1.
Hamilton, New York
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Hamilton is a town in Madison County, New York, United States. The population was 6,690 at the 2010 census, the town is named after American patriot Alexander Hamilton. The Town of Hamilton contains a village also named Hamilton, the site of Colgate University, the village is on the countys border. The location was formerly called Paynes Corners, the Town of Hamilton was established in 1795, before the county was formed, from the Town of Paris in Oneida County, New York. The original town was reduced to new towns in the county. The south town line is the border of Chenango County, New York. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 41.4 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 5,733 people,1,546 households, the population density was 138.6 people per square mile. There were 1,725 housing units at a density of 41.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 93. 65% White,1. 99% Black or African American,0. 07% Native American,2. 46% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 45% from other races, and 1. 34% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 83% of the population,29. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the family size was 2.96. In the town, the population was out with 15. 7% under the age of 18,40. 8% from 18 to 24,16. 8% from 25 to 44,15. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 22 years, for every 100 females there were 88.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males, the median income for a household in the town was $38,917, and the median income for a family was $50,565. Males had an income of $31,500 versus $26,643 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,564, about 5. 1% of families and 14. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 4% of those under age 18 and 5. 7% of those age 65 or over. Beekman Corners – A location between Hamilton village and East Hamilton, Brooks Corners – A hamlet in the south part of the town on Route 12
2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
3.
Frederick, Maryland
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Frederick is a city and the county seat of Frederick County in the U. S. state of Maryland. It is part of the Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area. C. and it is a part of the Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is part of a greater Washington-Baltimore-Arlington, DC-MD-VA-WV-PA Combined Statistical Area. The citys population was 65,239 people at the 2010 United States Census, located where Catoctin Mountain meets the rolling hills of the Piedmont region, the Frederick area became a crossroads even before European explorers and traders arrived. The earliest European settlement was north of Frederick in Monocacy. Daniel Dulany—a land speculator—laid out Frederick Town by 1745, three years earlier, All Saints Church had been founded on a hilltop near a warehouse/trading post. In 1742, Marylands General Assembly made Frederick the county seat of Frederick County, the current towns first house was built by a young German Reformed schoolmaster from the Rhineland Palatinate named Johann Thomas Schley, who led a party of immigrants to the Maryland colony. The Palatinate settlers bought land from Dulany on the banks of Carroll Creek, Schleys settlers also founded a German Reformed Church. Probably the oldest house standing in Frederick today is Schifferstadt, built in 1756 by German settler Joseph Brunner. Schleys group was among the many Pennsylvania Dutch who migrated south, another important route continued along the Potomac River from near Frederick, to Hagerstown, where it split. One branch crossed the Potomac River near Martinsburg, West Virginia, the other continued west to Cumberland, Maryland and ultimately crossed the Appalachian Mountains into the watershed of the Ohio River. Thus, British General Edward Braddock marched his troops west in 1755 through Frederick on the way to their fateful ambush near Fort Duquesne during the French, however, the British after the Proclamation of 1763 restricted that westward migration route until after the American Revolutionary War. Other German settlers in Frederick were Evangelical Lutherans, led by Rev. Henry Muhlenberg and they moved their mission church from Monocacy to what became a large complex a few blocks further down Church Street from the Anglicans and the German Reformed Church. Frederick also had a Catholic mission, to which Rev, jean DuBois was assigned in 1792, which became St. John the Evangelist Church. To control this crossroads during the American Revolution, the British garrisoned a German Hessian regiment in the town, afterward, many former Hessians stayed on and married into the towns families, strengthening the towns German identity. As the county seat for Western Maryland, Frederick not only was an important market town, although Montgomery County and Washington County were split off from Frederick County in 1776, Frederick remained the seat of the smaller county. Important lawyers who practiced in Frederick included John Hanson, Francis Scott Key, Frederick was also known during the nineteenth century for its religious pluralism, with one of its main thoroughfares, Church Street, hosting about a half dozen major churches. In 1793, All Saints Church hosted the first confirmation of an American citizen and that original colonial building was replaced in 1814 by a brick classical revival structure. It still stands today, although the principal worship space has become a larger brick gothic church joining it at the back
4.
