaty arrangements including ANZUS, Papua New Guinea, a former Australian territory, is the largest recipient of Australian assistance. Starting in 1997–99 Australia contributed to the IMF program for Thailand and assisted Indonesia and PNG with regional environmental crisis, Australia is party to the Australia, New Zealand, United States security treaty
3.
Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
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The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are conducted by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, headed by the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs. The Prime Minister and numerous other agencies play a role in setting policy, and many institutions and businesses have a voice, since the vote, policymakers have begun pursuing new trade agreements with other global partners. British foreign relations were largely inherited from the Kingdom of Englands place in the prior to the unification of Great Britain into a single United Kingdom. British foreign policy focused on achieving a balance of power within Europe. This was a reason behind the British wars against Napoleon. The chief enemy of the British, from the Hundred Years War until the defeat of Napoleon was France, a favoured diplomatic strategy was subsidising the armies of continental allies, such as Prussia, thereby turning Londons enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet afloat with a complement of bases across the globe. Britain was a giant that was less of a dominant diplomatic force in the 1920s than before. It often had to give way to the United States, which exercised its financial superiority. The main themes of British foreign policy include a role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and he was partly successful, but Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany, as in the Locarno Treaties. Britain was an member of the new League of Nations. Disarmament was high on the agenda, and Britain played a role following the United States in the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in working toward naval disarmament of the major powers. By 1933 disarmament had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany, Britain was much less successful in negotiating with United States regarding the large loans. Britain supported the American solution through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan, the Great Depression starting in 1929 put enormous pressure on the British economy. Britain move toward imperial preference, which meant low tariffs among the Commonwealth of Nations, the flow of money from New York dried up, and the system of reparations and payment of debt died in 1931. In domestic British politics, the emerging Labour Party had a distinctive and its leaders believed that peace was impossible because of capitalism, secret diplomacy, and the trade in armaments. That is it stressed material factors that ignored the psychological memories of the Great War, and the emotional tensions regarding nationalism. Nevertheless, party leader Ramsay MacDonald spent much of his attention on European policies, vivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the World War inclined many Britons—and their leaders in all parties—to pacifism in the interwar era
4.
Imperialism
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Imperialism is an action that involves a country extending its power by the acquisition of territories. It may also include the exploitation of these territories, an action that is linked to colonialism, colonialism is generally regarded as an expression of imperialism. However, both are examples of imperialism, the word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power. It first became common in Great Britain, during the 1870s and was used with a negative connotation, the term was and is mainly applied to Western political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars, some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neocolonialism, the word empire comes from the Latin word imperium, for which the closest modern English equivalent would perhaps be sovereignty, or simply rule. The greatest distinction of an empire is through the amount of land that a nation has conquered and expanded, Political power grew from conquering land, however cultural and economic aspects flourished through sea and trade routes. A distinction about empires is that although political empires were built mostly by expansion overland, economic, some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas consisted of animals and plant products. European empires in Asia and Africa have come to be seen as the forms of imperialism. European expansion caused the world to be divided by how developed, the two main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of areas of income and profit, the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low income. These critical theories of Geo-politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning and this idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order has become in our modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major players in the market, some states today are viewed as empires due to their political. The term imperialism is often conflated with colonialism, however scholars have argued that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe ones superiority, domination, colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Thus it can be said that imperialism includes some form of colonialism, colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area, colonialisms core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the states lands
5.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
6.
Pol Pot
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Pol Pot was a Cambodian politician and revolutionary who led the Khmer Rouge from 1963 until 1997. From 1963 to 1981, he served as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kampuchea, as such, he became the leader of Cambodia on 17 April 1975, when his forces captured Phnom Penh. From 1976 to 1979, he served as the Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea. He presided over a totalitarian dictatorship, in which his government made urban dwellers move to the countryside to work in collective farms, the combined effects of executions, strenuous working conditions, malnutrition and poor medical care caused the deaths of approximately 25 percent of the Cambodian population. In all, an estimated 1 to 3 million people perished as a result of the policies of his four-year premiership, after Cambodia lost the Cambodian–Vietnamese War in 1979, Pol Pot relocated to the jungles of southwest Cambodia, and the Khmer Rouge government collapsed. From 1979 to 1997, he and a remnant of the old Khmer Rouge operated near the border of Cambodia, until 1993, they clung to power as part of a coalition government that was internationally recognized as the rightful government of Cambodia. Pol Pot died in 1998, while under house arrest by the Ta Mok faction of the Khmer Rouge, since his death, rumours that he committed suicide or was poisoned have persisted. Saloth Sar was born on 19 May 1925, the eighth of nine children and his older brother Saloth Chhay was born three years earlier. The family was living in the fishing village of Prek Sbauv. Pen Saloth was a farmer who owned 12 hectares of land and several buffaloes. Saloth Sar was educated in a Buddhist monastery and he would later give his Marxism a tincture of Buddhism. Later he became an ardent atheist, in 1935, Saloth Sar left Prek Sbauv to attend the École Miche, a Catholic school in Phnom Penh. He lived with his cousin, a woman called Meak, a member of the Royal Ballet, in 1926, she bore King Monivongs son, HRH Prince Sisowath Kusarak. She was given the official title Khun Preah Moneang Bopha Norleak Meak, Saloth Sar stayed with Meaks household until 1942. His sister Roeung was a concubine of King Monivong, so through the two women, he often had cause to visit the royal palace, in 1947, he gained admission to the exclusive Lycée Sisowath, but was unsuccessful in his studies. After switching to a school at Russey Keo, north of Phnom Penh. He studied radio electronics at the EFR in Paris from 1949 to 1953 and he also participated in an international labour brigade building roads in Zagreb in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1950. After the Soviet Union recognized the Viet Minh as the government of Vietnam in 1950, the PCFs anti-colonialism views attracted many young Cambodians, including Sar
7.
Utopia (2013 film)
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Utopia is a 2013 documentary film written, produced and presented by John Pilger and directed by Pilger and Alan Lowery, that explores the experiences of Aboriginal Australians in modern Australia. The title is derived from the Aboriginal homeland community of Utopia, Northern Territory, after almost three decades, Pilger discovers that Aboriginal families are still living in extremely overcrowded and poorly sanitized asbestos shacks, and are plagued by easily curable diseases. In the Northern Territory, government representatives were advised to defend the policies against any concerns raised by the community due to the film. How ironic that as Nelson Mandela was buried and venerated, another form of the system he fought against was alive, in Australia, the film was commended for its raw and powerful nature. Eden Caceda from Filmink magazine described the documentary as a bleak, gerard Henderson, dismissing Pilger as a FIFOE, wrote in The Australian that the film contains close to two hours of unremitting propaganda in which the journalist states and restates his case. Henderson also wrote that Pilger simply ignored Aboriginal leaders who did not fit into his thesis, the total injustices that have been played out since colonisation are absolutely shameful, and I now find it hard to say I am proud to be Australian. David Parkinson, writing in Britains Empire magazine, commented that the filmmaker firebrand is in pungent form as he dismantles the hypocrisy of Australias treatment of its indigenous peoples. The final shocker is that the territory vacated turned out to be rich in minerals and is now being vigorously mined, reviewing the film, Peter Bradshaw wrote, The awful truth is that Indigenous communities are on mineral-rich lands that cause mouths to water in mining corporation boardrooms. 110 minutes is a hefty time in politics, especially when we know the makers message from scene one. According to Geoffrey MacNab, this angry, impassioned documentary Indigenous communities still live in unchanging, shocking poverty, mark Kermode wrote that the film amounts to a searing indictment of the ongoing mistreatment of the first Australians. Pilger states that Utopia was filmed for both Australian and international audiences and he believes most Australians are mostly unaware of Indigenous history and culture. Welcome to Australia Utopia – Official website Utopia – Facebook page Utopia at the Internet Movie Database
8.
Daily Mirror
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The Daily Mirror is a British national daily tabloid newspaper founded in 1903. It is owned by parent company Trinity Mirror, from 1985 to 1987, and from 1997 to 2002, the title on its masthead was simply The Mirror. It had a daily print circulation of 716,923 in December 2016. Its Sunday sister paper is the Sunday Mirror, originally pitched to the middle class reader, it was transformed into a working-class newspaper after 1934, in order to reach a large, lowbrow audience. The Mirror has had a number of owners and it was founded by Alfred Harmsworth, who sold it to his brother Harold Harmsworth in 1913. In 1963 a restructuring of the interests of the Harmsworth family led to the Mirror becoming a part of International Publishing Corporation. The Mirror was owned by Robert Maxwell between 1984 and 1991, the paper went through a protracted period of crisis after his death before merging with the regional newspaper group Trinity in 1999 to form Trinity Mirror. The paper has supported the Labour Party since the 1945 general election. The Daily Mirror was launched on 2 November 1903 by Alfred Harmsworth as a newspaper for women, hence the name, he said, I intend it to be really a mirror of feminine life as well on its grave as on its lighter sides. To be entertaining without being frivolous, and serious without being dull and it was not an immediate success and in 1904 Harmsworth decided to turn it into a pictorial newspaper with a broader focus. Harmsworth appointed Hamilton Fyfe as editor and all of the female journalists were fired. The masthead was changed to The Daily Illustrated Mirror, which ran from 26 January to 27 April 1904, when it reverted to The Daily Mirror. The first issue of the paper did not have advertisements on the front page as previously. Two days later, the price was dropped to one halfpenny and to the masthead was added, circulation grew to 466,000 making it the second-largest morning newspaper. Alfred Harmsworth sold the newspaper to his brother Harold Harmsworth in 1913, in 1917, the price was increased to one penny. Circulation continued to grow, in 1919, some issues more than a million copies a day. Lord Rothermere was a friend of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, the Mirror was the first British paper to adopt the appearance of the New York tabloids. By 1939, the publication was selling 1.4 million copies a day, in 1937, Hugh McClelland introduced his wild Western comic strip Beelzebub Jones in the Daily Mirror
9.
