1.
Art competitions at the Summer Olympics
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Art competitions formed part of the modern Olympic Games during its early years, from 1912 to 1948. The competitions were part of the intention of the Olympic Movements founder, Pierre de Frédy. Medals were awarded for works of art inspired by sport, divided into five categories, architecture, literature, music, painting, the juried art competitions were abandoned in 1954 because artists were considered to be professionals, while Olympic athletes were required to be amateurs. Since 1956, the Olympic cultural programme has taken their place, one of his other desires was to combine both art and sport, and he thus considered including artistic competition in the Olympic Games. In May 1906, Baron de Coubertin organised a meeting in Paris for both IOC members and representatives of artists organisations, the meeting ended with a proposal to the IOC to organise artistic competitions at the Olympic Games in five areas. The works of art entered had to be inspired by sports, preparations were underway to hold such competitions at the 1908 Summer Olympics, which were scheduled for Rome, Italy. But the Italian organisers were faced with troubles and were forced to halt preparations. The British organisers planned to hold the art competitions, but because of the preparation time. The organisers felt that artists would not have time to send in their works. Pierre de Coubertin was not discouraged, and sought to include the events in the programme of the 1912 Summer Olympics, to be held in Stockholm. Although the Swedes initially objected, opposing the idea of art combined with competition, the number of entrants was rather disappointing, only 35 artists are known to have sent works of art to Sweden, but gold medals were awarded in all five categories. When the first post-war Olympic Games were held in war-ravaged Belgium, art contests were again on the programme and this was different for the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris. The contests were taken seriously for the first time, and 193 artists submitted works, remarkably, this figure also includes three Soviet artists, even though the Soviet Union officially did not take part in the Olympic Games, which they considered to be a bourgeois festival. The growth continued at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics, where over 1,100 works of art were exhibited in the Municipal Museum, not including the submissions in literature, music and architecture. Artists were allowed to sell their works at the close of the exhibition, which was controversial given the IOCs amateurism policy. In Amsterdam, the number of events was increased, as four of the five fields of art were subdivided. Because of the economy and the location of Los Angeles. The art competition did not suffer from this problem, and the number of art works entered remained stable and their exhibition drew 384,000 visitors to the Los Angeles Museum of History, Science and Art
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Olympic Games
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The Olympic Games are considered the worlds foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in changes to the Olympic Games. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, as a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship, World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916,1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games, the Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations, National Olympic Committees, and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, the IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals, gold, silver, the Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to themselves to the world. The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat such as wrestling. It has been written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce and this idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus
4.
1932 Summer Olympics
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The 1932 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the X Olympiad, was a major worldwide multi-athletic event which was celebrated in 1932 in Los Angeles, California, United States. No other cities made a bid to host these Olympics, held during the worldwide Great Depression, many nations and athletes were unable to pay for the trip to Los Angeles. Fewer than half the participants of the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam returned to compete in 1932, even U. S. President Herbert Hoover skipped the event. The organizing committee put no record of the finances of the Games in their report, the selection process for the 1932 Summer Olympics consisted of one bid, from Los Angeles, which ultimately hosted the games. The selection was made at the 23rd IOC Session in Rome, Italy, an Olympic Village was built for the first time, in affluent Baldwin Hills, occupied by the male athletes. Female athletes were housed at the Chapman Park Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard, the victory podium was used for the first time. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum was known in 1932 as Olympic Stadium, Tenth Street, a major thoroughfare in Los Angeles, was renamed Olympic Boulevard in honor of the Games of the Tenth Olympiad. Babe Didrikson won two medals in the javelin and the hurdles event. She also competed in a jump-off for a silver in the high jump and her technique in the jump-off was ruled illegal, leaving Didrikson with second place. In field hockey, only three nations took part, the host nation lost both matches, 1-24 to India and 2-9 to Japan, but still won a bronze medal. Polands Stanisława Walasiewicz won the medal in the womens 100 m. After her death in 1980, it was discovered that she was intersex, the executive council of the IAAF suspended Paavo Nurmi from international amateur athletics four months before the Games, pending an investigation into his amateur status. Less than three days before the 10,000 m, the seven members of the council formed a special commission, eddie Tolan won both the 100 m and 200 m sprint events. Romeo Neri won three medals in gymnastics. Helene Madison won three medals in swimming, while the Japanese upset the mens events and took all. Takeichi Nishi was the gold medalist with his horse Uranus in the show jumping individual event. Nishis gold medal is Japans only gold medal in the event to this day. Nishi would later die in 1945 as an officer stationed in the defense of the island of Iwo Jima, kusuo Kitamura won the gold medal in the mens 1500 meter freestyle swimming race
5.
Art competitions at the 1932 Summer Olympics
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Art competitions were held as part of the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, United States. Medals were awarded in five categories, for works inspired by sport-related themes, art competitions were part of the Olympic program from 1912 to 1948, but were discontinued due to concerns about amateurism and professionalism. Since 1952, an art and cultural festival has been associated with each Games. At the time, medals were awarded to artists. These events do not appear in the IOC medal database, and these totals are not included in the IOCs medal table for the 1932 Games
6.
Jefferson Memorial
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The Jefferson Memorial is a presidential memorial in Washington, D. C. S. Construction of the began in 1939 and was completed in 1943. The bronze statue of Jefferson was added in 1947, the Jefferson Memorial is managed by the National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior under its National Mall and Memorial Parks division. In 2007, it was ranked fourth on the List of Americas Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects and it became apparent that the site was well suited for another high-profile memorial since it sat directly south of the White House. The completion of the Tidal Basin Inlet Bridge in 1908 helped to facilitate the usage of East and West Potomac Parks. In 1918, large liquid-chlorine dispensers were installed under the bridge to treat the water, a design competition was held for a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt in 1925. The winning design was submitted by John Russell Pope and consisted of a memorial situated next to a circular basin. The plan was never funded by Congress and was not built, later the same year, Congressman John J. Boylan jumped off FDRs starting point and urged Congress to create the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Commission. Boylan was appointed the Commissions first chairman and Congress eventually appropriated $3 million for a memorial to Jefferson, the Commission chose John Russell Pope as the architect in 1935. Pope was also the architect of the National Archives Building and original building of the National Gallery of Art and he prepared four different plans for the project, each on a different site. The Commission preferred the site on the Tidal Basin mainly because it was the most prominent site, Pope designed a very large pantheon-like structure, to sit on a square platform, and to be flanked by two smaller, rectangular, colonnaded buildings. Construction began on December 15,1938, and the cornerstone was laid on November 15,1939, by this point Pope had died and his surviving partners, Daniel P. Higgins and Otto R. Eggers, took over construction of the memorial. The design was modified at the request of the Commission of Fine Arts to a conservative design. The Commission of Fine Arts never actually approved any design for the Memorial, in addition, many Washingtonians opposed the site because it was not aligned with LEnfants original plan. Finally, many well established elm and cherry trees had to be removed for construction, in 1939, the Memorial Commission hosted a competition to select a sculptor for the planned statue in the center of the Memorial. They received 101 entries and chose six finalists, of the six, Rudulph Evans was chosen as the main sculptor and Adolph A. Weinman was chosen to sculpt the pediment relief situated above the entrance. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. designed the memorial landscape, the Olmstead planting plan installed at the time of construction featured a simple design within a circular driveway, primarily evergreen trees with limited flowering trees and shrubs. The design was perceived as too thin, so white pines were added, many changes to Olmsteds plans occurred in the 1970s, while 1993 and 2000 restorations have attempted to restore integrity to Olmsteds altered design
7.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
8.