Orders, decorations, and medals of Bulgaria
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Orders, decorations and medals of Bulgaria are regulated by the law on the Orders and Medals of the Republic Of Bulgaria of 29 May 2003. Note, Awards shown without ribbons are/were worn in full at all times, also, like most items which are created by the minting process, mint errors of awards do exist, some which were still issued despite the error and some which were discarded. These mint errors add dimensions to the art of collecting such items, main error types will also be listed here also. Numbers of Orders/Medals that were in use in both The Tsardom Of Bulgaria and The Peoples Republic Of Bulgaria show the number awarded during both regimes and not just under the single regime. The decorations of the Principality Of Bulgaria and the Third Bulgarian Tsardom were divided into orders, medals, Orders were awarded to civilians and military personnel for particularly great merits in service of the state. Honorary insignia were awarded for a merit or achievement or due to a specific event. No-one was issued every commemorative medal, as during the turbulence of coups, counter-coups and change of monarchs, the Principality Of Bulgarias first order was created with Article 59 of the Tarnovo Constitution, The Order Of Bravery, which came into force on 1 January 1880. The highest Tsardom Of Bulgaria award was the Order Of Saint Cyril And Saint Methodius awarded to those who brought outstanding excellence to the culture of the Tsardom Of Bulgaria. That being so this does not mean by any means that these medals were simply just for sale to all comers, note, Wider ribbons indicate 3 sided imperial type suspension/Narrower ribbons indicate 4/5 sided soviet type suspension. With the exile of Tsar Simeon II all Imperial Bulgarian awards were discontinued and banned, traces of the Imperial award system were left in the following ways, Until 13 December 1950 various awards were issued with male and female type ribbons. Two new orders were created with the name as imperial orders, The Order Cyril And Methodius. The Order Of Civil Merit ribbon was used for the new Order Of The Peoples Republic Of Bulgaria, with the collapse of The Peoples Republic Of Bulgaria their award system was discontinued with the exception of orders bestowed on foreign nationals. All communist and imperial awards were allowed to be worn, between 5 April 1991 and the introduction of The Order For Loyal Service Under The Banner in 1994 there were no official state awards for Bulgarian citizens. As of 29 May 2003 a totally new system was introduced. Legal organisation of the current Bulgarian Honours System is contained in the Constitution, Orders are established by the National Assembly and are awarded by the President of the Republic. The nomination of a person is made by the Ministry of External Affairs. Law on the Orders and the Medals of the Republic of Bulgaria, collection of orders, insignia and medals of the National Museum of Military History. Information on the International Botev Prize
5.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
6.
John Hasbrouck Van Vleck
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Then he went to Harvard for graduate studies and earned a Ph. D degree in 1922. He joined the University of Minnesota as an assistant professor in 1923 and he also earned Honorary D. Sc. or D. Honoris Causa, degree from Wesleyan University in 1936. J. H. Van Vleck established the fundamentals of the mechanical theory of magnetism. He is regarded as the Father of Modern Magnetism, during World War II, J. H. Van Vleck worked on radar at the MIT Radiation Lab. He was half time at the Radiation Lab and half time on the staff at Harvard and this was to have important consequences not just for military radar systems but later for the new science of radioastronomy. J. H. Van Vleck participated in the Manhattan Project, in June 1942, J. Robert Oppenheimer held a summer study for confirming the concept and feasibility of nuclear weapon at the University of California, Berkeley. Eight theoretical scientists, including J. H. Van Vleck, from July to September, the theoretical study group examined and developed the principles of atomic bomb design. J. H. Van Vlecks theoretical work led to the establishment of the Los Alamos Nuclear Weapons Laboratory and he also served on the Los Alamos Review committee in 1943. The committee, established by General Leslie Groves, also consisted of W. K. Lewis of MIT, Chairman, E. L. Rose, of Jones & Lamson, E. B. Wilson of Harvard, and Richard C. However, it was not employed for the Fat Man bomb at Nagasaki, in 1961/62 he was George Eastman Visiting Professor at University of Oxford and Professorship of Balliol College. In 1950 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts. He was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1966 and the Lorentz Medal in 1974. For his contributions to the understanding of the behavior of electrons in solids, Van Vleck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 1977, along with Philip W. Anderson. Van Vleck transformations and Van Vleck paramagnetism are also named after him, Van Vleck died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, aged 81. The Absorption of Radiation by Multiply Periodic Orbits, and its Relation to the Correspondence Principle, some Extensions of the Correspondence Principle, Physical Review, vol. 24, Issue 4, pp. 330–346 The Absorption of Radiation by Multiply Periodic Orbits, and its Relation to the Correspondence Principle, calculation of Absorption by Multiply Periodic Orbits, Physical Review, vol. 24, Issue 4, pp. 347–365 Quantum Principles and Line Spectra,14, pp. 178–188 He was awarded the Irving Langmuir Award in 1965, the National Medal of Science in 1966 and elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1967. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1971, the Lorentz Medal in 1974, J. H. Van Vleck and his wife Abigail were also important art collectors, particularly in the medium of Japanese woodblock prints, known as Van Vleck Collection
7.
Digital computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
8.
Iowa State College
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Iowa State University of Science and Technology is a public flagship land-grant and space-grant research university located in Ames, Iowa, United States. Iowa State is classified as a Research University with very high activity by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Iowa State is also a member of the Association of American Universities, Iowa State has also been designated an Innovation and Economic Prosperity University, a designation awarded to only 54 public universities in the U. S. D. Level, plus a degree program in Veterinary Medicine. Iowa State Universitys athletic teams, the Cyclones, compete in Division I of the NCAA and are a member of the Big 12 Conference. The Cyclones field 16 varsity teams and have won numerous NCAA national championships, in 1856, the Iowa General Assembly enacted legislation to establish the Iowa Agricultural College and Model Farm. This institution was established on March 22,1858, by the General Assembly. Story County was chosen as the location on June 21,1859, beating proposals from Johnson, Kossuth, Marshall, the original farm of 648 acres was purchased for a cost of $5,379. Iowa was the first state in the nation to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act of 1862, Iowa subsequently designated Iowa State as the land-grant college on March 29,1864. From the start, Iowa Agricultural College focused on the ideals that higher education should be accessible to all and these ideals are integral to the land-grant university. The institution was coeducational from the first preparatory class admitted in 1868, the formal admitting of students began the following year, and the first graduating class of 1872 consisted of 24 men and two women. The Farm House, the first building on the Iowa State campus, was completed in 1861 before the campus was occupied by students or classrooms. It became the home of the superintendent of the Model Farm and in later years, Iowa States first president, Adonijah Welch, briefly stayed at the Farm House and penned his inaugural speech in a second floor bedroom. The colleges first farm tenants primed the land for agricultural experimentation, the Iowa Experiment Station was one of the universitys prominent features. Practical courses of instruction were taught, including one designed to give a training for the career of a farmer. Courses in mechanical, civil, electrical, and mining engineering were also part of the curriculum, in 1870, President Welch and I. P. Robert, professor of agriculture, held three-day farmers institutes at Cedar Falls, Council Bluffs, Washington, and Muscatine. These became the earliest institutes held off-campus by a land grant institution and were the forerunners of 20th century extension, in 1872, the first courses were given in domestic economy and were taught by Mary B. Iowa State became the first land grant university in the nation to offer training in economy for college credit
9.