New Statesman
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The New Statesman is a British political and cultural magazine published in London. Founded as a review of politics and literature on 12 April 1913, it was connected then with Sidney and Beatrice Webb. The magazine, which today is a hybrid, has, according to its present self-description. The longest-serving editor was Kingsley Martin, the current editor is Jason Cowley, who assumed the post at the end of September 2008. The magazine has recognized and published new writers and critics. Its contributors have included John Maynard Keynes, Bertrand Russell, Virginia Woolf, Christopher Hitchens, historically, the magazine was sometimes affectionately referred to as The Staggers because of crises in funding, ownership and circulation. The nickname is now used as the title of its politics blog, Circulation peaked in the mid-1960s but has surged in recent years. The magazine had an average circulation of 34,025 in 2016. Traffic to the website reached a new record high in June 2016, with 27 million page views. In September 2014, as part of its expansion, the magazine launched two new websites, the urbanism-focused CityMetric and May2015. com, a data and polling site. The New Statesman was founded in 1913 by Sidney and Beatrice Webb with the support of George Bernard Shaw and its first editor was Clifford Sharp, who remained editor until 1928. Desmond MacCarthy joined the paper in 1913 and became literary editor, J C Squire edited the magazine when Sharp was on wartime duties during the First World War. It sold a phenomenal 75,000 copies by the end of the year, the New York Times reprinted it as America began its lengthy debate on entering what was then called the European War. During Sharps last two years in the post, from around 1926, he was debilitated by chronic alcoholism, Lloyd stood in after Sharps departure until the appointment of Kingsley Martin as editor in 1930 – a position Martin was to hold for 30 years. Although the Webbs and most Fabians were closely associated with the Labour Party, in 1931 the New Statesman merged with the Liberal weekly The Nation and Athenaeum and changed its name to the New Statesman and Nation, which it kept until 1964. It also absorbed The Week-end Review in 1934, the Competition feature, in which readers submitted jokes and often parodies and pastiches of the work of famous authors, became one of the most famous parts of the magazine. Most famously, Graham Greene won second prize in a challenge to parody his own work, during the 1930s, Martins New Statesman moved markedly to the left politically. It became strongly anti-fascist and pacifist, opposing British rearmament, after the 1938 Anschluss, Martin wrote, Today if Mr
10.
Bondi, New South Wales
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Bondi is a mostly medium and high-density residential area centred on Bondi Road, where the shopping area is situated. Bondi Beach is a suburb and beach on the east side of Bondi. Bondi Junction is a suburb and commercial centre to the west of Bondi. Tamarama, Bronte and Waverley are situated on the side of Bondi. Bondi is said to be a corruption of an Aboriginal word boondi meaning water breaking over rocks and it has been spelt a number of different ways over time, e. g. Boondi, Bundi, Bundye. The current spelling was accepted in 1827, the whole Bondi area was part of a 200-acre land grant to road-builder William Roberts in 1809. In 1851, Edward Smith Hall, editor of the Sydney Monitor, in the 1880s, Malcolm Campbell built Scarba, a two-storey, Italianate house in Wellington Street. It was later the residence of A. M. Loewenthal and this lasted until 1986, after which Scarba House became part of the Bondi Centre, which included a retirement village and various other welfare services. Bondi Public School, located in Wellington Street, was built in 1883, historically, the attractions in the area were Bondi Beach and the shopping centre at Bondi Junction. The Bondi of this developed as a predominantly residential area between the Junction and the beach, with a shopping strip along Bondi Road. Building styles are varied, with examples from the Victorian period, Federation, Inter-War, terraces of Victorian shops alternate with Federation shops along Bondi Road. Waverley Rugby Club is the local Rugby Union Club, located in Bondi, Waverley has won the 1st Division Championship 4 times, 2nd Division twice and 3rd Division once since foundation. Tram services to North Bondi via Bondi Road and Campbell Parade from the CBD operated from either Circular Quay or Railway Square, to Oxford Street. A feature of this line was the large three-track terminus cut into a hillside at North Bondi, trams entered onto Campbell Parade via the underpass at a point where Bondi Road was too steep. The underpass and cutting have now filled in, part of which is now public reserve. The line opened in 1884 as a tramway to Bondi. Current bus route 380 follows the tram line as far as North Bondi. A cross country tram line operated from Bondi to Coogee
11.
Gough Whitlam
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Edward Gough Whitlam AC QC was the 21st Prime Minister of Australia, serving from 1972 to 1975. The Leader of the Labor Party from 1967 to 1977, Whitlam led his party to power for the first time in 23 years at the 1972 election. He won the 1974 election before being dismissed by the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr. Whitlam remains the only Australian prime minister to have his commission terminated in that manner, Whitlam served in the Royal Australian Air Force during World War II for four years as airforce navigator in the Pacific and worked as a barrister following the war. He was first elected to Parliament in 1952, representing Werriwa in the House of Representatives, Whitlam became Deputy Leader of the Labor Party in 1960, and in 1967, after the retirement of Arthur Calwell, was elected Leader and became the Leader of the Opposition. After narrowly losing the 1969 election, Whitlam led Labor to victory at the 1972 election after 23 years of continuous Liberal-Country Coalition Government. The government and the opposition then had equal numbers in the Senate where they voted against the six trigger bills which had formed the basis for the 1974 double dissolution. The Whitlam government then instituted the first and only 1974 joint sitting enabled under s.57 of the Constitution as part of the dissolution process. All six of the bills were then passed at the Joint Sitting in August 1974. Whitlam refused to back down, arguing that his government, which held a majority in the House of Representatives, was being held to ransom by the Senate. The crisis ended on 11 November, when Whitlam arrived at a meeting with the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr. Kerr had agreed to the documents and the date for the half-Senate election—13 December—with Whitlam over the preceding days. Whitlam described it as the greatest shock I had ever experienced when Kerr instead dismissed him without warning and commissioned the opposition leader, Malcolm Fraser, as prime minister. Later that afternoon, the House of Representatives passed a motion of no confidence in Fraser, Kerr refused to see the Speaker of the House or receive the motion of the House of Representatives and prorogued parliament with Fraser still in office. Labor lost the subsequent election by a landslide, Whitlam stepped down after losing again at the 1977 election, and retired from parliament in 1978. Upon the election of the Hawke Government in 1983, he was appointed as Ambassador to UNESCO, a position he filled with distinction and he remained active into his nineties. The circumstances of his dismissal and the legacy of his government remain a part of Australian political discourse. Edward Gough Whitlam was born on 11 July 1916 at the family home Ngara,46 Rowland Street, Kew and he was the older of two children born to Martha and Fred Whitlam
12.
German Australians
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German Australians are Australian citizens of ethnic German ancestry. The German community constitute one of the largest ethnic groups in Australia and it is the sixth most identified ancestry in Australia behind Australian, English, Irish, Scottish and Italian. The 2011 Census counted 108,000 Australian residents who were born in Germany, however,898,700 persons identified themselves as having German ancestry, either alone or in combination with another ancestry. This number does not include people of German ancestry who selected their ancestry as simply Australian, the 2001 census recorded 103,010 German-born in Australia, although this excludes persons of German ethnicity and culture born elsewhere, such as the Netherlands, Hungary and Romania. In December 2001, the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs estimated that there were 15,000 Australian citizens resident in Germany, according to the 2001 Census, the Germany-born are more likely than Australians as a whole to live in South Australia and Victoria. They are also likely to live in rural and regional areas. It is probable their German Australian children share this settlement pattern, in 2001, the German language was spoken at home by 76,400 persons in Australia. German is the eighth most widely spoken language in the country after English, Chinese, Italian, Greek, Arabic, Vietnamese, Spanish, Germans have been in Australia since the commencement of European settlement in 1788. At least seventy-three Germans arrived in Australia as convicts, Germans formed the largest non-English-speaking group up to the 20th century. Forty-Eighters is a term for those who participated in or supported the European Revolutions of 1848, many emigrated as a result of those revolutions. In particular, following the failure of the March Revolution in Germany. Many Germans had emigrated to Australia to flee the rise of militarism, by 1900, Germans were the fourth-largest European ethnic group on the continent, behind the English, Irish and Scots. By 1914, the number of German-Australians was estimated at approximately 100,000, during both World Wars Germans were considered an enemy within and a number were interned or deported – or both. The persecution of German Australians also included the closure of German schools, the banning of the German language in government schools, to avoid persecution and/or to demonstrate that they commit themselves to their new home, many German Australians changed their names into Anglicised or Francophone variants. After the Second World War, Australia received an influx of ethnic German displaced persons who were a significant proportion of Australias post war immigrants. A number of German scientists were recruited soon after the War through the ESTEA scheme, in the 1950s and 1960s, German immigration continued under assisted migration programs promoted by the Australian Government. By July 2000, Germany was the fifth most common birthplace for settler arrivals in Australia after United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy, by 1991, there were 112,000 German-born persons in Australia. Australia has long been a destination for German backpacker tourists and students
13.