National Archives and Records Administration
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The NARA also transmits votes of the Electoral College to Congress. The chief administrator of NARA is the Archivist of the United States, the Archivist of the United States is the chief official overseeing the operation of the National Archives and Records Administration. The Archivist not only maintains the official documentation of the passage of amendments to the U. S, Constitution by state legislatures, but has the authority to declare when the constitutional threshold for passage has been reached, and therefore when an act has become an amendment. The Office of the Federal Register publishes the Federal Register, Code of Federal Regulations and it also administers the Electoral College. Since 1964, the NHPRC has awarded some 4,500 grants, the Office of Government Information Services is a Freedom of Information Act resource for the public and the government. Congress has charged NARA with reviewing FOIA policies, procedures and compliance of Federal agencies, NARAs mission also includes resolving FOIA disputes between Federal agencies and requesters. Originally, each branch and agency of the U. S. government was responsible for maintaining its own documents, Congress established the National Archives Establishment in 1934 to centralize federal record keeping, with the Archivist of the United States as chief administrator. The National Archives was incorporated with GSA in 1949, in 1985 it became an independent agency as NARA, connor, began serving in 1934, when the National Archives was established by Congress. As a result of a first Hoover Commission recommendation, in 1949 the National Archives was placed within the newly formed General Services Administration. The Archivist served as an official to the GSA Administrator until the National Archives. An audit indicated that more than one third withdrawn since 1999 did not contain sensitive information, the program was originally scheduled to end in 2007. In 2011, a retired employee pleaded guilty to stealing original sound recordings from the archives, Archival Recovery Teams investigate the theft of records. NARAs holdings are classed into record groups reflecting the governmental department or agency from which they originated, Records include paper documents, microfilm, still pictures, motion pictures, and electronic media. Archival descriptions of the permanent holdings of the government in the custody of NARA are stored in the National Archives Catalog. The archival descriptions include information on traditional paper holdings, electronic records, as of December 2012, the catalog consisted of about 10 billion logical data records describing 527,000 artifacts and encompassing 81% of NARAs records. There are also 922,000 digital copies of already digitized materials, most records at NARA are in the public domain, as works of the federal government are excluded from copyright protection. However, records from other sources may still be protected by copyright or donor agreements and its Information Security Oversight Office monitors and sets policy for the U. S. governments security classification system. Many of NARAs most requested records are used for genealogy research
9.
National Gallery of Art
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The National Gallery of Art, and its attached Sculpture Garden, is a national art museum in Washington, D. C. located on the National Mall, between 3rd and 9th Streets, at Constitution Avenue NW. Open to the public and free of charge, the museum was established in 1937 for the American people by a joint resolution of the United States Congress. Andrew W. Mellon donated an art collection and funds for construction. The Gallery often presents temporary special exhibitions spanning the world and the history of art and it is one of the largest museums in North America. In 1930 Mellon formed the A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust, when quizzed by Abbot, he explained that the project was in the hands of the Trust and that its decisions were partly dependent on the attitude of the Government towards the gift. Designed by architect John Russell Pope, the new structure was completed and accepted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on behalf of the American people on March 17,1941. Neither Mellon nor Pope lived to see the completed, both died in late August 1937, only two months after excavation had begun. At the time of its inception it was the largest marble structure in the world, as anticipated by Mellon, the creation of the National Gallery encouraged the donation of other substantial art collections by a number of private donors. The Gallerys East Building was constructed in the 1970s on much of the land left over from the original congressional joint resolution. It was funded by Mellons children Paul Mellon and Ailsa Mellon Bruce, designed by famed architect I. M. Pei, the contemporary structure was completed in 1978 and was opened on June 1 of that year by President Jimmy Carter. The new building was built to house the Museums collection of paintings, drawings, sculptures. The design received a National Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects in 1981, the final addition to the complex is the National Gallery of Art Sculpture Garden. Completed and opened to the public on May 23,1999, the National Gallery of Art is supported through a private-public partnership. The United States federal government provides funds, through annual appropriations, to support the museums operations, all artwork, as well as special programs, are provided through private donations and funds. The museum is not part of the Smithsonian Institution, noted directors of the National Gallery have included David E. Finley, Jr. John Walker, and J. Carter Brown. Rusty Powell III is the current director, entry to both buildings of the National Gallery of Art is free of charge. From Monday through Saturday, the museum is open from 10 a. m. –5 p. m. it is open from 11 –6 p. m. on Sundays and it is closed on December 25 and January 1. The museum comprises two buildings, the West Building and the East Building linked by an underground passage
10.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
11.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
12.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
13.
Rome Prize
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The Rome Prize is an American award made annually by the American Academy in Rome, selected via a national competition. The prize is awarded to 15 emerging artists and to 15 scholars, the winners are announced annually in New York City. The first residential scholarships, for architecture and the arts, were awarded in 1906. Following a merger with the School of Classical Studies in 1912 the latters classical study scholarships were added to the range, landscape architecture scholarships were added in 1915 and music scholarships in 1921. Musicians, for instance, would benefit from the advice of the composers-in-residence - established composers who stayed at the academy for short periods in turn. The Academy offers the opportunity to examine at first hand the source of Western humanistic heritage, the Academy has extensive gardens and additional buildings. All Fellows and most Residents are listed by year of residency in the four pages below, académie de France Rome American Academy in Rome American School of Classical Studies at Athens American Schools of Oriental Research British School at Rome Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Rom
14.
American Academy in Rome
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The American Academy in Rome is a research and arts institution located on the Gianicolo in Rome. The academy is a member of the Council of American Overseas Research Centers, in 1893, a group of American architects, painters and sculptors met regularly while planning the fine arts section of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The group discussed the idea of forming an American school for artists in Europe as a place for American artists to study, the program began with institutions such as Columbia University and University of Pennsylvania, who would provide scholarships to artists to fund their travel to Rome. In October 1894 the American School of Architecture opened temporarily at the Palazzo Torlonia, directed by Austin W. Lord, in July 1895, the program moved into the larger Villa Aurora. Renting space out to the American School of Classical Studies and the British & American Archeological Society Library, in 1895, the American School of Architecture in Rome was incorporated in New York state and 10 shares of capital stock were issued. Despite fund-raising efforts and the American School of Classical Studies pulling out of Villa Aurora, McKim made up for the financial loss with his personal funds. These struggles would cause the American School of Architecture to restructure, in June 1897, the institution dissolved itself and formed the American Academy in Rome. Among its incorporators was Charles Moore, the Academy introduced bills to the U. S. Congress to make it a national institution, which was successful. In 1904, the Academy moved into Villa Mirafiore, which was purchased and renovated. They formed an endowment, which raised over a million dollars and these founders included, McKim, Harvard College, The Carnegie Foundation, J. P. Morgan, J. P. Morgan, Jr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. The Rockefeller Foundation, William K. Vanderbilt, Henry Walters, ever since, the American Academy has always been primarily privately financed. Today, financing comes from donations as well as grants from the National Endowment for the Arts. In 1912, the American School of Classical Studies in Rome merged with the Academy, women were a part of the School of Classical Studies, but were not permitted participation in the School of Fine Arts until after World War II. From 1970 to 1973, art historian Bartlett H. Hayes Jr. was director of the Academy, classicist John H. DArms was both the resident director of the American Academy and a professor in its School of Classical Studies from 1977 to 1980. Between 1980 and 1984, director Sophie Consagra strengthened the Academys ties with the Roman community, mark Robbins became president and CEO of the Academy in January 2014. The Academy serves as a home to visiting U. S. scholars, the Rome Prize includes terms that range from six months to two years fellowships at the academy, a stipend, and work and living space at the 11-acre campus. In addition to Rome Prize Fellows, visiting scholars and artists live and/or work at the Academy for varying periods, the Academy is housed in several buildings. The main building was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead, located under the floor of the basement of the main building lies a segment of the Aqua Traiana that was discovered in 1912-1913
15.
American Renaissance
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The American preoccupation with national identity in this period was expressed by modernism and technology as well as academic classicism. It expressed its self-confidence in new technologies, such as the cables of the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City. It found its cultural outlets in both Prairie School houses and in Beaux-Arts architecture and sculpture, in the City Beautiful movement, americans felt that their civilization was uniquely the modern heir, and that it had come of age. Politically and economically, this era coincides with the Gilded Age, in the dome of the reading room at the new Library of Congress, Edwin Blashfields murals were on the given theme, The Progress of Civilization. The exhibition American Renaissance, 1876–1917 at the Brooklyn Museum,1979, the dates chosen for this era coincide with the Centennial Exposition, the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence and the United States entry into World War I. A stained glass window was designed and executed by Frederick Wilson, howard Mumford Jones, The Renaissance and American origins, Ideas in America 1945. Richard Guy Wilson, The great civilization, forward essay to The American Renaissance 1876–1917, exhibition catalogue, The Brooklyn Museum, 1979–1980. Henry Hope Reed, The Golden City,1971, Ch.3, beneath the American Renaissance, The Subversive Imagination in the Age of Emerson and Melville. New York, Oxford University Press,2011
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
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Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
18.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
19.