Hamilton (village), New York
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The Village of Hamilton is a village located within the town of Hamilton in Madison County, New York, United States. It is the location of Colgate University and has an estimated at 4,070 at the last census. The village, located at 42°49′32″N 75°32′40″W, lies in the Chenango Valley, the village is approximately 40 miles southeast of Syracuse and 30 miles southwest of Utica. The elevation of the municipal airport is approximately 1,100 feet above sea level. According to the United States Census Bureau, the total area is 2.5 square miles. Snowfall is the most notable aspect of the climate, which is typical of central Upstate New York in the vicinity of Syracuse. Heavy snow squalls frequently occur, generating from 1 to 2 feet of snow, the villages average seasonal snowfall is approximately 80 inches. The area that became the town of Hamilton originally was inhabited by members of the Iroquois League, following the American Revolution, the area was ceded to the State of New York. Until 1878, Hamilton was an original outpost of the Chenango Canal, the town of Hamilton was founded near what is now Earlville and then it gradually expanded into a wide area populated by farms and settlements. At the close of the Revolutionary War, Samuel and Elisha Payne moved from Lebanon, Connecticut, to the town of Whitestone, a few miles from Utica. In 1794, Samuel Payne moved southwest from Whitestone into the town of Hamilton, in 1795, a year after his brother moved into the town of Hamilton, Elisha Payne did so as well. He and others from Whitestone and Connecticut moved to an area just north of his brother. Because of Elisha Paynes interest and ability in developing the settlement and this became the Park House, which in 1925 was replaced by the present-day Colgate Inn. By 1800, Payne’s Settlement had, in addition to log cabins, five framed buildings, by 1806 much of the land surrounding the settlement had been cleared and replaced by orchards and farms. Salt was the form of currency in the settlement. Paynes Settlement experienced a boom from 1800 through the War of 1812 due to extensive crop exports to Europe. Serving as the center, the Settlement naturally prospered when farmers received higher prices. In addition, the 1808 opening of the Skaneateles Turnpike, which connected the village to western New York, from the beginning, Payne’s Settlement and the other settlements within the town of Hamilton strongly competed to be the principal location for development
10.
Bulgarians
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Bulgarians are a South Slavic ethnic group who are native to Bulgaria and its neighboring regions. Bulgarian citizenship shall further be acquirable through naturalization, the population of Bulgaria descend from peoples with different origins and numbers. They became assimilated by the Slavic settlers in the First Bulgarian Empire, from the indigenous Thracian people certain cultural and ethnic elements were taken. Other pre-Slavic Indo-European peoples, including Dacians, Celts, Goths, Romans, Greeks, the Thracian language has been described as a southern Baltic language. Some pre-Slavic linguistic and cultural traces might have preserved in modern Bulgarians. Medieval historians claimed that the Triballi are the largest tribe and that subsequently changed their name to Bulgarians or Serbs. Others claimed that the Paeonians are Bulgarians, others claimed that the Moesi, according to archeological evidence from the late periods of Roman rule, the Romans did not decrease the number of Thracians significantly in major cities. The latter gradually inflicting total linguistic replacement of Thracian if the Thracians had not already been Romanized or Hellenized and they continued coming to the Balkans in many waves, but also leaving, most notably Justinian II settled as many as 30,000 Slavs from Thrace in Asia Minor. The Byzantines grouped the numerous Slavic tribes into two groups, the Sklavenoi and Antes, some Bulgarian scholars suggest that the Antes became one of the ancestors of the modern Bulgarians. The control of the Bulgars in the west was indirect and in the hands of the Slavic chiefs, the Bulgars are first mentioned in the 4th century in the vicinity of the North Caucasian steppe. However, any connection between the Bulgars and postulated Asian counterparts rest on little more than speculative and contorted etymologies. The Bulgars are not thought to have numerous, becoming a ruling elite in the areas they controlled. Their archeological evidence is concentrated in northeast Bulgaria and in Macedonia, mixed Bulgar-Slavic settlements emerged according to archeological evidence. Omurtag was the last ruler with a Turkic name and during the reign of Boris the Slavonic language reached an official level, a substantional number of loan words of the Bulgar language remained in the Medieval Bulgarian Slavic language and fewer survived in the modern. During the Early Byzantine Era, the Roman provincials in Scythia Minor and Moesia Secunda were already engaged in economic, the major port towns in Pontic Bulgaria remained Byzantine Greek in their outlook. The establishment of a new state molded the various Slav, Bulgar, in different periods to the ethnogenesis of the local population contributed also different Indo-European and Turkic people, who settled or lived on the Balkans. The First Bulgarian Empire was founded in 681, after the adoption of Orthodox Christianity in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the Cyrillic script in its capital Preslav at the eve of the 10th century
11.