Irish Australians
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Irish Australians are an ethnic group of Australian citizens of Irish descent, which include immigrants from and descendants whose ancestry originates from the island of Ireland. Irish Australians have played a part in the history of Australia. They came to Australia from the eighteenth century on as convicts or settlers. From the late 19th century to the present about a third of the population in Australia is Irish, there is no definitive figure of the total number of Australians with an Irish background. At the 2011 Australian census,2,087,800 residents identified themselves as having Irish ancestry either alone or in combination with another ancestry. This nominated ancestry was third behind English and Australian in terms of the largest number of responses, however this figure does not include Australians with an Irish background who chose to nominate themselves as Australian or other ancestries. The Australian embassy in Dublin states that up to 30% of the population claim some degree of Irish ancestry, once in Australia, some were involved in the 1804 Castle Hill convict rebellion. Continual tension on Norfolk Island in the year also led to an Irish revolt. As late as the 1860s Fenian prisoners were being transported, particularly to Western Australia, other than convicts, most of the laborers who voluntarily emigrated to Australia in the 19th century were drawn from the poorest sector of British and Irish society. Most Irish emigrants to Australia were free settlers, the 1891 census of Australia counted 228,000 Irish-born. At the time the Irish made up about 27 percent of the immigrants from the British Isles, the number of Ireland-born in Australia peaked in 1891. A decade later the number of Ireland-born had dropped to 184,035, dominion status for the Irish Free State in 1922 did not diminish arrivals from Ireland as Irish people were still British subjects. This changed after the Second World War, as people migrating from the new Republic of Ireland were no longer British subjects eligible for the assisted passage, People from Northern Ireland continued to be eligible for this and continued to be seen officially as British. Only during the 1960s did migration from the south of Ireland reduce significantly, by 2002, around one thousand persons born in Ireland — north and south — were migrating permanently to Australia each year. For the year 2005-2006,12,554 Irish entered Australia to work under the Working Holiday visa scheme and it has been argued that Irish Australians and Aboriginal people feel that there is a historical and sentimental link between the two groups. The shared oppression of Aboriginal and Irish people by the British is seen as giving them common historical ground and it has been pointed out that under the new colonial and state administrations, a European-style surname was required for official records relating to Aborigines. The local police collected the relevant census data and allocated their own names to Aboriginal people for official purposes, in addition, however, many such policemen fathered children to casual or long-term partners from Aboriginal communities. Over four thousand young female orphans from Irish workhouses were shipped to the Australian colonies at the time of the Great Famine to meet a demand for domestic servants, some settlers greeted them with hostility and some were exploited or abused by employers and others
14.
English Australians
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In the 2011 census,7.2 million or 36. 1% of respondents identified as English or a combination including English, such as English-Australian. The census also documented 911,592 residents of Australia as being born in England, English Australians have more often come from the South than the North of England. English immigrants have been the largest group to migrate to Australia since the establishment of New South Wales as the first penal colony in 1788, Sydney was founded by the British government as a penal colony. Visitors described the English character of Sydney for at least the first 50 years after 1788, first-generation colonial Sydney residents were predominantly English. 160,000 convicts came to Australia between 1788 and 1850, between 1788 and 1840,80,000 English convicts were transported to New South Wales, with the greatest numbers coming between 1825 and 1835. The New South Wales Census of 1846 accounted for 57,349 born in England,47,547 born in Ireland, until 1859,2.2 million of the free settlers who immigrated were British. Many more English people immigrated to Victoria by the rush of the 1850s. By 1854 there were 97,943 England-born people in Victoria, Immigration policies and assistance schemes helped maintain high levels of immigration from England. Of the 1 million immigrants who arrived between 1860 and 1900, just over half came from England, when transportation ended, convicts made up 40 percent of Australias English-speaking population. Between 1840 and 1870 there were more Irish than English assisted migrants which did not change until the 1870s, at least 75 per cent of all overseas-born people in Australia during the nineteenth century were from the British Isles. The proportion who had born in England or Wales remained quite stable from 1861 to 1911. Australians born in England or of English ancestry made up more than 50 percent of the population at the time of Federation, from 1922 the Empire Settlement Act assisted thousands of migrants from England. After World War II, even as immigration from other countries expanded dramatically, arthur Calwell, Minister for Immigration, wanted nine out of ten new immigrants to be UK-born. The majority of England-born migrants received assisted passages until the scheme was abolished in 1982, in 2006 the English were still the largest group of overseas-born in Victoria, with over 3% of Victorians born in England. Among the notable English-born were politicians such as Henry Parkes, and Joseph Cook, in retailing and media, John Norton, Anthony Hordern and John Fairfax. Surges of English immigration in the 1880s, between 1910 and 1914, again in the 1920s and, most of all, in the 1950s and 1960s, in 1978 Australians born in England or Australians of predominantly English ancestry made up over 45 per cent of the population. English ancestry was reported by 6.6 million people in 1986, with over 200 years of English settlement, however, Australian society continues to be influenced by its strong English heritage. English migrants and English Australians were by far the single most influential group in colonial Australia
15.
Sydney Boys High School
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The school is a member of the Athletic Association of the Great Public Schools of New South Wales. In 1924, this building would be demolished and both schools would, in 1921, have relocated to Moore Park, presently, this site is home to the Elizabeth Street store of David Jones. In 1892, the school was relocated to Mary Ann Street in Ultimo. In 1906, Sydney Boys High School became a member of the Athletic Association of the Great Public Schools of New South Wales and it is the sporting associations only state-operated member. In 1928, the moved to its current location at Moore Park. This site was designed by George McRae, who designed the Queen Victoria Building. This site was previously the Moore Park Zoo, which was relocated to Mosman as Taronga Zoo, the Year 7 intake is of around 180 students, but prospective students in higher years may matriculate to the school if vacancies exist. Offers of admission and matriculation into the school in Year 7 are made on the basis of academic merit, as assessed by the Selective High School Placement Test. In Years 7 to 8, the cohorts consist of 180 students in year, in Years 9 to 12, however. The size of these cohorts are described by the 2001 SBHS Enrolment Policy, the following table shows Highs rankings relative to other schools in the state. The rankings are based on the percentage of exams sat that resulted in a placing on the Distinguished Achievers List as shown by the Board of Studies, the school buildings include approximately 60 classrooms, two change rooms, the Junior Library, and the Senior Library. Most disciplines are individual departments and have their own rooms, however. For example, some English teachers in the English department also teach Drama, also nearby, but not associated with Sydney Boys and Girls High Schools, are Fox Studios Australia, the Sydney Cricket Ground, and the Sydney Football Stadium. Sydney Boys High School also owns and controls properties and other interests at Abbotsford, in addition, SBHS has its own cadet unit, which won the 23 Battalion AFX Trophy in 2012 and 2013. It has also achieved notability in debating, having won the Hume Barbour, SBHS also competes in the Lawrence Campbell Oratory Competition and the GPS debating competition. The SBHS First Grade debating team have won the GPS Debating premiership 17 times and it therefore competes against other GPS schools in many of the aforementioned sports, most notable among the traditional English public school sports of cricket, rowing, and rugby union. In the 2007 season of GPS rugby union, Sydney Boys High lost 7 of 7 games it had played to date before withdrawing from the remaining 6 games. Of this, GPS rugby convener Mark Ticehurst said, Mr Ticehurst said and its an opportunity to develop their rugby, and although they will still be in a very tough competition, the pressure is off them to perform at the First XV level
16.
The Daily Telegraph (Australia)
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The Daily Telegraph is an Australian daily tabloid newspaper published in Sydney, New South Wales by Nationwide News, a subdivision of News Corp. On 19 November 2010, The Daily Telegraph released their iPad application enabling users to view a custom version of the website, the Tele, as it is also known, was founded in 1879. From 1936 to 1972, it was owned by Sir Frank Packers Australian Consolidated Press and that year it was sold to News Limited. The paper ran as a Broadsheet until 1927, when it switched to a tabloid format, the paper returned to a broadsheet format in 1931, but wartime paper restrictions saw it return to tabloid format in 1942. In October 1990, it merged with its sister paper The Daily Mirror to form The Daily Telegraph-Mirror with morning. The paper continued morning and afternoon editions until January 2002, when the edition was discontinued. The circulation of the newspaper during the June quarter 2013 was 310,724 on weekdays, in the 2013-14 financial year it decreased 9. 65% to 280,731. A2013 poll conducted by Essential Research found that the Telegraph was Australias least-trusted major newspaper, on Sundays, its counterpart is The Sunday Telegraph. Its Melbourne counterparts are the Herald Sun and Sunday Herald Sun, the Daily Telegraph has traditionally been opposed to the Australian Labor Party, and is often a supporter of the Australian Liberal Party. One noteworthy 2013 front-page headline said of the second Rudd Government Finally, the papers high-profile columnists are predominantly conservative, including Piers Akerman, Miranda Devine, Tim Blair and Andrew Bolt. The survey found that readers took a dim view of journalists. In response to the question Which newspapers do you believe do not accurately and fairly report the news, the Daily Telegraph came third behind the Herald Sun and All of them. At the Australian federal election,2007 The Daily Telegraph for only the time endorsed the Australian Labor Party. At the Australian federal election,2010 the Newspaper endorsed the Coalition, in the 2013 election, the Daily Telegraph ran 177 stories that were pro Coalition 11 stories that leaned the other way. The Telegraph was widely criticised for its coverage of former New South Wales Liberal leader John Brogden, the following day, Brogden attempted suicide at his electoral office. Editor David Penberthy claimed that his source was from inside the Liberal Party, the story led to a renewed focus on the quality of public schools in Western Sydney and precipitated several reviews of schooling in the area. But for many, the highlighted problems with interpreting Higher School Certificate results. The students successfully sued the newspaper in the Supreme Court for defamation, the Telegraph subsequently apologised and settled for damages out of court
17.