Beaux-Arts architecture
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Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The style of instruction that produced Beaux-Arts architecture continued without interruption until 1968. The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced the architecture of the United States in the period from 1880 to 1920, in contrast, many European architects of the period 1860–1914 outside France gravitated away from Beaux-Arts and towards their own national academic centers. American architects of the Beaux-Arts generation often returned to Greek models, for the first time, repertories of photographs supplemented meticulous scale drawings and on-site renderings of details. Beaux-Arts training emphasized the production of quick conceptual sketches, highly finished perspective presentation drawings, close attention to the program, site considerations tended toward social and urbane contexts. In the façade shown to the right, Diana grasps the cornice she sits on in an action typical of Beaux-Arts integration of sculpture with architecture. A sense of appropriate idiom at the craftsman level supported the teams of the first truly modern architectural offices. The prestige of the École gave the style Beaux-Arts a second wind in combining the new manner with the traditional training and they were followed by an entire generation. Henry Hobson Richardson absorbed Beaux-Arts lessons in massing and spatial planning and his Beaux-Arts training taught him to transcend slavish copying and recreate in the essential fully digested and idiomatic manner of his models. Richardson evolved a personal style freed of historicism that was influential in early Modernism. The White City of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago was a triumph of the movement, the Beaux-Arts curriculum was subsequently begun at Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. From 1916, the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York City schooled architects, painters, bosworth, Carnegie Mellon University, designed by Henry Hornbostel, and the University of Texas, designed by Paul Philippe Cret. Beaux-Arts architecture also brought a civic face to the railroad, two of the best American examples of the Beaux-Arts tradition stand within a few blocks of each other, Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library. Another prominent U. S. example of the style is the largest academic dormitory in the world, in the late 1800s, during the years when Beaux-Arts architecture was at a peak in France, Americans were one of the largest groups of foreigners in Paris. Many of them were architects and students of architecture who brought this back to America. Beaux-Arts was very prominent in public buildings in Canada in the early 20th century, notably all three prairie provinces legislative buildings are in this style. Buenos Aires is a center of Beaux-Arts architecture which continued to be built as late as the 1950s, national Theatre, Melbourne General Post Office building, Forrest Place, Perth Argus Building. Beaux-Arts Architecture in New York, A Photographic Guide United States, sixteenth Street Architecture – profiles of Beaux-Arts architecture in Washington D. C
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Bruce Price
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Bruce Price was an American architect and an innovator in the Shingle Style. The stark geometry and compact massing of his Tuxedo Park, New York cottages influenced Modernist architects, including Frank Lloyd Wright and he also designed Richardsonian Romanesque institutional buildings, Beaux-Arts mansions, and Manhattan skyscrapers. In Canada, he designed Chateauesque railroad stations and grand hotels for the Canadian Pacific Railway, including Windsor Station in Montreal, Price was born in Cumberland, Maryland, the son of William and Marian Bruce Price. He studied for a time at Princeton University. After four years of internship in the office of the Baltimore, Maryland architects Niernsee & Neilson, following a brief study trip to Europe, he opened an office in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, where he practiced from 1873 to 1876. He settled in New York City in 1877, where he worked on a series of domestic projects and these culminated in the design and layout of the exclusive 7, 000-acre planned community of Tuxedo Park, created by Pierre Lorillard IV. The striking buildings Price designed there, with their severe geometry, compact massing, the most famous of these, the Pierre Lorillard V cottage, though demolished and now known only through photographs, remains an icon of American architecture. Among the Manhattan office buildings he designed were the American Surety Building, the St. James Building, the Bank of the Metropolis and he also collaborated with sculptor Daniel Chester French on the Richard Morris Hunt Memorial in Central Park. He designed a hall and a dormitory at Yale University. His grandest residential commission was Georgian Court, the estate of George Jay Gould I in Lakewood. Price invented, patented, and built the parlor bay-window cars for the Pennsylvania Railroad and this work prompted the Canadian Pacific Railways to consider his portfolio. He designed the Château Frontenac in Quebec for the Canadian Pacific, as well as the first Banff Springs Hotel in Alberta and he was a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects, and belonged to the Architectural League of New York. In 1900, he entered into a partnership with French architect Jules Henri de Sibour, the firm continued to use the name Bruce Price & de Sibour until 1908, five years after Prices death. In 1871, Price married Josephine Lee, the daughter of a Wilkes-Barre coal baron and they had two children, Emily Price Post, who became a novelist and the American authority on etiquette, and William, who died in infancy. Price is buried, along with his wife and son, in Hollenback Cemetery in Wilkes-Barre,10 East Chase Street, Baltimore, Maryland. Coryell Apartment Building,21 East 21st Street, Manhattan, New York, James Alfred Roosevelt Estate, Cove Neck, New York. Seacroft, Rumson, NJ Far Niente, Bar Harbor, Maine, J. M. Wayne Neff residence, Cincinnati, Ohio. Osborn Hall, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, welch Hall, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
21.
Vanderbilt houses
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Many of the Vanderbilt houses are now National Historic Landmarks. Some photographs of Vanderbilts residences in New York are included in the Photographic series of American Architecture by Albert Levy. The list of architects employed by the Vanderbilts is a whos who of the New York-based firms that embodied the syncretic styles of the American Renaissance, Richard Morris Hunt, post, McKim, Mead, and White, Charles B. Cornelius Vanderbilt II Townhouse, the Cornelius Vanderbilt II House at 1 West 57th Street and this mansion was, and remains, the largest private residence ever built in Manhattan. Woodlea, a Stanford White designed country estate in Scarborough, New York, William Kissam Vanderbilt had three houses designed by Richard Morris Hunt. Petit Chateau, the New York City townhouse at 660 Fifth Avenue, built in 1882 with details drawn in part from the late-Gothic Hôtel de Cluny, proved an influential example for other Gilded Age mansions, but was demolished in 1926. Idle Hour country estate in Oakdale, Long Island, New York was built in 1878–79, Marble House summer home in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1888–92. Emily Thorn Vanderbilt, Townhouse,642 Fifth Avenue, part of the Vanderbilt Triple Palace, Elm Court in Lenox, Massachusetts, in 1887. It is the largest shingle-style house in the United States, the 1919 Elm Court Talks, held at Elm Court, led to the creation of The League of Nations and The Treaty of Versailles. Florence Adele Vanderbilt Twombly Townhouse at 684 Fifth Avenue, New York, snook, who also designed her sister Lila Webbs townhouse next door. Florham in Convent Station, New Jersey, in 1894–97, designed by McKim, Mead and White as a summer estate, it is now used for classrooms, faculty offices, and administration at Fairleigh Dickinson University Vinland in Newport, Rhode Island. Now part of the Salve Regina University Townhouse, her second, frederick William Vanderbilt Hyde Park in Hyde Park, New York. Designed by McKim, Mead and White and built in 1896–99, rough Point in Newport, Rhode Island designed by Peabody and Stearns built in 1892. Pine Tree Point, Adirondack Great Camp on Upper St. Regis Lake in 1901 Sonogee in Bar Harbor, Lila Vanderbilt Webb Shelburne Farms in Shelburne, Vermont built in 1899. Townhouse at 680 Fifth Avenue, New York, the house was a wedding gift from William H. Vanderbilt to his daughter. NaHaSaNe, the 115,000 acre Great Camp located on Lake Lila in the Adirondacks, George Washington Vanderbilt II, Townhouse at 9 West 53rd Street in New York City. Biltmore in Asheville, North Carolina, in 1888–95, designed by Hunt, it is the largest house in the United States George Washington Vanderbilt Houses,645 and 647 Fifth Avenue, New York, called the Marble Twins. Number 647 survives, a landmark, as the flagship store for Versace
22.
