1.
Cartography
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Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively, the fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to, Set the maps agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing, traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections, eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the maps purpose. This is the concern of generalization, reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization, orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design, modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. The earliest known map is a matter of debate, both because the term map isnt well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE, the oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, another depicts Babylon as being north of the world center. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps since Anaximander in the 6th century BCE, in the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemys world map – the world known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic, in ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, in the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and these charts may have been used for navigation. Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world, approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154
2.
Huguenots
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Huguenots are the ethnoreligious group of French Protestants who follow the Reformed tradition. It was used frequently to members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term has its origin in 16th-century France, Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and western parts of France. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of political concessions, a series of religious conflicts followed, known as the French Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The Huguenots were led by Jeanne dAlbret, her son, the future Henry IV, the wars ended with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy. Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s prompted the abolishment of their political and they retained religious provisions of the Edict of Nantes until the rule of Louis XIV. Nevertheless, a minority of Huguenots remained and faced continued persecution under Louis XV. By the death of Louis XV in 1774, French Calvinism was almost completely wiped out, persecution of Protestants officially ended with the Edict of Versailles, signed by Louis XVI in 1787. Two years later, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 and they also spread to the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Caribbean, New Netherland, and several of the English colonies in North America. Small contingents of families went to Orthodox Russia and Catholic Quebec, a term used originally in derision, Huguenot has unclear origins. Geneva was John Calvins adopted home and the centre of the Calvinist movement, the label Huguenot was purportedly first applied in France to those conspirators involved in the Amboise plot of 1560, a foiled attempt to wrest power in France from the influential House of Guise. The move would have had the effect of fostering relations with the Swiss. Thus, Hugues plus Eidgenosse by way of Huisgenoten supposedly became Huguenot, a version of this complex hypothesis is promoted by O. I. A. Roche, who writes in his book, The Days of the Upright, A History of the Huguenots, that Huguenot is, a combination of a Dutch and a German word. Gallicised into Huguenot, often used deprecatingly, the word became, Some disagree with such double or triple non-French linguistic origins, arguing that for the word to have spread into common use in France, it must have originated in the French language. The Hugues hypothesis argues that the name was derived by association with Hugues Capet, king of France and he was regarded by the Gallicans and Protestants as a noble man who respected peoples dignity and lives. Janet Gray and other supporters of the hypothesis suggest that the name huguenote would be equivalent to little Hugos. It was in place in Tours that the prétendus réformés habitually gathered at night
3.
Parterre
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A parterre is a formal garden constructed on a level substrate, consisting of plant beds, typically in symmetrical patterns, which are separated and connected by paths. The borders of the plant beds may be formed with stone or tightly pruned hedging, the paths are constituted with gravel or turf grass. French parterres originated in the gardens of the French Renaissance of the 15th century, later, during the 17th century Baroque era, they became more elaborate and stylised. The French parterre reached its greatest development at the Palace of Versailles, claude Mollet, the founder of a dynasty of nurserymen-designers that lasted into the 18th century, developed the parterre in France. His inspiration in developing the 16th-century patterned compartimens, i. e. C, clipped boxwood met with resistance from horticultural patrons for its naughtie smell as the herbalist Gervase Markham described it. By the 1630s, elaborate parterres de broderie appeared at Wilton House in Wilton, England that were so magnificent that they were engraved, which engraving is the only remaining trace of them. Parterres de pelouse or parterres de gazon denominate cutwork parterres of low growing herbs, e. g. camomile, the separation of plant beds of a pareterre is denominated an alley of compartiment. Parterre gardens lost favour in the 18th century and were superseded by naturalistic English landscape gardens, level substrates and a raised vantage point from which to view the design were required, and so the parterre was revived in a modified style. At Kensington Palace the planting of the parterres was by Henry Wise, whose nursery was nearby at Brompton, subsidiary wings have subsidiary parterres, with no attempt at overall integration. To either side, walls with busts on herm pedestals backed by young trees screen the parterre from the garden spaces. Formal baroque patterns have given way to symmetrical paired free scrolling rococo arabesques, little attempt seems to have been made to fit the framework to the shape of the parterre. Beyond paired basins have central jets of water, in the UK, modern parterres exist at Trereife Park in Penzance, at Drumlanrig Castle in Dumfriesshire and at Bodysgallen Hall near Llandudno. Examples can also be found in the Republic of Ireland, such as at Birr Castle, sentinel pyramids of yew stand at the corners. Some early knot gardens have been covered over by lawn or other landscaping, an example of this phenomenon is the early 17th-century garden of Muchalls Castle in Scotland. At Charlecote Park in Warwickshire the original parterre from the 1700s has been recreated on the terrace overlooking the river, making of a modern parterre This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chambers, Ephraim, ed. article name needed. Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, james and John Knapton, et al
4.