Reuters
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Reuters /ˈrɔɪtərz/ is an international news agency headquartered in London, England. It is a division of Thomson Reuters, until 2008, the Reuters news agency formed part of an independent company, Reuters Group plc, which was also a provider of financial market data. Since the acquisition of Reuters Group by the Thomson Corporation in 2008, Reuters transmits news in English, French, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Urdu, and Chinese. The Reuter agency was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in Britain at the London Royal Exchange, Paul Reuter worked at a book-publishing firm in Berlin and was involved in distributing radical pamphlets at the beginning of the Revolutions in 1848. Upon moving to England, he founded Reuters Telegram Company in 1851, headquartered in London, the company initially covered commercial news, serving banks, brokerage houses, and business firms. The first newspaper client to subscribe was the London Morning Advertiser in 1858, Reuters agency built a reputation in Europe and the rest of the world as the first to report news scoops from abroad. Reuters was the first to report Abraham Lincolns assassination in Europe, for instance, in 1872, Reuters expanded into the far east, followed by South America in 1874. Both expansions were made possible by advances in overland telegraphs and undersea cables, in 1883, Reuters began transmitting messages electrically to London newspapers. In 1923, Reuters began using radio to transmit news internationally, in 1925, The Press Association of Great Britain acquired a majority interest in Reuters, and full owners some years later. During the world wars, The Guardian reported that Reuters came under pressure from the British government to national interests. In 1941 Reuters deflected the pressure by restructuring itself as a private company, the new owners formed the Reuters Trust. In 1941, the PA sold half of Reuters to the Newspaper Proprieters Association, the Reuters Trust Principles were put in place to maintain the companys independence. At that point, Reuters had become one of the major news agencies. In 1961, Reuters scooped news of the erection of the Berlin Wall, in 1981, Reuters began making electronic transactions on its computer network, and afterwards developed a number of electronic brokerage and trading services. Reuters was floated as a company in 1984, when Reuters Trust was listed on the stock exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange. Reuters published the first story of the Berlin Wall being breached in 1989, share price grew during the dotcom boom, then fell after the banking troubles in 2001. In 2002, Brittanica wrote that most news throughout the world came from three major agencies, the Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse, Reuters merged with Thomson Corporation in Canada in 2008, forming Thomson Reuters. In 2009, Thomson Reuters withdrew from the LSE and the NASDAQ, instead listing its shares on the Toronto Stock Exchange, the last surviving member of the Reuters family founders, Marguerite, Baroness de Reuter, died at age 96 on 25 January 2009
18.
Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy
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Sirhan Sirhan, a 24-year-old Palestinian/Jordanian immigrant, was convicted of Kennedys murder and is serving a life sentence for the crime. The shooting was recorded on tape by a freelance newspaper reporter. Kennedys body lay in repose at St. Patricks Cathedral in New York for two days before a funeral Mass was held on June 8 and his body was interred near his brother John at Arlington National Cemetery. His death prompted the protection of presidential candidates by the United States Secret Service, Hubert Humphrey later went on to win the Democratic nomination for the presidency, but ultimately lost the election to Republican Richard Nixon. As with his brother Johns death, Kennedys assassination and the circumstances surrounding it have spawned a variety of conspiracy theories, Kennedy remains one of only two sitting United States Senators to be assassinated, the other being fellow Democrat Huey Long in 1935. Kennedy visited the British Mandate of Palestine in 1948 and wrote dispatches at the time for the Boston Post about his trip, during his stay, he wrote that he grew to admire the Jewish inhabitants of the area. As a Senator, he became a strong supporter and advocate for Israel. Kennedy was United States Attorney General from January 1961 until September 3,1964 and he took office as Senator from New York on January 3,1965. The run up to the 1968 presidential election saw the incumbent president, Johnson, serving during a period of social unrest. The assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. on April 4,1968 led to riots across the US. Two weeks later, a demoralized Johnson announced he was no longer seeking re-election, one month later, Vice President Hubert Humphrey announced he would seek the presidency. Humphrey did not participate in any primaries but he did obtain the support of many Democratic Party delegates, following the California primary, Kennedy was in second place with 393 delegates compared to Humphreys 561 and McCarthys 258. The 1968 presidential primary elections in California were held on Tuesday, the statewide results gave Kennedy 46% and McCarthy 42%. Four hours after the closed in California, Kennedy claimed victory in the states Democratic presidential primary. He spoke by phone with South Dakota Senator George McGovern, at approximately 12,10 a. m. PDT on June 5, he addressed his campaign supporters in the Ambassador Hotels Embassy Room ballroom, in the Mid-Wilshire district of Los Angeles. At the time, the government provided Secret Service protection for incumbent presidents, Kennedys only security was provided by former FBI agent William Barry and two unofficial bodyguards, former professional athletes. During the campaign, Kennedy had welcomed contact with the public, Kennedy had planned to walk through the ballroom when he had finished speaking, on his way to another gathering of supporters elsewhere in the hotel. However, with deadlines fast approaching, reporters wanted a press conference, Campaign aide Fred Dutton decided that Kennedy would forgo the second gathering and instead go through the hotels kitchen and pantry area behind the ballroom to the press area
19.
War correspondent
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A war correspondent is a journalist who covers stories firsthand from a war zone. They were also called special correspondents in the 19th century and their jobs require war correspondents to deliberately go to the most conflict-ridden parts of the world. Once there, they attempt to get enough to the action to provide written accounts, photos. Thus, being a war correspondent is often considered the most dangerous form of journalism, on the other hand, war coverage is also one of the most successful branches of journalism. Newspaper sales increase greatly in wartime and television news ratings go up, News organizations have sometimes been accused of militarism because of the advantages they gather from conflict. William Randolph Hearst is often said to have encouraged the Spanish–American War for this reason, only some conflicts receive extensive worldwide coverage, however. Among recent wars, the Kosovo War received a deal of coverage. Written war correspondents have existed as long as journalism, before modern journalism it was more common for longer histories to be written at the end of a conflict. The first known of these is Herodotuss account of the Persian Wars, thucydides, who some years later wrote a history of the Peloponnesian Wars was an observer to the events he described. Her description of the events took place in the Marshall House are particularly poignant because she was in the midst of battle. A further modernization came with the development of newspapers and magazines, one of the earliest war correspondents was Henry Crabb Robinson, who covered Napoleons campaigns in Spain and Germany for The Times of London. Another early correspondent was William Hicks who letters describing the Battle of Trafalgar were also published in The Times, early film and television news rarely had war correspondents. Rather, they would simply collect footage provided by sources, often the government. This footage was often staged as cameras were large and bulky until the introduction of small, the situation changed dramatically with the Vietnam War when networks from around the world sent cameramen with portable cameras and correspondents. This proved damaging to the United States as the brutality of war became a daily feature on the nightly news. The discourse in mediated conflicts is influenced by its public character, by forwarding information and arguments to the media, conflict parties attempt to use the media influence to gain support from their constituencies and persuade their opponents. The continued progress of technology has allowed live coverage of events via satellite up-links, the rise of twenty-four hour news channels has led to a heightened demand for coverage. William Howard Russell, who covered the Crimean War, also for The Times, is described as the first modern war correspondent
20.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
21.
Bangladesh Liberation War
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It resulted in the independence of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. The war began after the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971 and it pursued the systematic elimination of nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The junta annulled the results of the 1970 elections and arrested Prime Minister-elect Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed following the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, which had the backing of Islamists, created radical religious militias – the Razakars, Al-Badr, members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape. The capital Dhaka was the scene of massacres, including the Dhaka University killings. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighbouring India, while 30 million were internally displaced, sectarian violence broke out between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking immigrants. An academic consensus prevails that the committed by the Pakistani military were a genocide. The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from Chittagong by members of the Mukti Bahini – the national liberation army formed by Bengali military, paramilitary, the East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles played a crucial role in the resistance. Led by General M. A. G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders and they liberated numerous towns and cities in the initial months of the conflict. The Pakistan Army regained momentum in the monsoon, Bengali guerrillas carried out widespread sabotage, including Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy. The nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases, by November, the Bangladesh forces restricted the Pakistani military to its barracks during the night. They secured control of most parts of the countryside, the Provisional Government of Bangladesh was formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and moved to Calcutta as a government in exile. Bengali members of the Pakistani civil, military and diplomatic corps defected to the Bangladeshi provisional government, thousands of Bengali families were interned in West Pakistan, from where many escaped to Afghanistan. Bengali cultural activists operated the clandestine Free Bengal Radio Station, the plight of millions of war-ravaged Bengali civilians caused worldwide outrage and alarm. The Indian state led by Indira Gandhi provided substantial diplomatic, economic, British, Indian and American musicians organised the worlds first benefit concert in New York City to support the Bangladeshi people. India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on North India, the subsequent Indo-Pakistani War witnessed engagements on two war fronts. With air supremacy achieved in the theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India. The war changed the landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the seventh-most populous country in the world
22.