Freemasonry
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The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
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House of the Temple
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The House of the Temple is a Masonic temple in Washington, D. C. United States that serves as the headquarters of the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, Southern Jurisdiction, designed by John Russell Pope, it stands at 1733 16th Street, N. W. in the Dupont Circle neighborhood, about one mile directly north of the White House. On May 31,1911,110 years after the founding of the Supreme Council, Grand Commander James D. Richardson broke ground on the spot where the House of the Temple now stands in Washington, D. C. Grand Master J. Claude Keiper, of the Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia, the temple was designed by noted architect John Russell Pope, who modeled it after the tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The building was dedicated four years later on October 18,1915, the buildings design was widely praised by contemporary architects, and it won Pope the Gold Medal of the Architectural League of New York in 1917. In his 1920 book LArchitecture aux Etatis-Unis, French architect Jacques Gréber described it as a monument of remarkable sumptuousness, the ensemble is an admirable study of antique architecture stamped with a powerful dignity. Fiske Kimballs 1928 book American Architecture describes it as an example of the triumph of form in America. In the 1920s, a panel of architects named it one of the three best public buildings in the United States, along with the Nebraska State Capitol and the Pan American Union Building in Washington, D. C. In 1932, it was ranked as one of the ten top buildings in the country in a poll of federal government architects. In 1944, the remains of Albert Pike were removed from Oak Hill Cemetery in the Georgetown section of Washington, D. C. the remains of Past Grand Commander John Henry Cowles were entombed in the temple in 1952, after his 31-year reign as Grand Commander. The Temple also holds one of the largest collections of related to Scottish poet and Freemason Robert Burns in its library. The House of the Temple is designated as a property to the Sixteenth Street Historic District. From 1990 to 2011, the temple hosted a community garden on its grounds, the Temple Garden occupied about 0. 25-acre, divided into about 70 small plots worked by nearby residents. In fall 2011, the Temple closed the garden in order to use the space to stage equipment for a rehabilitation project. In the 1951 science fiction film The Day the Earth Stood Still, in the 2009 novel The Lost Symbol by Dan Brown, the building is the setting for several key scenes. List of Masonic buildings List of museums in Washington, D. C
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American Museum of Natural History
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The American Museum of Natural History, located on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City, is one of the largest museums in the world. The museum has a scientific staff of 225, sponsors over 120 special field expeditions each year. Before construction of the present complex, the museum was housed in the Arsenal building in Central Park. Sherman, A. G. Phelps Dodge, William A. Haines, Charles A. Dana, Joseph H. Choate, Henry G. Stebbins, Henry Parish, the founding of the museum realized the dream of naturalist Dr. Albert S. Bickmore. Bickmore, a student of Harvard zoologist Louis Agassiz, lobbied tirelessly for years for the establishment of a natural history museum in New York. In 1874, the cornerstone was laid for the museums first building, the original Victorian Gothic building, which was opened in 1877, was designed by J. Wrey Mould, both already closely identified with the architecture of Central Park. The original building was eclipsed by the south range of the museum, designed by J. Cleaveland Cady. It extends 700 feet along West 77th Street, with corner towers 150 feet tall and its pink brownstone and granite, similar to that found at Grindstone Island in the St. Lawrence River, came from quarries at Picton Island, New York. The entrance on Central Park West, the New York State Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt and it leads to a vast Roman basilica, where visitors are greeted with a cast of a skeleton of a rearing Barosaurus defending her young from an Allosaurus. The museum is accessible through its 77th street foyer, renamed the Grand Gallery. The hall leads into the oldest extant exhibit in the museum, since 1930, little has been added to the exterior of the original building. The architect Kevin Roche and his firm Roche-Dinkeloo have been responsible for the planning of the museum since the 1990s. Various renovations both interior and exterior have been carried out including improvements to Dinosaur Hall and mural restoration in Roosevelt Memorial Hall, in 1992 the firm designed the new eight story AMNH Library. The museums south façade, spanning 77th Street from Central Park West to Columbus Avenue was cleaned, repaired and re-emerged in 2009, steven Reichl, a spokesman for the museum, said that work would include restoring 650 black-cherry window frames and stone repairs. The museums consultant on the latest renovation is Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. an architectural and engineering firm with headquarters in Northbrook, the museums first two presidents were John David Wolfe and Robert L. Stuart, both among the museums founders. The museum was not put on a sound footing until the appointment of the president, Morris K. Jesup. Jesup was president for over 25 years, overseeing its expansion, the fourth president, Henry Fairfield Osborn, was appointed in 1906 on the death of Jesup. Osborn consolidated the museums expansion, developing it into one of the worlds foremost natural history museums, F. Trubee Davison was president from 1933 to 1951, with A. Perry Osborn as Acting President from 1941 to 1946
25.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
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James Gamble Rogers
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James Gamble Rogers was an American architect best known for his academic commissions at Yale University, Columbia University, Northwestern University, and elsewhere. Rogers was born in Bryan Station, Kentucky on March 3,1867, to James M. Rogers attended Yale University, where he contributed to The Yale Record and was a member of the senior society Scroll and Key, whose membership included several other notable architects. He received his B. A. in 1889, and is responsible for many of the gothic revival structures at Yale University built in the 1910s through the mid-1930s and he died in New York City on October 1,1947. It is thus no coincidence that Rogers work is abundant at Yale, Columbia, though Harkness loved Rogerss work, when Harkness donated a new home for Wolfs Head, his society at Yale, another architect was chosen. Rogers Collegiate Gothic designs for Yale lent an air of instant heritage, Rogers was also criticized by the growing Modernist movement of the time. The 1927 Sterling Memorial Library came under especially vocal attack from Yale students for its historicist spirit, but current opinion generally regards the building as a triumph, being both beautiful and functional. Rogers IIs other son, James Gamble Rogers IV was also trained as an architect, after working in the family firm as a young man, James Gamble Rogers IV decided to pursue his passion for music. James Gamble Rogers architectural drawings and photographs are now held in the Dept. of Drawings & Archives in the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at Columbia University in New York. Lees Building, Chicago,1893 Hyde Park Union Church, Chicago,1906 The Edward S. Harkness House,1 East 75th Street at Fifth Avenue, constructed as the residence of Edward and Mary Stillman Harkness in 1908. Currently the home of The Commonwealth Fund, plan and buildings of The H. The Architecture of James Gamble Rogers II in Winter Park, Florida, Patrick, ISBN 0-8130-2770-5 The Campus Guide, Yale University, Patrick L. Pinnell, Princeton Architectural Press, New York,1999. Yale, A Pictorial History, Reuben A. Holden, New Haven, James Gamble Rogers architectural records and photographs, 1905-1980, held by the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University
27.