Yambol
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Yambol is a city in southeastern Bulgaria and administrative centre of Yambol Province. It lies on both banks of the Tundzha river in the region of Thrace. The administrative centres of two municipalities are situated in Yambol, one is of the rural area of Tundzha Municipality and the other is of the homonymous Yambol Municipality that embraces the city itself. Yambol Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Yambol, the surrounding area has been inhabited since the Neolithic and was the location of the ancient Thracian royal city of Kabyle. It was founded or refounded by Philip II of Macedon as an Ancient Greek polis, Yambol was founded by Roman Emperor Diocletian in AD293, though it was named Diospolis, the name also reflected the emperors name. The name later evolved through Diampolis, Hiambouli, Dinibouli, Dbilin and it was destroyed by the Avars in 583. It has been an important Bulgarian center ever since, the town expanded during the reign of Khan Omurtag of the First Bulgarian Empire and a new fortress was built. Its significance as near the point made it an important center for both trade and military purposes. During the reign of Boris I and Tsar Simeon the first literary centers were established, books were imported from Preslav and Ohrid literary schools and they were studied in the towns churches. During the reign of Tsar Kaloyan, the town again raised in importance, during the Ottoman period the town had a very large Muslim population as well. Ottomans conquered it in 1373, but a militarized semi-independent Bulgarian population remained as voyinuks in the part of the city. The predominant religion is Orthodox Christianity with a number of churches being present erected in 1888, there also exist Eastern Rite Catholic, in modern times Yambol, was a center of the Yambol okolia since 1878, then Yambol okrug since 1948. In 1984 it became part of the newly formed Burgas Oblast where it remained for 10 years, since the early 1990s Yambol is the center of Yambol oblast. During the Balkan War, Yambol was the headquarters of First Bulgarian Army, the city was affected by the turmoils of the early 20th century. I Some Bulgarian refugees from East Thrace, attacked by the Turkish Army in The Destruction of Thracian Bulgarians in 1913 and its Greek population left during the exchange of populations. It also hosted Bulgarian Macedonian refugees from the failed 1903 Ilinden Uprising, during World War I, Yambol hosted a base for Luftstreitkräfte zeppelins used for missions in Romania, Russia, Sudan and Malta. The town was chosen by the Germans due to its favorable location, in the early 21st century, the city became the first one in Bulgaria to use natural gas for domestic purposes. The population of Yambol during the first decade after the liberation of Bulgaria exceeded 10,000, being 11,241 in 1887
12.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
13.
April Uprising
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The April Uprising was an insurrection organised by the Bulgarians in the Ottoman Empire from April to May 1876, which indirectly resulted in the re-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878. The 1876 uprising involved only those parts of the Ottoman territories populated predominantly by Bulgarians, the emergence of Bulgarian national sentiments was closely related to the re-establishment of the independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church in 1870. Together with notions of nationalism, the rise of national awareness became known as the Bulgarian National Revival. The idea of state was an increasing emphasis during the 19th century, on the ethnic. The most noticeable characteristic was the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, by the 18th century, the Ottomans had fallen well behind the rest of Europe in science, technology, and industry. However, the Bulgarian population was also suppressed socially and politically under Ottoman rule, the failure of the Ottomans to handle the Herzegovinian uprising successfully showed the weakness of the Ottoman state, and atrocities discredited it for the outside world. In the late 19th century, European ideas of nationalism were adopted by the Bulgarian elite, in November 1875, activists of the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee met in the Romanian town of Giurgiu and decided that the political situation was suitable for a general uprising. The uprising was scheduled for April or May 1876, the territory of the country was divided into five revolutionary districts with centers in Vratsa, Veliko Tarnovo, Sliven, Plovdiv and Sofia. The rebels had been hoarding arms and ammunition for some time, on 14 April 1876, a general meeting of the committees from the fourth revolutionary district was held in the Oborishte locality near Panagyurishte to discuss the proclamation of the insurrection. One of the delegates, however, disclosed the plot to the Ottoman authorities, on 2 May 1876, Ottoman police made an attempt to arrest the leader of the local revolutionary committee in Koprivshtitsa, Todor Kableshkov. These actions include killing, arson of property and homes and seizure of assets, on the other hand Muslims who did not resist were to be protected in the same way as the Bulgarian population. The committee also gives approval for torching towns and villages, there is no evidence that this plan was implemented. In conformity with the decisions taken at Oborishte, on 20 April 1876 the local rebel committee attacked and surrounded the headquarters of the Ottoman police in Koprivshtitsa commanded by Necip Aga. At least two Ottoman police officials were killed and Necip Aga was forced to release arrested Bulgarian rebel suspects, Necip Aga and his close officials managed to escape the siege. However, due to this incident the Bulgarian rebels had to proclaim the insurrection two weeks in advance of the planned date, within several days, the rebellion spread to the whole Sredna Gora and to a number of towns and villages in the northwestern Rhodopes. The insurrection broke out in the other districts, as well. The areas of Gabrovo, Tryavna, and Pavlikeni also revolted in force, as well as several villages north and south of Sliven, the rebels attacked Muslim civilians as well as Ottoman officials and police. The number of killed by the rebels is disputed
14.