Nigerian Civil War
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The Nigerian Civil War, better known as the Biafran War, was a war fought to counter the secession of Biafra from Nigeria. Biafra represented nationalist aspirations of the Igbo people, whose leadership felt they could no longer coexist with the Northern-dominated federal government, the conflict resulted from political, economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions which preceded Britains formal decolonisation of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963. Immediate causes of the war in 1966 included a military coup, a counter-coup, control over oil production in the Niger Delta played a vital strategic role. Within a year, the Federal Military Government surrounded Biafra, capturing coastal oil facilities, the blockade imposed during the ensuing stalemate led to severe famine—accomplished deliberately as a war strategy. Over the two and half years of the war, there were about 100,000 overall military casualties and this famine entered world awareness in mid-1968, when images of malnourished and starving children suddenly saturated the mass media of Western countries. The plight of the starving Biafrans became a cause célèbre in foreign countries, enabling a significant rise in the funding, Britain and the Soviet Union were the main backers of the Federal Military Government in Lagos, while France and some independent elements supported Biafra. France and Israel provided weapons to both combatants, the civil war can be linked back to the 1914 amalgamation of Northern and southern Nigeria, which was for the purpose of better administration due to close proximity. However, there was so much difference in the culture and religion of the people, after the amalgamation, oil was discovered in Eastern Nigeria, and this was a turning point in the history of Nigeria, as this led to the struggle for control amongst the regions. At this point, there was a power tussle to see who could control the power and with southern Nigeria not as united as the north. In July 1966 Northern officers staged a counter-coup to revenge on the easterners which saw Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon emerge as the head of state, during his tenure killing of Easters in the north continued and this led to several actions which eventually resulted in the Biafran war. Nigeria, which gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, had at time a population of 60 million people consisting of more than 300 differing ethnic. More than fifty years earlier, the United Kingdom had carved an area out of West Africa containing hundreds of different ethnic groups and unified it, calling it Nigeria. Although these groups have their own homelands, by the 1960s they were dispersed across Nigeria, when the war broke out in 1967 there were still 5,000 Igbos in Lagos. The semi-feudal and Islamic Hausa-Fulani in the North were traditionally ruled by a feudal, conservative Islamic hierarchy consisting of Emirs who, in turn and this Sultan was regarded as the source of all political power and religious authority. The Yoruba political system in the southwest, like that of the Hausa-Fulani, also consisted of a series of monarchs, in its zenith the Kingdom controlled most of Igbo land, including influence on the Anioma people, Arochukwu, and Onitsha land. Unlike the other two regions, decisions among the Igbo were made by an assembly in which men could participate. The differing political systems among these three peoples reflected and produced divergent customs and values, political decisions were to be submitted to. As with other highly authoritarian religious and political systems, leadership positions were taken by persons willing to be subservient, a chief function of this political system was to maintain Islamic and conservative values, which caused many Hausa-Fulani to view economic and social innovation as subversive or sacrilegious
23.
The Spectator
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The Spectator is a weekly British conservative magazine. It was first published on 6 July 1828 and it is currently owned by David and Frederick Barclay who also own The Daily Telegraph newspaper, via Press Holdings. Its principal subject areas are politics and culture and its editorial outlook is generally supportive of the Conservative Party, although regular contributors include some outside that fold, such as Frank Field, Rod Liddle and Martin Bright. The magazine also contains arts pages on books, music, opera, in late 2008, Spectator Australia was launched. This offers 12 pages of Unique Australian Content in addition to the full UK contents, the Spectator’s founding editor, the Dundonian reformer Robert Stephen Rintoul, launched the paper on 5 December 1828. Almost certainly he revived the title from the 1711 publication by Addison & Steele, the Spectator’s political outlook in its first thirty years reflected Rintoul’s liberal-radical agenda. Despite its political stance it was regarded and respected for its non-partisanship. Under Rintoul The Spectator came out strongly for the Great Reform Act of 1832, coining the phrase, The Bill. And There does not appear to be much glory gained in a contest so unequal that hundreds are killed on one side, what honour is there in going to shoot men, certain that they cannot hurt you. The cause of the war, be it remembered, is as disreputable as the strength of the parties is unequal, the war is undertaken in support of a co-partnery of opium-smugglers, in which the Anglo-Indian Government may be considered as the principal partner. Rintoul died in April 1858 and the magazine, whose circulation was falling, was sold, thereafter, it went into an accelerated period of decline. Records are scarce but it appears that it was owned by a Mr Scott. McHenry was a businessman and Moran was an Assistant Secretary to the ambassador, George M. Dallas, the editor was Thornton Hunt, a friend of Moran who had also worked for Rintoul. Hunt was also nominally the purchaser, having given the necessary monies in an attempt by McHenry. Circulation declined with this loss of independence and inspirational leadership, and the views of James Buchanan, within weeks, the editorial line followed Buchanans pronouncements in being. neither pro-slavery nor pro-abolitionist. The Spectator now would publicly support that policy and this set it at odds with most of the British press but gained it the sympathy of ex-patriate Americans in the country. Richard Fulton notes that from then until 1861, the Spectators commentary on American affairs read like a Buchanan administration propaganda sheet. And that this represented a volte-face, on 19 January 1861, The Spectator was bought by a journalist, Meredith Townsend, for £2000
24.
Auberon Waugh
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Auberon Alexander Waugh was an English journalist, and eldest son of Evelyn Waugh. He was widely known by his nickname Bron, after a traditional classical education at Downside School, he was commissioned in the army during National Service, where he was badly injured in a shooting accident. He went on to study for a year at Oxford, as a young man, Waugh wrote five novels that were quite well received, but gave up fiction, for fear of unfavourable comparisons with his father. He and his wife Lady Teresa had four children, and they lived at their house in Combe Florey in Somerset. Born at his grandparents house at Pixton Park, Dulverton, Somerset, he was known as Bron by friends. He was the child and first son of the novelist Evelyn Waugh and his second wife. His paternal grandfather was author and publisher Arthur Waugh and his uncle was Alec Waugh and he was named after his mothers brother, a landowner and advocate of Eastern European causes after World War II. Born just as war broke out, he saw his father until he was five. His parents being Catholics, Auberon was educated at the Benedictine Downside School in Somerset and passed his Greek and he went on to begin a Philosophy, Politics, and Economics degree at Christ Church, Oxford, where he held an exhibition in English. However, he was rusticated by the authorities, and chose not to return to the university. During his National Service, he was commissioned into the Royal Horse Guards and served in Cyprus, where he was almost killed in a machine gun accident. As a result of his injuries, he lost his spleen, one lung, several ribs, and a finger, while lying on the ground waiting for an ambulance he said to his platoon sergeant, Kiss me, Chudleigh. He later recalled, however, that Chudleigh did not recognise the allusion and he was first treated for his injuries at Nicosia General Hospital. While recuperating from the accident in Italy, he began his first novel, Waugh began his career in journalism during 1960 as a cub reporter on Peterborough, the social/gossip column of The Daily Telegraph. His early work as political columnist on The Spectator coincided with the war in Biafra, Waugh strongly criticised Harold Wilsons government, especially the foreign secretary Michael Stewart, for colluding in the use of mass starvation as a political weapon. He was sacked from The Spectator in 1970, but with the support of Bernard Levin and others and he was opposed to the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and criticised the Church that emerged from it. He was often critical of Archbishops Basil Hume and Derek Worlock and he also wrote for the New Statesman, British Medicine and various newspapers. From 1981 to 1990 he wrote a column for The Sunday Telegraph
25.
Robert Maxwell
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Ian Robert Maxwell MC, born Ján Ludvík Hyman Binyamin Hoch, was a British media proprietor and Member of Parliament. Originally from Czechoslovakia, he rose from poverty to build a publishing empire. After Maxwells death, huge discrepancies in his companies finances were revealed, early in his life Maxwell escaped from Nazi occupation, joined the Czechoslovak Army in exile in the Second World War and was decorated after active service in the British Army. In subsequent years he worked in publishing, building up Pergamon Press to a publishing house. Maxwell had a flamboyant lifestyle, living in Headington Hill Hall in Oxford from which he flew in his helicopter, and sailing in his luxury yacht. He was notably litigious and often embroiled in controversy, including about his support for Israel at the time of the 1948 Palestine war, in 1989, he had to sell successful businesses, including Pergamon Press, to cover some of his debts. In 1991, his body was discovered floating in the Atlantic Ocean having fallen overboard from his yacht, Maxwells death triggered the collapse of his publishing empire as banks called in loans. His sons briefly struggled to keep the business together, but failed as the news emerged that Maxwell had stolen hundreds of millions of pounds from his own companies pension funds, the Maxwell companies applied for bankruptcy protection in 1992. Maxwell was born into a poor Yiddish-speaking Orthodox Jewish family in the town of Slatinské Doly. His parents were Mechel Hoch and Hannah Slomowitz, in 1939, the area was reclaimed by Hungary. Most members of his died in Auschwitz after Hungary was occupied in 1944 by its former ally, Nazi Germany. In Marseille he joined the Czechoslovak Army in exile in May 1940 and he was then involved in action across Europe, from the Normandy beaches to Berlin, and achieved the rank of sergeant. He gained a commission in 1945, and was promoted captain, in January 1945, he received the Military Cross from Field Marshal Montgomery. Attached to the British Foreign Office, he served in Berlin during the two years in the press section. Maxwell naturalised as a British subject on 19 June 1946 and legally changed his name by deed poll from Ludvick Hoch to Ian Robert Maxwell on 30 June 1948. In 1945, he married Elisabeth Betty Meynard, a French Protestant, with whom he had nine children, five of his children were later employed within his companies. His three-year-old daughter Karine died of leukemia and his eldest son and his driver fell asleep at the wheel, and Michael never regained consciousness. In 1951 he bought three quarters of Butterworth-Springer, a publisher, the remaining quarter was held by the experienced scientific editor Paul Rosbaud
26.