Wrest Park
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Wrest Park is a country estate located in Silsoe, Bedfordshire, England. It comprises Wrest Park, a Grade I listed country house, Thomas Carew wrote his country house poem To My Friend G. N. from Wrest in 1639 that described the old house which was demolished between 1834 and 1840. He based his house on designs published in French architectural books such as Jacques-François Blondels Architecture Française, the decorative layout and features of the house were produced by De Greys own hand. Wrest has some of the earliest Rococo Revival interiors in England, reception rooms in the house are open to the public. The park is divided by a wide gravel central walk, continued as a canal that leads to a Baroque pavilion banqueting house designed by Thomas Archer. The interior of the pavilion is decorated with an impressive Ionic columns in trompe-lœil, boundary canals were altered to take the more natural shape by Capability Brown, who worked there between 1758 and 1760, and who also ringed the central formal area with a canal and woodland. The gardens and garden houses were mapped by John Rocque in 1735, during the later 18th and 19th centuries, the Bath House, an orangery and marble fountains were added. A Wellingtonia planted in 1856 was in its earlier years brought into the house annually to serve as a Christmas tree, in the next phases the lakes and canals will be restored. On 12 September 2008 English Heritage unveiled extensive plans to restore the Grade-I-listed Wrest Park house, in 2008 the music video for The Fear by Lily Allen featured interior as well as exterior scenes of Wrest Park. In July 2010 English Heritage announced that it had secured over £1m from the Heritage Lottery Fund to develop a new centre, car parking, exhibition space. Work was completed in summer 2011 and the park opened to the public on 4 August 2011, there is a memorial column dedicated to Lancelot Capability Brown. It was originally placed near the Bowling Green House, which was remodelled by Batty Langley in 1735, in the years 1758,1759,1760. The house was used as a location in the video for the 2008 song The Fear by Lily Allen, in August 2013 the park was a venue for a concert by rock band Status Quo. The opening sequence and press shots for the series of Strictly Come Dancing, The Peoples Strictly for Comic Relief. A2016 episode of BBCs Flog It. which aired on 16 March, was filmed at the park. De Grey Mausoleum Nicola Smith, Wrest Park, London, English Heritage, ISBN 1-85074-481-5 Linda Cabe Halpern, Wrest Park 1686–1730s, exploring Dutch influences in Garden History Journal, Vol 30
5.
Painshill
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Painshill, near Cobham, Surrey, England, is one of the finest remaining examples of an 18th-century English landscape park. It was designed and created between 1738 and 1773 by the Hon. Charles Hamilton, the original house built in the park by Hamilton has since been demolished. Painshill is owned by Elmbridge Borough Council and managed by the Painshill Trust, Painshill, which is open to the public, has been Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. In 1998 Painshill was awarded the Europa Nostra Medal for the Exemplary restoration from a state of neglect, of a most important 18th century landscape park. In May 2006 Painshill was awarded full collection status for its John Bartram Heritage Collection, by the National Council for the Conservation of Plants, Charles Hamilton was born in 1704 in Dublin, the 9th son and 14th child of the 6th Earl of Abercorn. He was educated at Westminster School and Oxford, and went on two Grand Tours, one in 1725 and a one in 1732. In 1738 Hamilton began to land at Painshill and, over the years. His creation was among the earliest to reflect the changing fashion in garden design prompted by the Landscape Movement and it represented the move away from geometric formality in garden design to a new naturalistic formula. Many of the trees and shrubs planted by Hamilton were sent to him from Philadelphia by the naturalist John Bartram, then as now there was a particular route round the park recommended, designed to bring the visitor upon the successive views with best effect. Views from Painshill were painted on plates for a Wedgwood service of porcelain commissioned by Catherine the Great of Russia, Hamilton eventually ran out of money and sold the estate in 1773 to Benjamin Bond Hopkins, who held the estate until his death in 1794. In 1778 Hopkins commissioned architect Richard Jupp to rebuild Painshill House in a different location within the park, the house was later extended in the 19th century by architect Decimus Burton and is now a grade II* listed building. Henry Lawes Luttrell, 2nd Earl of Carhampton