Brewster, Florida
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Brewster is a ghost town in southwest Polk County, Florida, United States, ten miles south of Mulberry. It is at an elevation of 143 feet above sea level and has been uninhabited since the early 1960s, the population is 3, according to the 2010 Census. The village of Brewster was founded in 1910 and for decades flourished from phosphate mining and it was largely a company town for American Cyanamid. The town had its own schools, movie theater, medical clinic, post office, which was established in 1913 and discontinued in 1961, the inventor of the digital computer, John Vincent Atanasoff, though born in Hamilton, New York, grew up in Brewster. The village was closed down by the company in 1962. Much of Brewster was demolished at the time, but some abandoned buildings remain, the deed to Brewster was turned over to the state of Florida in partial payment of a judgment against American Cyanamid for environmental damages. Agrock yard Brewster Pages Brewster on GhostTowns. com
15.
Slide rule
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The slide rule, also known colloquially in the United States as a slipstick, is a mechanical analog computer. The slide rule is used primarily for multiplication and division, and also for functions such as exponents, roots, logarithms and trigonometry, though similar in name and appearance to a standard ruler, the slide rule is not ordinarily used for measuring length or drawing straight lines. Slide rules exist in a range of styles and generally appear in a linear or circular form with a standardized set of markings essential to performing mathematical computations. Slide rules manufactured for specialized fields such as aviation or finance typically feature additional scales that aid in calculations common to those fields, at its simplest, each number to be multiplied is represented by a length on a sliding ruler. As the rulers each have a scale, it is possible to align them to read the sum of the logarithms. The Reverend William Oughtred and others developed the rule in the 17th century based on the emerging work on logarithms by John Napier. Before the advent of the calculator, it was the most commonly used calculation tool in science. In its most basic form, the slide rule uses two logarithmic scales to allow rapid multiplication and division of numbers and these common operations can be time-consuming and error-prone when done on paper. More elaborate slide rules allow other calculations, such as roots, exponentials, logarithms. Scales may be grouped in decades, which are numbers ranging from 1 to 10. Thus single decade scales C and D range from 1 to 10 across the width of the slide rule while double decade scales A and B range from 1 to 100 over the width of the slide rule. Numbers aligned with the marks give the value of the product, quotient. The user determines the location of the point in the result. Scientific notation is used to track the decimal point in more formal calculations, addition and subtraction steps in a calculation are generally done mentally or on paper, not on the slide rule. Most slide rules consist of three strips of the same length, aligned in parallel and interlocked so that the central strip can be moved lengthwise relative to the other two. The outer two strips are fixed so that their relative positions do not change. Some slide rules have scales on both sides of the rule and slide strip, others on one side of the outer strips and both sides of the slide strip, still others on one side only. A sliding cursor with a vertical alignment line is used to find corresponding points on scales that are not adjacent to other or
16.
Logarithm
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In mathematics, the logarithm is the inverse operation to exponentiation. That means the logarithm of a number is the exponent to which another fixed number, in simple cases the logarithm counts factors in multiplication. For example, the base 10 logarithm of 1000 is 3, the logarithm of x to base b, denoted logb, is the unique real number y such that by = x. For example, log2 =6, as 64 =26, the logarithm to base 10 is called the common logarithm and has many applications in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the e as its base, its use is widespread in mathematics and physics. The binary logarithm uses base 2 and is used in computer science. Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations and they were rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers, and others to perform computations more easily, using slide rules and logarithm tables. The present-day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the function in the 18th century. Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to tiny scopes, for example, the decibel is a unit quantifying signal power log-ratios and amplitude log-ratios. In chemistry, pH is a measure for the acidity of an aqueous solution. Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae, and in measurements of the complexity of algorithms and they describe musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting. In the same way as the logarithm reverses exponentiation, the logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function applied to complex numbers. The discrete logarithm is another variant, it has uses in public-key cryptography, the idea of logarithms is to reverse the operation of exponentiation, that is, raising a number to a power. For example, the power of 2 is 8, because 8 is the product of three factors of 2,23 =2 ×2 ×2 =8. It follows that the logarithm of 8 with respect to base 2 is 3, the third power of some number b is the product of three factors equal to b. More generally, raising b to the power, where n is a natural number, is done by multiplying n factors equal to b. The n-th power of b is written bn, so that b n = b × b × ⋯ × b ⏟ n factors, exponentiation may be extended to by, where b is a positive number and the exponent y is any real number. For example, b−1 is the reciprocal of b, that is, the logarithm of a positive real number x with respect to base b, a positive real number not equal to 1, is the exponent by which b must be raised to yield x
17.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
18.