ITV (TV channel)
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ITV is a commercial television channel in the United Kingdom. Previously a network of regional television channels, ITV currently operates in England, Wales, Scotland, the Isle of Man. From 2001 until 2013, the channel was called ITV1, in 2004, Granada Television acquired Carlton Communications to form ITV plc. ITV is the biggest and most popular television channel in the United Kingdom. ITV and its channels have contended with BBC One for the status of the UKs most watched television channel since the 1950s. However, in line with other channels, ITVs audience share has fallen in the era of multi-channel television. Following the creation of the Television Act 1954, the establishment of a television service in the UK began. The Independent Television service, or ITV, was made up of regions, the three largest regions were subdivided into weekday and weekend services, with a different company running each. ITV existed in a form from its inception to the 2000s. ITV1 became the generic brand name used by the twelve franchises of the ITV Network in the United Kingdom. The brand was introduced in 2001 by Carlton- and Granada-owned franchises, however, it became the sole on-air identity in 2002 when the two companies decided to create a single unified playout of the channel, with regional references only used prior to regional programming. Carlton and Granada went on to merge in 2004, creating ITV plc which now owns thirteen of the fifteen regional ITV licences. The ITV1 name was used in England, Wales, Southern Scotland and Isle of Man until Channel Television adopted the name in January 2006. It should be noted, however, that as national continuity is used on Channel Television. ITV Wales & West was the exception, using the name ITV1 Wales at all times for the Welsh part of its broadcast area as it has a higher regional commitment. Latterly the ITV1 Wales name was used on breakbumpers and regionally advertised programmes till 2013. Non ITV plc-owned licencees on the network generally did not refer to the ITV name, the network production arms of the ITV-plc owned licencees have been gradually combined since 1993 to eventually form ITV Studios. ITV was formed by the unification of eleven of the ITV licences, the Broadcasting Act 1990 changed many of the rules regulating the ITV Network, which most notably relaxed franchise ownership and hours of production
27.
World in Action
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World in Action was a British investigative current affairs programme made by Granada Television from 1963 until 1998. Its campaigning journalism frequently had a impact on events of the day. Its production teams often took audacious risks and gained a reputation for its often unorthodox approach. Cabinet ministers fell victim to its probings, numerous innocent victims of the British criminal justice system, including the Birmingham Six, were released from jail. Honouring the programme in its 50th anniversary awards, the Political Studies Association, said, World in Action thrived on unveiling corruption, World in Action came to be seen as hard-hitting investigative journalism at its best. Decades later Birt described it as one of the moments of the Sixties. World in Action was sold around the world, series of TV films, which in due course spanned decades, was first broadcast from 1964 as part of World in Action. In its heyday World in Action drew audiences of up to 23 million in Britain alone and its removal after 35 years was seen by some as part of a general dumbing-down of British television, and of ITV in particular. One commercial TV regulatory official characterised in private the Tonight programme which replaced it as merely fluffy, others saw World in Actions eventual disappearance as the inevitable consequence of rising commercial pressures. World in Action was the pre-eminent current affairs produced by Britains ITV Network in its first 50 years. For the first 35 years of its existence, ITV had a near-monopoly of television advertising revenue, roy Thomson, who ran Scottish Television famously described ITV as a licence to print money. In return for this income, the broadcasting regulator insisted that the ITV companies broadcast a proportion of their programmes as public service TV, out of this was born the networks reputation for serious current affairs, eagerly grabbed by programme makers under Granadas founder Lord Sidney Bernstein. World in Action trained generations of journalists and, in particular, Michael Apted worked on the original Seven Up. Paul Greengrass, who spent 10 years on World in Action, told the BBC, My first dream was to work on World In Action and it was that wonderful eclectic mixture of filmmaking and reportage. It showed me the world and made me see many things and he later told The Guardian, If theres a thread running through my career its World in Action – the phrase as well as the programme. In its time, the series was honoured by all of the major broadcasting awards, including many BAFTA, World in Actions style was the opposite to its urbane BBC rivals, especially to the London BBC. By repute, especially in its early days World in Action would never employ anybody who was on terms with any politician. Gus Macdonald, a producer of the programme, said it had been born brash
28.
ITV Granada
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ITV Granada is the Channel 3 regional service for North West England. The licence for the region has been held by ITV Broadcasting Limited since November 2008 and it is the largest independent television-franchise producing company in the UK, accounting for 25% of the total broadcasting output of the ITV network. It had been held by Granada Television, which was founded by Sidney Bernstein and this was the only surviving company of the original four Independent Television Authority franchisees from 1954, Granada Media Group merged with Carlton Communications to form ITV plc in 2004. It covers Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Merseyside, northwestern Derbyshire, part of Cumbria, on 15 July 2009, the Isle of Man was transferred to ITV Granada from ITV Border. Broadcasting by Granada Television began on 3 May 1956 under the North of England weekday franchise and it was marked by a distinctive northern identity, and used stylised letter G logo forming an arrow pointing north, often with the tagline Granada, from the north. Granada plc merged with Carlton Communications to form ITV plc in 2004 after a duopoly had developed over the previous decade, Granada Television Ltd still legally exists. Along with most other companies owned by ITV plc, it is listed on www. companieshouse. gov. uk as a Dormant company. Other companies listed are Granada Television International and Granada Television Overseas Ltd, the North West region is regarded as ITVs most successful franchise. The Financial Times and The Independent once described Granada Television, the franchise holder. Nine Granada programmes were listed in the BFI TV100 in 2000, some of its most notable programmes include Coronation Street, Seven Up. The Royle Family, The Jewel in the Crown, Brideshead Revisited, World in Action, University Challenge, notable employees have included Paul Greengrass, Michael Apted, Mike Newell, Jeremy Isaacs, Andy Harries, Russell T Davies and Leslie Woodhead. Granada Television, a subsidiary of Granada Ltd, originated in Granada Theatres Ltd and it was founded in Dover in 1930 by Sidney Bernstein and his brother Cecil. The company was incorporated as Granada Ltd in 1934 and listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1935 and it is named after the Spanish city of Granada. Channel 59 from Winter Hill and started broadcasting in colour in the Autumn of 1969, the Bernsteins became involved in commercial television, a competitor to the cinema chains. Bernstein bid for the North of England franchise, which he believed would not affect the companys largely southern-based cinema chain, in 1954, the Independent Television Authority awarded Granada the North of England contract for Monday to Friday, with ABC serving the same area on weekends. The North and London were the two biggest regions, Granada preferred the North because of its tradition of home-grown culture, and because it offered a chance to start a new creative industry away from the metropolitan atmosphere of London. Compare this with London and its suburbs—full of displaced persons, and, of course, if you look at a map of the concentration of population in the North and a rainfall map, you will see that the North is an ideal place for television. Bernstein selected a base from Leeds and Manchester, Granada executive Victor Peers believed Manchester was the preferred choice even before executives toured the region to find a suitable site
29.
Mike Wallace
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Myron Leon Mike Wallace was an American journalist, game show host, actor, and media personality. He interviewed a range of prominent newsmakers during his sixty-year career. He was one of the correspondents for CBS60 Minutes. Wallace retired as a regular correspondent in 2006, but still appeared occasionally on the series until 2008. Hinckley, Vladimir Putin, Maria Callas, Barbra Streisand, Salvador Dalí, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and his father was a grocer and insurance broker. Wallace attended Brookline High School, graduating in 1935 and he graduated from the University of Michigan four years later with a Bachelor of Arts. While a college student he was a reporter for the Michigan Daily, Wallace appeared as a guest on the popular radio quiz show Information Please on February 7,1939, when he was in his last year at the University of Michigan. His first radio job was as newscaster and continuity writer for WOOD Radio in Grand Rapids and this lasted until 1940, when he moved to WXYZ Radio in Detroit, Michigan, as an announcer. He then became a radio worker in Chicago, Illinois. Wallace enlisted in the United States Navy in 1943 and served as an officer during World War II on the USS Anthedon. He saw no combat, but traveled to Hawaii, Australia, and Subic Bay in the Philippines, then patrolling the South China Sea, Wallace returned to Chicago after being discharged in 1946. Wallace announced for the radio shows Curtain Time, Ned Jordan, Secret Agent, Sky King, The Green Hornet, Curtain Time and it is sometimes reported Wallace announced for The Lone Ranger, but Wallace said he never did. Wallace announced wrestling in Chicago in the late 1940s and early 1950s, in the late 1940s, Wallace was a staff announcer for the CBS radio network. He had displayed his skills when he appeared opposite Spike Jones in dialogue routines. He was also the voice of Elgin-American in their commercials on Groucho Marxs You Bet Your Life, as Myron Wallace, he portrayed New York City detective Lou Kagel on the short-lived radio drama series Crime on the Waterfront. In 1949, Wallace began to move to the new medium of television, in that year, he starred under the name Myron Wallace in a short-lived police drama, Stand By for Crime. Wallace hosted a number of shows in the 1950s, including The Big Surprise, Whos the Boss. Early in his career Wallace was not known primarily as a news broadcaster and it was not uncommon during that period for newscasters to announce, do commercials and host game shows, Douglas Edwards, John Daly, John Cameron Swayze and Walter Cronkite hosted game shows as well
30.