New Haven, Connecticut
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New Haven, in the U. S. state of Connecticut, is the principal municipality in Greater New Haven, which had a total population of 862,477 in 2010. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the shore of Long Island Sound in New Haven County, Connecticut. It is the second-largest city in Connecticut, with a population of 129,779 people as of the 2010 United States Census, according to a census of 1 July 2012, by the Census Bureau, the city had a population of 130,741. New Haven was founded in 1638 by English Puritans, and a year later eight streets were laid out in a four-by-four grid, the central common block is the New Haven Green, a 16-acre square, and the center of Downtown New Haven. The Green is now a National Historic Landmark and the Nine Square Plan is recognized by the American Planning Association as a National Planning Landmark, New Haven is the home of Yale University. The university is an part of the citys economy, being New Havens biggest taxpayer and employer. Health care, professional services, financial services, and retail trade also help to form a base for the city. The city served as co-capital of Connecticut from 1701 until 1873, New Haven has since billed itself as the Cultural Capital of Connecticut for its supply of established theaters, museums, and music venues. New Haven is also the birthplace of George W. Bush, New Haven had the first public tree planting program in America, producing a canopy of mature trees that gave New Haven the nickname The Elm City. The area was visited by Dutch explorer Adriaen Block in 1614. Dutch traders set up a trading system of beaver pelts with the local inhabitants, but trade was sporadic. In 1637 a small party of Puritans reconnoitered the New Haven harbor area, the Quinnipiacs, who were under attack by neighboring Pequots, sold their land to the settlers in return for protection. By 1640, the theocratic government and nine-square grid plan were in place. However, the north of New Haven remained Quinnipiac until 1678. The settlement became the headquarters of the New Haven Colony, at the time, the New Haven Colony was separate from the Connecticut Colony, which had been established to the north centering on Hartford. Economic disaster struck the colony in 1646, however, when the town sent its first fully loaded ship of goods back to England. This ship never reached the Old World, and its disappearance stymied New Havens development in the face of the rising power of Boston. In 1660, founder John Davenports wishes were fulfilled, and Hopkins School was founded in New Haven with money from the estate of Edward Hopkins, in 1661, the judges who had signed the death warrant of Charles I of England were pursued by Charles II
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City Beautiful
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The particular architectural style of the movement borrowed mainly from the contemporary Beaux-Arts and neoclassical architectures, which emphasized the necessity of order, dignity, and harmony. The first large-scale elaboration of the City Beautiful occurred during the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, the exposition displayed a model city of grand scale, known as the White City, with modern transport systems and no poverty visible. The exposition is credited with resulting in the adoption of monumentalism for American architecture for the next 15 years. Richmond, Virginias Monument Avenue is one expression of this initial phase, the popularization begun by the World Columbian Exposition was increased by the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis in 1904. The commissioner of architects selected Franco-American architect Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be Chief of Design of the fair, all these were widely emulated in civic projects across the United States. Masqueray resigned soon after the fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul to Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city in the fairs Beaux Arts style. An early use of the City Beautiful ideal with the intent of creating social order through beautification was the McMillan Plan, named for Michigan Senator James McMillan. The Washington planners, who included Burnham, Saint-Gaudens, Charles McKim of McKim, Mead, and White, the essence of the plan surrounded the United States Capitol with monumental government buildings to replace notorious slum communities. At the heart of the design was the creation of the National Mall, the implementation of the plan was interrupted by World War I but resumed after the war, culminating in the construction of the Lincoln Memorial in 1922. The success of the City Beautiful philosophy in Washington, D. C, in Wilmington, Delaware, it inspired the creation of Rodney Square and the surrounding civic buildings. In New Haven, John Russell Pope developed a plan for Yale University that eliminated substandard housing, daniel Burnhams 1909 Plan of Chicago is considered one of principal documents of the City Beautiful movement. The plan featured a new civic center, axial streets. Of these, only the lakefront park was implemented to any significant degree. In 1913, the City of Chicago appointed a Commission with a mandate to “make Chicago Beautiful. ”As part of the plan, the West Side Property Owner’s Association was among those who objected. Coral Gables has many parks and a tree canopy with an urban forest planted largely in the 1920s. In Denver, Colorado, Mayor Robert W. Speer endorsed City Beautiful planning, with a plan for a Civic Center, the plan was partly realized, on a reduced scale, with the Greek amphitheater, Voorhies Memorial and the Colonnade of Civic Benefactors, completed in 1919. The bronze Indian guide he envisaged was vetoed by the committee, harrisburgs movement of beautification and improvement was one of the earliest and most successful urban reform movements in the country. The causes of the defects were well known, industrialization in the previous half century had left the city poorly planned with unpaved streets
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Urban planning
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Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
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Silver medal
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The outright winner receives a gold medal and the third place a bronze medal. More generally, silver is traditionally a metal used for all types of high-quality medals. In 1896, winners medals were in fact silver, the custom of gold-silver-bronze for the first three places dates from the 1904 games and has been copied for many other sporting events. Minting the medals is the responsibility of the host city, from 1972–2000, Cassiolis design remained on the obverse with a custom design by the host city on the reverse. Noting that Cassiolis design showed a Roman amphitheatre for what was originally a Greek games, winter Olympics medals have been of more varied design. In The Open Championship golf tournament, the Silver Medal is an award presented to the lowest scoring player at the tournament. Runner-up Medal Designs for all Olympic Games
31.
Payne Whitney Gymnasium
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The Payne Whitney Gymnasium is the gymnasium of Yale University. One of the largest athletic facilities ever built, its twelve acres of space include a nine-story tower containing a third-floor swimming pool, fencing facilities. The building houses the facilities of many varsity teams at Yale, including basketball, fencing, gymnastics, squash, swimming and it is the second-largest gym in the world by cubic feet and the 94th largest in the United States by square footage. The building was donated to Yale by John Hay Whitney, of the Yale class of 1926, in honor of his father, because it was designed in the Gothic Revival style that prevailed at Yale between 1920 and 1945, it is commonly known as the cathedral of sweat. For the design of Payne Whitney Gymnasium, architect John Russell Pope was awarded the Silver Medal at the 1932 Olympic Games Art Competition. The stuffed original Handsome Dan, the mascot of Yale. The basketball team plays in the John J. Lee Amphitheater, a star basketball player and benefactor in restoration projects, the volleyball and gymnastics teams also compete in the Amphiteater. The wing opposite the Amphiteater houses the Robert J. H. Kiphuth Exhibition Pool, the pool is named for Yales legendary swimming coach and athletic director. A series of three crew tanks runs along the back of the gym, providing training facilities for the crews, above the crew tanks is the Practice Pool, one of the worlds largest suspended natatoriums. Above the Practice Pool are recreational basketball courts, on the wings, the Adrian Ace Israel Fitness Center is located above the Kiphuth Exhibition Pool, and the Brady Squash Center is located above the Amphitheater. The Squash Center, one of the premier competition facilities, is also home to the U. S. The roof of the Squash Center has an outdoor running track. The tower itself contains the Kiphuth Trophy Room, several recreational areas, the fencing salon. The Lanman Center, located behind the Amphitheater wing, provides a vast spread of additional floor space. The William K. Lanman Center was added in 1999 as a new wing, with courts for basketball and volleyball. This was the first phase of a $100 million renovation program, in 2006, the building is having external work done to repair flashing and stop leaks. Before coeducation, the third floor pool was strictly no suits, freshmen at that time had to undergo a questionable series of posture tests that involved nude photographs. They were instructed that if they had an excessive lordotic curve, remedial exercises would be prescribed, Payne Whitney Gym - YaleBulldogs. com Payne Whitney Gym at Yale. edu
32.
James Earle Fraser (sculptor)
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James Earle Fraser was an American sculptor during the first half of the 20th century. His work is integral to many of Washington, D. C. s most iconic structures, Fraser was born in Winona, Minnesota. His father, Thomas Fraser, was an engineer who worked for companies as they expanded across the American West. As a child, James Fraser was exposed to life and the experience of Native Americans. Fraser began carving figures from pieces of limestone scavenged from a quarry close to his home near Mitchell. He attended classes at the The School of The Art Institute of Chicago in 1890 and studied at the École des Beaux Arts, early in his career, Fraser served as an assistant to Richard Bock and Augustus Saint-Gaudens, he formed his own studio in 1902. He also taught at the Art Students League in New York City beginning in 1906, among his earliest works were sculptural pieces at the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 and, for the San Francisco Exposition of 1915, one of his most famous pieces, End of the Trail. While it was meant to be cast in bronze, material shortages due to World War I prevented this, after the Exposition, the original plaster statue was moved to Mooneys Grove Park in Visalia, CA. Exposed to the elements, it deteriorated until it was obtained by the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in 1968. The restored statue is currently on display in the entryway of the Oklahoma City museum, the original bronze replica statue of the End of the Trail Statue is located in Shaler Park, in Waupun, Wisconsin. The statue was purchased by inventor and sculptor, Clarence Addison Shaler and his commissions also include coins and medals, such as the World War I Victory Medal, the Navy Cross, and the Indian Head nickel. This coin was discontinued after 1938, but has since been reprised in 2001 on a US commemorative coin, Fraser’s major works include two heroic bronze equestrian statues titled The Arts of Peace, designed for the entrance to the Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway, behind the Lincoln Memorial. The pair was a companion to sculptor Leo Friedlanders The Arts of War, the groups had been designed in the 1930s but were not cast until the 1950s, because of a shortage of metals during World War II. Fraser was a member of the National Academy of Design, the National Sculpture Society, and his numerous awards and honors include election to the National Institute of Arts and Letters and gold medal from the Architectural League in 1925. Commission of Fine Arts in Washington, D. C. from 1920 to 1925, muralist Barry Faulkner, a friend of Fraser’s from their days in Paris together described Fraser like this, His character was like a good piece of Scotch tweed, handsome, durable and warm. James Earle Fraser died on October 11,1953, at Westport, Connecticut, los Angeles CA1991 Craven, Wayne, Sculpture in America, Thomas Y. Crowell Co, NY, NY1968 Freundlich, A. L. The Sculpture of James Earle Fraser, Universal Publishers / uPublish. com USA2001 Goode, the Outdoor Sculpture of Washington D. C. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D. C.1974 Gurney, George, Sculpture, walker, Famous Sculptors of America, Dodd, Mead and Company, Inc. com
33.