bought Painshill in 1807 from William Moffat, after his death in 1821, Luttrells wife Jane lived at Painshill until her death in 1831 when it was sold it to Sir William Cooper, High Sheriff of Surrey. Sir William Cooper and his wife, later his widow, lived there until 1863, and installed Joseph Bramahs suspension bridge and water wheel, and planted an arboretum designed by John Claudius Loudon. In 1873, the English poet, literary and social critic, Matthew Arnold, rented Pains Hill Cottage from Mr. Charles J. Leaf, in 1904 Charles Combe of Cobham Park purchased and lived in Painshill Park, his son having moved into Cobham Park. Until World War II Painshill Park was held by a succession of private owners, in 1948 the estate was split up and sold in separate lots for commercial uses. The Park, as such, soon disappeared and its features fell into decay, by 1980 the local authority, Elmbridge Borough Council, had bought 158 acres of Hamiltons original estate and the work of restoring the landscape garden and its many features could start. Fortunately there is a wealth of 18th-century images of the features of Painshill to help the process. The park now borders the A3 road, which is invisible and inaudible from nearly all parts
6.
Wanstead House
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Wanstead Park is a grade II listed municipal park covering an area of about 140 acres, located in Wanstead, in the London Borough of Redbridge, historically within the county of Essex. It is administered as part of Epping Forest by the City of London Corporation, todays park once formed part of the deer park of the former manor house of ancient Wanstead Manor, which included much of the urbanised area now known as Wanstead. In order to understand the history of todays municipal park of Wanstead, for this purpose the modern green spaces of the Park, golf course and Wanstead Flats should be considered as one entity. Ordnance Survey maps mark the site of a Roman Villa in present day Wanstead Park, archaeological excavations carried out in 1985 indicated a Roman presence here from the 1st to the 5th century AD, but did not locate any specific site of a Roman villa. A mosaic discovered in 1715 by gardener Adam Holt measured,20 feet, and from east to west about 16, that it was composed of small square brick tesserae of different sizes and colours, as black, white, red, &c. A second letter also mentions the foundation of a Roman building, the exact locations of the Roman remains described by Smart Lethieullier were subsequently lost although Jack Elsden Tuffs undertook further archaeological work during the 1960s. What appeared to be at least two rooms were visible which are considered likely to date from the Roman period and it is said that in Saxon times Abbot Aelfric granted the manor of Wanstead to the monks of Westminster Abbey yet this cannot be substantiated from any documentary evidence. However, the location was clearly a prized site on the east side of London, in 1086 the Domesday Book states that Wanstead Manor was held from the Bishop of London by one Ralph son of Brian. Wanstead was then densely wooded, being situated within the Forest of Essex and it was part of the forest bailiwick of Becontree during the Middle Ages and later of the Leyton Walk. Henry had developed a taste for privacy towards the end of his reign and it was valued by him especially for its park, bringing the King much needed seclusion. The young future Henry VIII lived for a while at Wanstead, both kings hunted within the manor. It was during Henry VIIIs reign that Wanstead Park was inclosed, shortly before 1512, at about this time neighbouring Aldersbrook became a separate manor. Wanstead remained a Royal manor for a number of years, its “keeper” being an office awarded to favoured royal courtiers, one after another. Hugh Denys Groom of the Stool to Henry VII was its keeper until 1511, on Denyss death in 1511 the keepership passed to Charles Brandon, later Duke of Suffolk. Sir John Heron, another former financial officer within the Privy Chamber, was keeper of the park until his death in 1521, Heron also held lands in Aldersbrook and it is said that he brought heron birds to the area, as an amusing mark of his presence. One of the lakes was historically known as Herony Lake, lord Richard Rich, High Chancellor of England, was keeper of the park in 1543, and in 1549 Edward VI granted him the lordship of the manor of Wanstead, complete with the park. In 1577 Richs son Robert sold it to Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, thereafter a succession of owners kept the manor of Wanstead combined with Stonehall. In 1619 Sir Henry Mildmay was in possession, but forfeited the manor to the Crown at the end of the Civil War, in which he had fought for Parliament