CBS
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CBS is an American commercial broadcast television network that is a flagship property of CBS Corporation. The company is headquartered at the CBS Building in New York City with major facilities and operations in New York City. CBS is sometimes referred to as the Eye Network, in reference to the iconic logo. It has also called the Tiffany Network, alluding to the perceived high quality of CBS programming during the tenure of William S. Paley. It can also refer to some of CBSs first demonstrations of color television, the network has its origins in United Independent Broadcasters Inc. a collection of 16 radio stations that was purchased by Paley in 1928 and renamed the Columbia Broadcasting System. Under Paleys guidance, CBS would first become one of the largest radio networks in the United States, in 1974, CBS dropped its former full name and became known simply as CBS, Inc. In 2000, CBS came under the control of Viacom, which was formed as a spin-off of CBS in 1971, CBS Corporation is controlled by Sumner Redstone through National Amusements, which also controls the current Viacom. The television network has more than 240 owned-and-operated and affiliated stations throughout the United States. The origins of CBS date back to January 27,1927, Columbia Phonographic went on the air on September 18,1927, with a presentation by the Howard Barlow Orchestra from flagship station WOR in Newark, New Jersey, and fifteen affiliates. Operational costs were steep, particularly the payments to AT&T for use of its land lines, in early 1928 Judson sold the network to brothers Isaac and Leon Levy, owners of the networks Philadelphia affiliate WCAU, and their partner Jerome Louchenheim. With the record out of the picture, Paley quickly streamlined the corporate name to Columbia Broadcasting System. He believed in the power of advertising since his familys La Palina cigars had doubled their sales after young William convinced his elders to advertise on radio. By September 1928, Paley bought out the Louchenheim share of CBS, during Louchenheims brief regime, Columbia paid $410,000 to A. H. Grebes Atlantic Broadcasting Company for a small Brooklyn station, WABC, which would become the networks flagship station. WABC was quickly upgraded, and the relocated to 860 kHz. The physical plant was relocated also – to Steinway Hall on West 57th Street in Manhattan, by the turn of 1929, the network could boast to sponsors of having 47 affiliates. Paley moved right away to put his network on a financial footing. In the fall of 1928, he entered talks with Adolph Zukor of Paramount Pictures. The deal came to fruition in September 1929, Paramount acquired 49% of CBS in return for a block of its stock worth $3.8 million at the time
31.
60 Minutes
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60 Minutes is an American newsmagazine television program broadcast on the CBS television network. Debuting in 1968, the program was created by Don Hewitt, in 2002,60 Minutes was ranked #6 on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time and in 2013, it was ranked #24 on TV Guides 60 Best Series of All Time. The New York Times has called it one of the most esteemed news magazines on American television, the program employed a magazine format, similar to that of the Canadian program W5, which had premiered two years earlier. Similar programs sprang up in Australia and Canada during the 1970s, Wallace said that the show aimed to reflect reality. The first magazine-cover chroma key was a photo of two helmeted policemen, Wallace and Reasoner sat in chairs on opposite sides of the set, which had a cream-colored backdrop, the more famous black backdrop did not appear until the following year. The logo was in Helvetica type with the word Minutes spelled in all lower-case letters, the trademark stopwatch, however, did not appear on the inaugural broadcast, it would not debut until several episodes later. Alpo dog food was the sponsor of the first program. Don Hewitt, who had been a producer of the CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite, however, the initial season was troubled by lack of network confidence, as the program did not garner ratings much higher than that of other CBS News documentaries. 60 Minutes struggled under that stigma during its first three years, changes to 60 Minutes came fairly early in the programs history. When Reasoner left CBS to co-anchor ABCs evening newscast, Morley Safer joined the team in 1970, and he took over Reasoners duties of reporting less aggressive stories. After a six-month hiatus in late 1971, CBS found a place for 60 Minutes in a portion of that displaced time,6,00 to 7,00 p. m. (Eastern,5,00 to 6,00 Central Time on Sundays. This took place because football telecasts were protected contractually from interruptions in the wake of the infamous Heidi Bowl incident on NBC in November 1968. When a family-oriented drama, Three for the Road, ended after a 12-week run in the fall, the newsmagazine took its place at 7,00 p. m. Eastern Time on December 7. S. This move, and the addition of then-White House correspondent Dan Rather to the team, made the program into a strong ratings hit and, eventually. This was no less than a stunning reversal of the poor ratings performances of documentary programs on network television. By 1976,60 Minutes became the program on Sunday nights in the U. S. By 1979, it had achieved the #1 spot among all programs in the Nielsen ratings. This success translated into great profits for CBS, advertising rates went from $17,000 per 30-second spot in 1975 to $175,000 in 1982
32.
Vietnam: The Last Battle
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Pilger introduces the film, on the 20th anniversary of the end of the conflict, from the roof of the U. S. Embassy, Saigon, where the last American troops had departed by helicopter. Veteran Bobby Muller, interviewed on China Beach, calls the war a lie, Pilger states that Ho Chi Minh had quoted from the U. S. Declaration of Independence and sought support from Washington for his nation’s independence, an elderly woman, who lost of her husband and five children fighting the French and the Americans, is shown as an exemplar of the struggle for independence. Coal miner Pham Ngo Duc describes the massive American bombing, which, according to Pilger, Pilger recounts the final evacuation of the U. S. Embassy and what he deems as the peaceful arrival of the North Vietnamese, which ended the war. Under embargo from the U. S. which according to Pilger used its influence to sabotage World Bank loans, EC Bridging Programme co-ordinator Michael Culligan discusses the return of Vietnamese boat people such as fisherman Mac Van Nhan admits his regrets at having fled the post-war regime. Prof. Võ Quý and Dr. Pham Viet Thanh reveal the deforestation, prof. Nguyen Van Xang recalls the 1972 Christmas Bombing of the Bạch Mai Hospital and the recent privatisations which he says have undermined the national health service. Nguyễn Xuân Oánh and Nguyen Thi Oanh respond to official British Government documents recommending the exploitation of Vietnams cheap labour in the EPZs, an elderly resident recalls the My Lai Massacre, the site of which Pilger contrasts with the Củ Chi tunnels tourist site. Nguyen Thi Oanh states that, because of its victory, Vietnam, unlike the U. S. has been able to move on from the war
33.
Associated Television
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This service started on Saturday,24 September 1955 and was extended until Sunday,28 July 1968. ATV was also awarded the franchise to provide the weekdays Independent Television service for the Midlands region and this service started on Friday,17 February 1956 and was extended until Monday,29 July 1968. Both companies had applied for a contract to one of the new ITV stations. By the time of the merger ABDC were well advanced with their plans whilst ITPC planned to operate as an independent producer selling their shows to the new network contractors. When financial problems hit ABDC, the Independent Television Authority, the body of ITV, invited Grade. This provided the required and put Littler and Grade in control of the new company. After ABC had been operating for three weeks the name was changed to Associated TeleVision Ltd, the logo, designed for ABC and tweaked for ATV, was a shadowed eye inspired by the CBS logo and reputedly designed by Lew Grade on a transatlantic flight back from the US. The logo is one of the most recognisable in broadcasting, ABC began broadcasting in its own right on Saturday 24 September 1955, after jointly presenting the networks opening night on Thursday 22 September. The name ATV was first seen in London on Saturday 8 October 1955, the company won two contracts, the weekend contract for London and the Monday–Friday contract for the Midlands. The latter service opened on 17 February 1956, with ABC providing the weekend programmes, the company ran into financial difficulty due to the staggering losses of the first two years of ITV and start-up costs. The London weekday contractor Associated-Rediffusion shouldered some of ATVs losses and further funding was achieved by selling shares to the Daily Mirror newspaper. The company structure was changed several times until 1966, when ATV and this marked the point where Lew Grade advanced from being the greatest influence over the company to taking control. ATVs main impact was in variety and light entertainment, at this point the company was renamed ATV Network Limited. During the 1970s, ATV received much criticism over its lack of programming, particularly for the east of its region. ATV Midlands Limited, a company created by ACC solely for the franchise process. ATV ceased broadcasting at 12. 34am on Friday 1 January 1982, the final closedown was marked by a brief tribute to ATV from original announcer Shaw Taylor before duty announcer Mike Prince signed off with the playing of the National Anthem. The newly reformed company, Central Independent Television plc, began broadcasting with a promo at 9. 25am that morning. Central inherited the studios at ATV Centre, Birmingham and ATV Elstree along with land that ATV Midlands had purchased for their new Nottingham studio centre
34.