University of Florida
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The University of Florida is an American public land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant research university on a 2, 000-acre campus in Gainesville, Florida. It is a member of the State University System of Florida and traces its origins to 1853. The University is classified as a Research University with Very High Research by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, for 2017, U. S. News & World Report ranked Florida as the fourteenth best public university in the United States. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and it is the third largest Florida university by student population, and is the eighth largest single-campus university in the United States with 49,913 students enrolled for the fall 2012 semester. The University of Florida is home to sixteen colleges and more than 150 research centers. The University of Florida traces its origins to 1853, when the East Florida Seminary, on January 6,1853, Governor Thomas Brown signed a bill that provided public support for higher education in Florida. Gilbert Kingsbury was the first person to take advantage of the legislation, and established the East Florida Seminary, the East Florida Seminary was Floridas first state-supported institution of higher learning. James Henry Roper, an educator from North Carolina and a senator from Alachua County, had opened a school in Gainesville. In 1866, Roper offered his land and school to the State of Florida in exchange for the relocation of the East Florida Seminary to Gainesville, the second major precursor to the University of Florida was the Florida Agricultural College, established at Lake City by Jordan Probst in 1884. Florida Agricultural College became the states first land-grant college under the Morrill Act, in 1905, the Florida Legislature passed the Buckman Act, which consolidated the states publicly supported higher education institutions. The member of the legislature who wrote the act, Henry Holland Buckman, later became the namesake of Buckman Hall, the Buckman Act organized the State University System of Florida and created the Florida Board of Control to govern the system. The City of Gainesville, led by its Mayor William Reuben Thomas, on July 6,1905, the Board of Control selected Gainesville for the new university campus. Andrew Sledd, president of the pre-existing University of Florida at Lake City, was selected to be the first president of the new University of the State of Florida, architect William A. Edwards designed the first official campus buildings in the Collegiate Gothic style. Classes began on the new Gainesville campus on September 26,1906, in 1909, the schools name was simplified from the University of the State of Florida to the University of Florida. The alligator was incidentally chosen as the mascot in 1911, after a local vendor ordered. Murphree is the only University of Florida president honored with a statue on the campus, before this, only the summer semester was coeducational, to accommodate women teachers who wanted to further their education during the summer break. Lassie Goodbread-Black from Lake City became the first woman to enroll at the University of Florida, john J. Tigert became the third university president in 1928. By the end of the 1946–47 school year,954 men were enrolled at the Tallahassee Branch, the following semester, the Florida Legislature returned the Florida State College for Women to coeducational status and renamed it Florida State University
19.
Iowa State University
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Iowa State University of Science and Technology is a public flagship land-grant and space-grant research university located in Ames, Iowa, United States. Iowa State is classified as a Research University with very high activity by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Iowa State is also a member of the Association of American Universities, Iowa State has also been designated an Innovation and Economic Prosperity University, a designation awarded to only 54 public universities in the U. S. D. Level, plus a degree program in Veterinary Medicine. Iowa State Universitys athletic teams, the Cyclones, compete in Division I of the NCAA and are a member of the Big 12 Conference. The Cyclones field 16 varsity teams and have won numerous NCAA national championships, in 1856, the Iowa General Assembly enacted legislation to establish the Iowa Agricultural College and Model Farm. This institution was established on March 22,1858, by the General Assembly. Story County was chosen as the location on June 21,1859, beating proposals from Johnson, Kossuth, Marshall, the original farm of 648 acres was purchased for a cost of $5,379. Iowa was the first state in the nation to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act of 1862, Iowa subsequently designated Iowa State as the land-grant college on March 29,1864. From the start, Iowa Agricultural College focused on the ideals that higher education should be accessible to all and these ideals are integral to the land-grant university. The institution was coeducational from the first preparatory class admitted in 1868, the formal admitting of students began the following year, and the first graduating class of 1872 consisted of 24 men and two women. The Farm House, the first building on the Iowa State campus, was completed in 1861 before the campus was occupied by students or classrooms. It became the home of the superintendent of the Model Farm and in later years, Iowa States first president, Adonijah Welch, briefly stayed at the Farm House and penned his inaugural speech in a second floor bedroom. The colleges first farm tenants primed the land for agricultural experimentation, the Iowa Experiment Station was one of the universitys prominent features. Practical courses of instruction were taught, including one designed to give a training for the career of a farmer. Courses in mechanical, civil, electrical, and mining engineering were also part of the curriculum, in 1870, President Welch and I. P. Robert, professor of agriculture, held three-day farmers institutes at Cedar Falls, Council Bluffs, Washington, and Muscatine. These became the earliest institutes held off-campus by a land grant institution and were the forerunners of 20th century extension, in 1872, the first courses were given in domestic economy and were taught by Mary B. Iowa State became the first land grant university in the nation to offer training in economy for college credit
20.
Master's degree
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A masters degree normally requires previous study at the bachelors level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. The original meaning of the degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank of master in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendi, initially, the Bachelor of Arts was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts for the study of the quadrivium. The nineteenth century saw an expansion in the variety of masters degrees offered. By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England, when the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, the same as that in Europe. In the United States, the first masters degrees were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation, at Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the masters degree had to pass a public examination, but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style 3 years after the BA. In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid nineteenth century, in Scotland all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter. Probably the most important masters degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science, at the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858, in course, first awarded in 1859, and on examination, first awarded in 1862. The in course MS was last awarded in 1876, in Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. The same two degrees, again omitting the masters, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland. In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award masters degrees in theology and science and this scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science. The Master of Science degree was introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham. At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durhams MA in requiring an examination for those with an ordinary bachelors degree. The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area, as the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the masters degrees. In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs the most stupendous of academic frauds, in 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science, first awarded in 1902. This was the first masters degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA, the idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903. Over the first half of the century the masters degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK
21.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
22.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
23.