Gothic architecture
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Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
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Georgian architecture
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Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is eponymous for the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—George I, George II, George III, and George IV—who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The style of Georgian buildings is very variable, but marked by a taste for symmetry and proportion based on the architecture of Greece and Rome. Ornament is also normally in the tradition, but typically rather restrained. In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house. There was an amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world. The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession, before the mid-century the high-sounding title and this contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny published editions in America as well as Britain, mail-order kit homes were also popular before World War II. The architect James Gibbs was a figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century. Other prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture—and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking worlds equivalent of European Rococo. John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as The Regency style, greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800. Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke, regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. In Britain brick or stone are almost invariably used, brick is often disguised with stucco, in America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable. Versions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture, Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance. The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided, in grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a piano nobile or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were. A single block was typical, with a perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court. Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid, this was partly to minimize window tax and their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable
35.
Classical architecture
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Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in all be said to draw on a common vocabulary of decorative and constructive elements. The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture and it can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from traditional or vernacular architecture, for contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles, the term New Classical Architecture may be used. Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on, the first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in a strict sense, nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. Most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture and this broad use of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, during these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during the Renaissance. Neoclassical architecture held a strong position on the architectural scene c. With the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost completely ceased to be practised, as noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a very long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in the West for much of Modern history. Furthermore, it can even be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, therefore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures, such as temples, during the Archaic and early Classical periods, the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. And not everyone within the reach of Mediterranean civilization made this transition. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone
36.
Henry E. Huntington
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Henry Edwards Huntington was an American railroad magnate and collector of art and rare books. Huntington settled in Los Angeles, where he owned the Pacific Electric Railway as well as real estate interests. In addition to being a businessman and art collector, Huntington was a booster for Los Angeles in the late 19th. Huntington held several positions working alongside his uncle with the Southern Pacific. He had four children with Mary Alice, Howard Edward, Clara Leonora, Elizabeth Vincent, and Marian Prentice, arabellas son Archer, from her prior marriage from which she was widowed, had earlier been adopted by Collis. In 1898, in competition with his uncles Southern Pacific, Huntington bought the narrow gauge. In 1901, Huntington formed the sprawling interurban, standard gauge Pacific Electric Railway, known as the Red Car system, centered at 6th, Huntington succeeded in this competition by providing passenger friendly streetcars on 24/7 schedules, which the railroads couldnt match. Connectivity to Downtown Los Angeles made such suburbs feasible, by 1910, the Huntington trolley systems stretched over approximately 1,300 miles of southern California. In 1905 Huntington, A. Kingsley Macomber, and William R. Staats developed the Oak Knoll subdivision, the road was completed in February 1907. The property was donated to the city of Riverside by the heirs of Frank Miller. Huntington was a Life Member of the Sons of the Revolution in the State of California, Huntington retired from active business in 1916. In 1927 Henry E. Huntington died in Philadelphia while undergoing surgery and he and Arabella are buried, with a large monument, in the Gardens of the Huntington Library in San Marino, California. The Huntington Hotel was originally named Hotel Wentworth when it opened its doors on February 1,1907, financial problems and a disappointing first season forced the Hotel Wentworth to close its doors indefinitely. Henry Huntington purchased the Hotel Wentworth in 1911, renaming it the Huntington Hotel and it reopened in 1914, transformed into a beautiful winter resort. The 1920s were a time for the hotel, as Midwestern and Eastern entrepreneurs discovered Californias warm winter climate. The hotels reputation for fine service began with general manager and later owner Stephen W. Royce. By 1926, the hotels success prompted Royce to open the property year-round, the golden years ended with the stock market crash and the Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s. However, by the end of the 1930s the hotel was back on solid ground, when World War II began, all reservations were cancelled and the hotel was rented to the Army for $3,000 a month
37.
Huntington Library
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In addition to the library, the institution houses an extensive art collection with a focus in 18th and 19th-century European art and 17th to mid-20th-century American art. The property also includes approximately 120 acres of specialized botanical landscaped gardens, most notably the Japanese Garden, the Desert Garden, as a landowner, businessman and visionary, Henry Edwards Huntington, played a major role in the growth of southern California. Huntington was born in 1850, in Oneonta, New York, in 1892, Huntington relocated to San Francisco with his first wife, Mary Alice Prentice, and their four children. He was one of the founders of the City of San Marino, before his death in 1927, Huntington amassed far and away the greatest group of 18th-century British portraits ever assembled by any one man. In accordance with Huntingtons will, the collection, then worth $50 million, was opened to the public in 1928. On October 17,1985, a fire erupted in a shaft of the Huntington Art Gallery. After a year-long, $1 million refurbishing project, the Huntington Gallery reopened in 1986, with its artworks cleaned of soot and stains. Most of the funds for the cleanup and refurbishing of the Georgian mansion and its artworks came from donations from the Michael J. Connell Foundation, corporations and individuals. Both the Federal art-supporting establishment of the National Endowment for the Arts, the Library building was designed in 1920, by the southern California architect Myron Hunt in the Mediterranean Revival style. Hunts previous commissions for Mr. and Mrs. Huntington included the Huntingtons residence in San Marino in 1909, and the Huntington Hotel in 1914. The library contains a collection of rare books and manuscripts, concentrated in the fields of British and American history, literature, art. Spanning from the 11th century to the present, the librarys holdings contain 7 million items, over 400,000 rare books, and over a million photographs, prints, and other ephemera. Highlights include one of 11 vellum copies of the Gutenberg Bible known to exist,1410, and letters and manuscripts by George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and Abraham Lincoln. The Librarys Main Exhibition Hall showcases some of the most outstanding rare books and manuscripts in the collection, the Dibner Hall of the History of Science is a permanent exhibition on the history of science with a focus on astronomy, natural history, medicine, and light. Use of the collection for research is restricted to qualified scholars, generally requiring a degree or at least candidacy for the PhD. Through a rigorous program, the institution awards approximately 150 grants to scholars in the fields of history, literature, art. Through the Huntington Library Press, the produces the Huntington Library Quarterly. Scholarly pursuits lead to best-selling books, Pulitzer prizes, acclaimed documentary films, the Huntington also hosts numerous scholarly events, lectures, conferences, and workshops
38.
Neoclassicism
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The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art
39.