Czechoslovakia
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From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. From 1948 to 1990, Czechoslovakia was part of the Soviet bloc with a command economy and its economic status was formalized in membership of Comecon from 1949, and its defense status in the Warsaw Pact of May 1955. A period of liberalization in 1968, known as the Prague Spring, was forcibly ended when the Soviet Union, assisted by several other Warsaw Pact countries. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the two states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Form of state 1918–1938, A democratic republic, 1938–1939, After annexation of Sudetenland by Nazi Germany in 1938, the region gradually turned into a state with loosened connections among the Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian parts. A large strip of southern Slovakia and Carpatho-Ukraine was annexed by Hungary, 1939–1945, The region was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic. A government-in-exile continued to exist in London, supported by the United Kingdom, United States and its Allies, after the German invasion of Russia, Czechoslovakia adhered to the Declaration by United Nations and was a founding member of the United Nations. 1946–1948, The country was governed by a government with communist ministers, including the prime minister. Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the Soviet Union, 1948–1989, The country became a socialist state under Soviet domination with a centrally planned economy. In 1960, the country became a socialist republic, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It was a state of the Soviet Union. 1989–1990, The federal republic consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic, 1990–1992, Following the Velvet Revolution, the state was renamed the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, consisting of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Neighbours Austria 1918–1938, 1945–1992 Germany Hungary Poland Romania 1918–1938 Soviet Union 1945–1991 Ukraine 1991–1992 Topography The country was of irregular terrain. The western area was part of the north-central European uplands, the eastern region was composed of the northern reaches of the Carpathian Mountains and lands of the Danube River basin. Climate The weather is mild winters and mild summers, influenced by the Atlantic Ocean from the west, Baltic Sea from the north, and Mediterranean Sea from the south. The area was long a part of the Austro Hungarian Empire until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I, the new state was founded by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, who served as its first president from 14 November 1918 to 14 December 1935. He was succeeded by his ally, Edvard Beneš. The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century
35.
Charter 77
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Charter 77 was an informal civic initiative in communist Czechoslovakia from 1976 to 1992, named after the document Charter 77 from January 1977. Founding members and architects were Jiří Němec, Václav Benda, Ladislav Hejdánek, Václav Havel, Jan Patočka, Zdeněk Mlynář, Jiří Hájek, Martin Palouš, spreading the text of the document was considered a political crime by the communist regime. After the 1989 Velvet Revolution, many of its members played important roles in Czech, motivated in part by the arrest of members of the psychedelic band Plastic People of the Universe, the text of Charter 77 was prepared in 1976. In December 1976, the first signatures were collected, the charter was published on 6 January 1977, along with the names of the first 242 signatories, which represented various occupations, political viewpoints, and religions. The document also described the signatories as a loose, informal, united by the will to strive individually and collectively for respect for human and civil rights in our country and throughout the world. It emphasized that Charter 77 is not an organization, has no statutes or permanent organs and this final stipulation was a careful effort to stay within the bounds of Czechoslovak law, which made organized opposition illegal. The governments reaction to the appearance of Charter 77 was harsh, as it was considered to be an illegal document, the full text of Charter 77 was never published in the official press. Many members were forced to collaborate with the communist secret service, in October 1979 six leaders of this support group, including Václav Havel, were tried for subversion and sentenced to prison terms of up to five years. Repression of Charter 77 and VONS members continued during the 1980s, despite unrelenting harassment and arrests, however, the groups continued to issue reports on the governments violations of human rights. Until the Velvet Revolution, Charter 77 had approximately 1,900 signatories, under the dictatorship, the influence of Charter 77 remained limited and only 1,065 people ever signed the document. It didnt reach wide groups of people and most of its members were from Prague, the majority of Czechoslovak citizens knew of the organization only because of the governments campaign against it. In the late 1980s, as the Eastern Bloc regimes weakened, members of Charter 77 saw their opportunity, during the days of the Velvet Revolution, members of the group negotiated the smooth transfer of political power from dictatorship to democracy. Many were elevated into high positions in the government but since most had no experience in politics they met with mixed success. Charter 77 included people who had a range of opinions and, after reaching their common goal. An attempt to make the group the focal point of a political party failed. In 1984 Charter 77 was awarded the first Andrei Sakharov Freedom Award, Charter 88 – a British movement inspired in part by Charter 77. Charter 97 – a Belarusian movement inspired in part by Charter 77, Charter 08 – a Chinese movement inspired in part by Charter 77. Foundation for a Civil Society - Founded in 1990 in New York as the Charter 77 Foundation - New York, Text of the Charter Text of the declaration of Charter 77 Text and signatures of the declaration of Charter 77 at Libri Prohibiti
36.
ITV News at Ten
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News at Ten is the flagship evening news programme on British television network ITV, produced by ITN and founded by news editor Geoffrey Cox in July 1967. News at Ten rose to popularity for its combination of in-depth, analytical news coverage. When the bulletin was axed in 1999 in order for primetime entertainment programming to air uninterrupted, there was a public outcry. ITV reluctantly brought News at Ten back in 2001, airing it at 10pm for a minimum of three nights per week, but eventually replaced it with the ITV News at 10,30 in 2004. It was not until January 2008 that News at Ten was reinstated to the ITV schedule, the programme is currently presented by Tom Bradby. ITN had been ITVs news provider since the launch in September 1955. News updates from ITN tended to run 14 minutes in length at most, ITV reluctantly agreed to give the proposed bulletin – a Monday-to-Friday programme, fixed at 10pm – a 13-week trial run to test its success. News at Ten began broadcasting on 3 July 1967 under the editorship of Cox, who stipulated that the aim of the new programme was to remove the spin and bring facts and the news as it really was. ITVs stance was seemingly confirmed early, the programme had little news to cover in its first few editions, a series of similar in-depth reports eventually helped to give News at Ten a regular viewership of seven million every night, forcing ITV to keep the programme. By 1969, News at Ten had become the first news bulletin in Britain to enter the top 20 most-watched programmes of the week, the original newscasting team included Alastair Burnet, Andrew Gardner, Reginald Bosanquet, George Ffitch and Leonard Parkin. News at Ten developed a reputation for its extensive coverage of international news stories. In the absence of Alastair Burnet, News at Ten paired Andrew Gardner, in 1978, Anna Ford became the bulletins first female newscaster, and Alastair Burnet rejoined the programme in the same year. Nonetheless, the continued to maintain a solid high audience during the 1980s. Alastair Burnet presented News at Ten from the United States during several campaigns, as well as the 1984 conventions of the Republican. Alastair Stewart presented News at Ten live from Saudi Arabia, the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, Burnet retired from ITN in 1991 after several clashes with the ITV companies over the future of the news organisation. In November 1992, News at Ten was given its first major relaunch, julia Somerville, John Suchet and Dermot Murnaghan each presented News at Ten when McDonald was absent. The bulletin carried this format until March 1999, despite News at Tens continued stature and popularity, ITV announced its intention to axe the bulletin in 1993, proposing two new peak-time bulletins at 6, 30pm and 11pm. The proposals were withdrawn after the ITC threatened ITV with legal action
37.
ITV Central
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The station is owned and operated by ITV plc, under the licensee of ITV Broadcasting Limited. During the 1970s ATV, the previous Midlands licence holder, had often been criticised for its lack of regional output, equally, its corporate headquarters were based in central London. The company name would also be changed from ATV Network Limited to ATV Midlands Limited, to demonstrate this change of share structure, the IBA insisted that ATV change its company name, to show that it was a substantially new company due to the requirements of a dual region. Central got around this by simply inserting Independent into their name on registering it, Central initially ran a sole pan-regional service from Birmingham, as a result of an industrial dispute which prevented its East Midlands service from Nottingham commencing before September 1983. The split allowed Central to serve the West Midlands with its own service from Birmingham, there were few differences between the East and West sub-regions, but each had its own news service, advertisements, and during the early years of operation, continuity. By March 1984, the reorganisation of the company was complete, Centrals interests in on-screen fiction saw the company buy the Korda Film Library in 1986. On the same day, Central brought a stake in Starstream, CTE, the companys key international distributor of programming, would later represent output sales for HTV, Meridian and Carlton, who took over Central in 1994. In 1989, the company founded Zodiac Entertainment – an American entertainment firm specialising in the production and distribution of animated cartoons, Central invested $35 million in the company before deciding to discontinue its production business in 1994, leaving Zodiac to become a distributor. In March 1994, Anglia acquired Centrals stake in the company to full control with Central moving over to Carltons sales department. The stations workforce was reduced to 1500 by 1990 and then to 900 by the start of 1992 – less than half of the payroll Central had employed in 1987. Central also profited from the auction after Meridian, a consortium in which Central held a 20% stake, by March, a rival bid from Gerald Ronsons Heron Corporation also entered the race to takeover ACC. By January 1983,167 staff had bought shares in the station for a £1 each as part of an innovative shareholding scheme to help offload shares to people in the Central region. Network programmes were now classed as Carlton UK Productions and around 140 jobs were lost from the downgraded Birmingham operation, on 6 September 1999, the station was rebranded on-air as Carlton Central, though the registered company name remained Central Independent Television Limited. The new identity, produced by Lambie-Nairn was also used on Centrals sister stations in the London and Carlton Westcountry regions, only the Carlton name was used on air, however Centrals regional news programmes retained the Central brand. With the merger of Carlton and Granada on 2 February 2004 and it is currently owned by ITV plc and on 29 December 2006, the registered company name was changed from Central Independent Television Ltd to ITV Central Ltd. This company is, along with most other companies owned by ITV plc. On 5 April 2005, it was revealed ITV Central could be fined by regulator Ofcom for broadcasting a pre-recorded late Central News bulletin for the East Midlands, the regulator later permitted ITV to pre-record some regional news bulletins shortly before transmission. On 15 July 2008, the station was fined £25,000 for contempt of court, upon winning the franchise, Central decided to construct new studios for its East sub-region, based in Lenton Lane, Nottingham – the new complex was to be called East Midlands Television centre