Theoretical physics
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Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
24.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority
25.
Campus of Iowa State University
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The Iowa State University campus contains over 160 buildings, several of which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Iowa States main campus features 490 acres of trees, plants, the concept of an open central campus encircled by buildings, was the vision of Iowa States first president, Adonijah Welch. The campus is dominated by a large 20 acre central lawn known as Central Campus, along with the University of Virginia and Yale University, ISUs central campus was listed as a medallion site by the American Society of Landscape Architects in 1999. It was listed as one of 25 most beautiful sites in the United States in the book The Campus as a Work of Art, the fountain was sculpted by Christian Petersen in 1941 after a request from Iowa State President Charles Friley. The previous fountain was a water tower on which students would place toilet seats. President Friley hoped that with a new, beautiful fountain, students would no longer make jokes of it, named for Dr. LaVerne W. Noyes, who also donated the funds to see that Alumni Hall could be completed after sitting unfinished and unused from 1905 to 1907. Dr. Noyes is an 1872 alumnus, Lake LaVerne is located west of the Memorial Union and south of Alumni Hall, Carver Hall, and Music Hall. The lake was a gift from Dr. Noyes in 1916, Lake LaVerne is the home of two mute swans named Sir Lancelot and Elaine, donated to Iowa State by VEISHEA1935. In 1944,1970, and 1971 cygnets made their home on Lake LaVerne, previously Sir Lancelot and Elaine were trumpeter swans but were too aggressive and in 1999 were replaced with two mute swans. In early 2002 Sir Lancelot suffered a foot from chasing a campus lawnmower. Sir Lancelot underwent surgery at Iowa States College of Veterinary Medicine, early spring 2003 Lake LaVerne welcomed is new and current mute swan duo. Iowa State is the home of the first elevated steel water tank west of the Mississippi River, named the Marston Water Tower, it was erected in 1897 under the supervision and design of Anson Marston and his assistant Elmina Wilson. The water tower was constructed due to a water shortage in 1895 that forced cancellation of classes. In 1978, the tower was disconnected when the university switched to municipal water. It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on May 27,1982, the water tower stands 168 feet tall on an octagonal base. The tank holds 162,000 US gallons and is 24 feet in diameter and 40 feet tall, when full, the ~72,400 cubic feet of water would weigh 2,050 t. Roy Reiman is a 1957 graduate of Iowa State in agriculture journalism, the Reiman Gardens are named for Roy and his wife Bobbi who donated $1.3 million to begin their development. Located south of Jack Trice Stadium, opened in 1995, the gardens have grown to become the largest public garden in the state
26.
Monroe Calculating Machine Company
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The Monroe Calculating Machine Company was a maker of adding machines and calculators founded in 1912 by Jay Randolph Monroe based on a machine designed by Frank Stephen Baldwin. Now known as Monroe Systems for Business, the company was known as Monroe Calculating Machine Company, Monroe THE Calculator Company. In 1911, Jay Randolph Monroe first saw the Baldwin Calculator, the following year the firm moved to Orange, New Jersey. The factory personnel consisted of nine men and the entire heavy factory equipment was a lathe. Even with these tools, tolerances were maintained to within thousandths of an inch to insure the accurate performance of the finished machine. The first Monroe was offered to the world in 1914. In 1932, the company was awarded the Franklin Institutes John Price Wetherill Medal, for many years, Monroe was headquartered in Orange, New Jersey and Morris Plains, New Jersey with its manufacturing plants in New Jersey, Bristol, Virginia and Amsterdam. In 1958, the company was acquired by Litton Industries, in the mid-1980s, the company diversified and began carrying a line of private-labeled copiers and cross-cut paper shredders, but those items have been discontinued. In the 1970s and 1980s, the company had some 300 sales, in 1972, Monroe announced a pocket-sized electronic display calculator at $269. Early models of calculator were designated by letters, the letters A, B, and C are lost in the records of those early days devoted to constructing a suitable pilot model. The D model started manufacture in 1915 with serial numbers below 4,000, the E model started manufacture in 1916 with serial numbers beginning at 4,000. The F model was introduced in 1917 with serial numbers above 6,000, the G model was the first machine of the refined style, and was introduced in 1919 with serial numbers above 20,000. The H and I were never released for production, the K was the real start of the big forward march by the Monroe Company. The K hand machine, introduced in 1921, was followed by KA, KAS, KAA, KASC, KASE, the L model was produced from January 1929 to February 1971. The M model further refined the L. Electromechanical models, rotary calculator display models, Model 570 was the last electro-mechanical four-function calculator model produced. Model 200 billing machine for accounts receivable functions, New York Times, August 17,1969, Sunday, Tiny Calculator in Production. The Monroe division of Litton Industries, Inc. has begun production of what it describes as the smallest cathode ray tube desk calculator in the world. Donald A. McMahon, president, said the new unit, which weighs 14 pounds and measures 11 inches wide by 17 inches deep, is made entirely in this country with no parts from foreign countries
27.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
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Unit record equipment
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Unit record machines came to be as ubiquitous in industry and government in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century as computers became in the last third. They allowed large volume, sophisticated data-processing tasks to be accomplished before electronic computers were invented and this data processing was accomplished by processing punched cards through various unit record machines in a carefully choreographed progression. This progression, or flow, from machine to machine was often planned and documented with detailed flowcharts that used standardized symbols for documents, the operation of many machines was directed by the use of a removable plugboard or control panel. Initially all machines were manual or electromechanical, the first use of an electronic component was in 1940 when a gas triode vacuum tube replaced a relay in an IBM card sorter. Electronic components were used on other machines beginning in the late 1940s, IBM was the largest supplier of unit record equipment and this article largely reflects IBM practice and terminology. In the 1880s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, prior uses of machine readable media had been for lists of