Pantheon, Rome
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The Pantheon is a former Roman temple, now a church, in Rome, Italy, on the site of an earlier temple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus. The present building was completed by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated about 126 AD and he retained Agrippas original inscription, which has confused its date of construction as the original Pantheon burnt down so it is not certain when the present one was built. The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns under a pediment, a rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheons dome is still the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome, the height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same,43.3 metres. Mary and the Martyrs but informally known as Santa Maria Rotonda, the square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is a property, ruled by Italys Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism through the Polo Museale del Lazio. The Pantheons large circular domed cella, with a temple portico front, is unique in Roman architecture. Nevertheless, it became a standard exemplar when classical styles were revived, Pantheon is derived from the Ancient Greek Pantheion meaning of, relating to, or common to all the gods. His uncertainty strongly suggests that Pantheon was merely a nickname, not the name of the building. In fact, the concept of a dedicated to all the gods is questionable. The only definite pantheon recorded earlier than Agrippas was at Antioch in Syria and it seems highly significant that Dio does not quote the simplest explanation for the name—that the Pantheon was dedicated to all the gods. Godfrey and Hemsoll maintain that the word Pantheon need not denote a group of gods, or, indeed, even all the gods. Certainly the word pantheus or pantheos, could be applicable to individual deities…, bearing in mind also that the Greek word θεῖος need not mean of a god but could mean superhuman, or even excellent. It seems likely that the Pantheon and the Basilica of Neptune were Agrippas sacra privata and this less solemn designation would help explain how the building could have so easily lost its original name and purpose in such a relatively short period of time. However, archaeological excavations have shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been destroyed except for the façade. Lise Hetland argues that the present construction began in 114, under Trajan and her argument is particularly interesting in light of Heilmeyers argument that, based on stylistic evidence, Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajans architect, was the obvious architect. The form of Agrippas Pantheon is debated and this description was widely accepted until the late 20th century. The only passages referring to the decoration of the Agrippan Pantheon written by an eyewitness are in Plinys Natural History, from him we know that the capitals, too, of the pillars, which were placed by M
40.
Broad Street Station (Richmond)
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Broad Street Station was a union railroad station in Richmond, Virginia, United States, across Broad Street from the Fan district. It was built as the terminus for the Richmond, Fredericksburg. The station also served the trains of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, eventually, the Seaboard Air Line Railway, which had formerly used Richmonds other union station, switched to Broad Street Station. The station was served by Amtraks Carolina Special, Champion, Silver Meteor. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on February 23,1972, passenger service to the station ceased in 1975, with all passenger service moving to a newly constructed suburban station on Staples Mill Road. Broad Street Station later became the home of the Science Museum of Virginia, history of Richmond, Virginia Transportation in Richmond, Virginia
41.
Richmond, Virginia
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Richmond is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. It is the center of the Richmond Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Greater Richmond Region and it was incorporated in 1742, and has been an independent city since 1871. As of the 2010 census, the population was 204,214, in 2015, the population was estimated to be 220,289, the Richmond Metropolitan Area has a population of 1,260,029, the third-most populous metro in the state. Richmond is located at the line of the James River,44 miles west of Williamsburg,66 miles east of Charlottesville. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is located at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, Major suburbs include Midlothian to the southwest, Glen Allen to the north and west, Short Pump to the west and Mechanicsville to the northeast. The site of Richmond had been an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609. The present city of Richmond was founded in 1737 and it became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America, the city entered the 20th century with one of the worlds first successful electric streetcar systems. The Jackson Ward neighborhood is a hub of African-American commerce. Richmonds economy is driven by law, finance, and government, with federal, state. Dominion Resources and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, are headquartered in the city, in 1737, planter William Byrd II commissioned Major William Mayo to lay out the original town grid. The settlement was laid out in April 1737, and was incorporated as a town in 1742, Richmond recovered quickly from the war, and by 1782 was once again a thriving city. A permanent home for the new government, the Virginia State Capitol building, was designed by Thomas Jefferson with the assistance of Charles-Louis Clérisseau, after the American Revolutionary War, Richmond emerged as an important industrial center. The legacy of the canal boatmen is represented by the figure in the center of the city flag, on April 17,1861, five days after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, the legislature voted to secede from the United States and joined the Confederacy. Official action came in May, after the Confederacy promised to move its capital to Richmond. It became the target of Union armies, especially in the campaigns of 1862. The Seven Days Battles followed in late June and early July 1862, during which Union General McClellan threatened to take Richmond, three years later, as March 1865 ended, the Confederate capitol became indefensible. On March 25, Confederate General John B, gordons desperate attack on Fort Stedman east of Petersburg failed
42.
Science Museum of Virginia
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The Science Museum of Virginia is a science museum located in Richmond, Virginia. Established in 1970, it is an agency of the Commonwealth of Virginia and it is housed in the former Broad Street Station, built in 1919. In 1906, the Virginia General Assembly approved funds for the construction of a simple exhibits center to display mineral, after the exposition ended, many of the items were moved to Richmonds Capitol Square. The State Museum as it came to be opened in 1910. In 1942, the General Assembly created a commission to consider establishing an official State science museum. That commission succeeded in endorsing the creation of a Virginia Museum of Science in 1943, the fiscal restraints and pressing concerns of World War II – and the recession which followed it – prevented the General Assembly from taking further action. In 1946, the General Assembly suspended work on a State science museum awaiting appropriate space, by 1964, the General Assembly resumed the project of a State Museum. A new study was commissioned, and once again, the establishment of a museum of science, archaeology, and natural history was proposed, enabling legislation was drafted and approved by the General Assembly, and on July 1,1970, the Science Museum of Virginia was established. Over the next years, the Museum attempted to find an empty storefront, warehouse. Broad Street Station was built by the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad in 1917 in the style by the architect John Russell Pope. The Museum staff occupied Broad Street Station on January 22,1976, on January 6,1977, Governor Godwin, in his second term, presided over the dedication of the Science Museums first exhibit gallery, The Discovery Room. The event celebrated the anniversary and rebirth of Broad Street Station. A remodeled and greatly expanded Aquarium opened in 1981 and that same year, the worlds largest analemmic sundial, located in the Museums parking lot, was dedicated. It would later be listed in the Guinness Book of World Records, in 1982 the Museum introduced Crystal World, the largest and most comprehensive exhibit in the world on the subject of crystallography. Also introduced was the Solar Challenger, the worlds first successful solar airplane, in 1983 the Museum dedicated its new Universe Planetarium & Space Theater, now called The Dome. The Theaters Digistar planetarium projector was the worlds first computer/video planetarium projection system and its film projection system was only one of a handful around the world capable of showing extremely exciting and realistic 70mm OMNIMAX films. The theaters sound system featured over one hundred individual speakers and generated power to simulate earthquakes. The seventy-six-foot domed screen of the theater itself was then the worlds largest, in 2003 the Museum unveiled the Grand Kugel, the worlds largest kugel ball at a cost of $1.5 million
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Branch House
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Branch House in Richmond, Virginia, was designed in 1916 by the firm of John Russell Pope as a private residence of financier John Kerr Branch and his wife Beulah Gould Branch. The house lies within Richmonds Monument Avenue Historic District, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1967, Branch House itself was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. The districts status was extended in 1989 and subsequently upgraded to a National Historic Landmark in 1997, the Branch House would subsequently operate as The Branch Museum of Architecture and Design, offices for AIA Virginia American Institute of Architects, and an architecture and design museum. John Kerr Branch was born in Danville, Virginia, to Mary Louise Merritt Kerr and John Patteson Branch, the elder Branch was a noted Richmond banker, investor, financier and philanthropist. On his death in 1915, the New York Times called him the Nestor of Richmond Bankers, John Kerr Branch grew up in Richmond and attended the McGuire School, subsequently studying in Paris and Germany. At age 21 he began clerking with his fathers firm, Thomas Branch & Company and he became President of Merchants National Bank of Richmond, President of Thomas Branch and Company, later Branch & Company, and President of Bankers and Brokers, Richmond. He was a member of the New York Stock Exchange and in addition to numerous Richmond clubs, also a member of the New York Yacht Club, Branch met Beulah Frances Gould in Germany on a retreat in the Black Forest. Branch had already begun a career as a collector at age 19. He and his wife Beulah later became known as collectors of Italian Renaissance paintings, furniture, tapestries, woodwork. For the design of their new home, they began working with the firm of John Russell Pope in 1914, well before the firms noted commissions in Washington, the elder Branch gifted an entire city block to his son and daughter on condition that they build their homes there. John Kerr built on one half of the block, and construction was complete in 1919 at a cost of $160,000, roughly the equivalent of $19 million in 2010. The Branches lived seasonally, maintaining Elmwood, their estate at Quaker Hill, Pawling, New York. Branch House was their winter home, John Kerr Branch died in Fiesole on July 1,1930, at age 65 of bronchitis, and was buried in Richmond. Beulah Gould Branch continued to live in the home until her death in 1952 and their daughter, Zayde Branch Rennolds subsequently gifted the home to a Richmond charity. A decade later, in the late 1960s, their granddaughter Zayde Rennolds Dotts created the Monument Avenue Preservation Society to protect the surroundings of the home her grandparents had commissioned. In addition, the house is located within a district of cultural significance and is the largest house in the city of Richmond. The client was also scion to a distinguished Virginia family and had assembled a collection of Renaissance artifacts. After receiving the gift of half a city block from his father, John Kerr, notably, the site is on axis with the Broad Street Station to the north, possibly related to John Kerr Branchs professional associations with the railroad
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Baltimore Museum of Art
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The Baltimore Museum of Art, located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, is an art museum that was founded in 1914. The BMA is home to a renowned collection of art that ranges from ancient Antioch mosaics to cutting-edge contemporary art. While founded with a painting, today the BMA has over 95,000 works of art—including the largest public holding of works by Henri Matisse. The museum encompasses a 210,000 sq. ft. building that was built in 1929, in the Roman Temple architectural style. The highlight of the museum is the Cone Collection, brought together by Baltimore sisters Dr. Claribel, the BMA is currently led by Director Christopher Bedford, who was appointed in May 2016, after a year-long search. Prior to joining the BMA, Bedford led the Rose Art Museum at Brandeis University in Massachusetts for 4 years, the Baltimore Museum of Art is the site of Gertrudes Restaurant, owned and operated by chef John Shields. In February,1904, a fire destroyed much of the central part of the downtown business district of the city of Baltimore. In response, the government established a City-Wide Congress to develop a master plan for the citys recovery and future growth. The congress, headed by Dr. A. R. L, Dohme, decided among other things that a major deficiency of the city was the lack of an art museum. This decision led to the formation of an 18-person Committee on the Art Museum led by art dealer, ten years later, the museum was officially incorporated on November 16,1914. Along with Minneapolis and Cleveland, Baltimores museum was modeled after two prominent 1870s predecessors, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. According to a booklet published at the time of incorporation, it was stated that Baltimore lagged behind other cities “in regard to matters of aesthetic interest. ”Still without a permanent site, the museum was founded with but a single painting, William-Sergeant Kendalls Mischief. As the museums founders were confident more art would eventually be acquired, at this time, the committee began planning a permanent home for the museums holdings. In 1916, a building was purchased on the southwest corner of North Charles, although an architect was employed to remodel it, it was never occupied. In 1915 the group had by then decided to house the museum in the Wyman Park area, west of the then named Peabody Heights. In 1923, the inaugural exhibition opened there with attendance topping 6,775 during its first week. The house was offered by Miss M. Cary as a home for the collections, the old Garrett mansion was acquired in 1925 by the group of art enthusiasts who bought the property for the purpose of keeping the museum intact. Despite having limited space, the museum offered accommodations to art associations, meanwhile, back at Wyman Park, prominent architect John Russell Pope, was engaged to design the museums permanent home
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Constitution Hall
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DAR Constitution Hall is a concert hall located in Washington, D. C. It was built in 1929 by the Daughters of the American Revolution to house its annual convention when membership delegations outgrew Memorial Continental Hall, later, the two buildings were connected by a third structure housing the DAR Museum, administrative offices, and genealogical library. DAR Constitution Hall is still owned and operated by the National Society of Daughters of the American Revolution and it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985. The hall seats 3,702, with 2,208 in the tiers and 1,234 on the orchestra level, additionally,52 boxes separate the orchestra from the tiers, including one Presidential box. The Hall is a Neoclassical style structure, faced with Alabama limestone and this auditorium is unusual with its U-shaped balcony, necessary to provide the enormous amount of seating required by the program while retaining practical sight distances. The auditorium holds a three-manual,40 rank Skinner pipe organ, the Hall is used for concerts, school commencements, conferences, corporate meetings, televised events and other performances. The Hall hosted the 1939 premiere of Mr, some of the earliest mainstream country music concerts were also held there, organized by Connie B. The free Air Force Band Sunday concerts, featuring famous guest artists, are popular, in 1939, the DAR denied African-American singer Marian Anderson the opportunity to sing at the Hall causing first lady Eleanor Roosevelt to resign her membership in protest. Every U. S. president since Calvin Coolidge has attended at least one event at the theater, list of concert halls DAR Constitution Hall DAR Constitution Hall on Google Street View
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American Pharmacists Association
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The American Pharmacists Association, founded in 1852, is the first-established professional society of pharmacists within the United States. APhA is made up of more than 62,000 practicing pharmacists, pharmaceutical scientists, student pharmacists, pharmacy technicians, and others interested in advancing the profession. Through a House of Delegates that meets each year at the APhA Annual Meeting & Exposition, APhA provides a forum for discussion, consensus building, and policy setting for the profession of pharmacy. In fact, nearly all of pharmacys specialty organizations trace their roots to APhA, the APhA Board of Trustees is responsible for broad direction setting of the Association. The House has representatives from all major national organizations, state pharmacy associations, federal pharmacy. American Institute of Pharmacy Building, the Associations headquarters building in Washington, D. C
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Milwaukee
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Milwaukee is the largest city in the state of Wisconsin and the fifth-largest city in the Midwestern United States. The county seat of Milwaukee County, it is on Lake Michigans western shore, Milwaukees estimated population in 2015 was 600,155. Milwaukee is the cultural and economic center of the Milwaukee–Racine–Waukesha Metropolitan Area with an estimated population of 2,046,692 as of 2015. Ranked by estimated 2014 population, Milwaukee is the 31st largest city in the United States, the first Europeans to pass through the area were French Catholic missionaries and fur traders. In 1818, the French Canadian explorer Solomon Juneau settled in the area, large numbers of German immigrants helped increase the citys population during the 1840s, with Poles and other immigrants arriving in the following decades. Known for its traditions, Milwaukee is currently experiencing its largest construction boom since the 1960s. In addition, many new skyscrapers, condos, lofts and apartments have been built in neighborhoods on and near the lakefront, the word Milwaukee may come from the Potawatomi language minwaking, or Ojibwe language ominowakiing, Gathering place. The first recorded inhabitants of the Milwaukee area are the Menominee, Fox, Mascouten, Sauk, Potawatomi, Ojibwe, many of these people had lived around Green Bay before migrating to the Milwaukee area around the time of European contact. In the second half of the 18th century, the Indians at Milwaukee played a role in all the wars on the American continent. During the French and Indian War, a group of Ojibwas, in the American Revolutionary War, the Indians around Milwaukee were some of the few Indians who remained loyal to the American cause throughout the Revolution. After American independence, the Indians fought the United States in the Northwest Indian War as part of the Council of Three Fires, during the War of 1812, Indians held a council in Milwaukee in June 1812, which resulted in their decision to attack Chicago. This resulted in the Battle of Fort Dearborn on August 15,1812, the War of 1812 did not end well for the Indians, and after the Black Hawk War in 1832, the Indians in Milwaukee signed their final treaty with the United States in Chicago in 1833. This paved the way for American settlement, Europeans had arrived in the Milwaukee area prior to the 1833 Treaty of Chicago. French missionaries and traders first passed through the area in the late 17th and 18th centuries, alexis Laframboise, in 1785, coming from Michilimackinac settled a trading post, therefore, he is the first European descent resident of the Milwaukee region. Early explorers called the Milwaukee River and surrounding lands various names, Melleorki, Milwacky, Mahn-a-waukie, Milwarck, for many years, printed records gave the name as Milwaukie. One story of Milwaukees name says, ne day during the thirties of the last century a newspaper calmly changed the name to Milwaukee, the spelling Milwaukie lives on in Milwaukie, Oregon, named after the Wisconsin city in 1847, before the current spelling was universally accepted. Milwaukee has three founding fathers, Solomon Juneau, Byron Kilbourn, and George H. Walker, Solomon Juneau was the first of the three to come to the area, in 1818. He was not the first European settler but founded a town called Juneaus Side, or Juneautown, in competition with Juneau, Byron Kilbourn established Kilbourntown west of the Milwaukee River and made sure the streets running toward the river did not join with those on the east side
United States