instructions to drive programmed machines such as Jacquard looms and mechanized musical instruments. After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards, to process these punched cards, sometimes referred to as Hollerith cards, he invented the keypunch, sorter, and tabulator unit record machines. These inventions were the foundation of the processing industry. The tabulator used electromechanical relays to increment mechanical counters, Holleriths method was used in the 1890 census. The bureaus contract disputes with Hollerith led to the formation of the Census Machine Shop where James Powers and others developed new machines for part of the 1910 census processing. Powers left the Census Bureau in 1911, with rights to patents for the machines he developed, in 1927 Powers company was acquired by Remington Rand. In 1919 Fredrik Rosing Bull, after examining Holleriths machines, began developing unit record machines for his employer, bulls patents were sold in 1931, constituting the basis for Groupe Bull. Punched card technology had developed into a powerful tool for business data-processing. 1884, Herman Hollerith files a patent application titled Art of Compiling Statistics, patent 395,782 on January 8,1889. 1909, The Tabulator Limited renamed as British Tabulating Machine Company,1910, Tabulators built by the Census Machine Shop print results. 1910, Willy Heidinger, an acquaintance of Hollerith, licenses Hollerith’s The Tabulating Machine Company patents,1911, Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company, a holding company, formed by the amalgamation of The Tabulating Machine Company and three other companies. 1911, James Powers forms Powers Tabulating Machine Company, later renamed Powers Accounting Machine Company, Powers had been employed by the Census Bureau to work on tabulating machine development and was given the right to patent his inventions there. The machines he developed sensed card punches mechanically, as opposed to Holleriths electric sensing,1912, The first Powers horizontal sorting machine
29.
Analog computer
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An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their values change. As an analog computer does not use values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence. Unlike digital signal processing, analog computers do not suffer from the quantization noise, Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications where digital computers of the time lacked sufficient performance. Analog computers can have a wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomographs are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers, systems for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions. More complex applications, such as synthetic aperture radar, remained the domain of analog computing well into the 1980s, setting up an analog computer required scale factors to be chosen, along with initial conditions—that is, starting values. Another essential was creating the network of interconnections between computing elements. Sometimes it was necessary to re-think the structure of the problem so that the computer would function satisfactorily, no variables could be allowed to exceed the computers limits, and differentiation was to be avoided, typically by rearranging the network of interconnects, using integrators in a different sense. Running an electronic computer, assuming a satisfactory setup, started with the computer held with some variables fixed at their initial values. Moving a switch released the holds and permitted the problem to run, in some instances, the computer could, after a certain running time interval, repeatedly return to the initial-conditions state to reset the problem, and run it again. This is a list of examples of early computation devices which are considered to be precursors of the modern computers, some of them may even have been dubbed as computers by the press, although they may fail to fit the modern definitions. The south-pointing chariot can be considered the earliest analog computer and it was a mechanical-geared wheeled vehicle used for to discern the southern cardinal direction. The Antikythera mechanism was an orrery and is claimed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later, many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century, the astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy
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Binary number
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The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates. Each digit is referred to as a bit, the modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de lArithmétique Binaire. Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching. The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions and Horus-Eye fractions, the method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique and it is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang. Eight trigrams and a set of 64 hexagrams, analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, the Indian scholar Pingala developed a binary system for describing prosody. He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables, Pingalas Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingalas system increases towards the right, the residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa, sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been applied in sub-Saharan Africa. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the ex nihilo through Gods almighty power. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra
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Boolean algebra
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In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0 respectively. It is thus a formalism for describing logical relations in the way that ordinary algebra describes numeric relations. Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole in his first book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, according to Huntington, the term Boolean algebra was first suggested by Sheffer in 1913. Boolean algebra has been fundamental in the development of digital electronics and it is also used in set theory and statistics. Booles algebra predated the modern developments in algebra and mathematical logic. In an abstract setting, Boolean algebra was perfected in the late 19th century by Jevons, Schröder, Huntington, in fact, M. H. Stone proved in 1936 that every Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a field of sets. Shannon already had at his disposal the abstract mathematical apparatus, thus he cast his switching algebra as the two-element Boolean algebra, in circuit engineering settings today, there is little need to consider other Boolean algebras, thus switching algebra and Boolean algebra are often used interchangeably. Efficient implementation of Boolean functions is a problem in the design of combinational logic circuits. Logic sentences that can be expressed in classical propositional calculus have an equivalent expression in Boolean algebra, thus, Boolean logic is sometimes used to denote propositional calculus performed in this way. Boolean algebra is not sufficient to capture logic formulas using quantifiers, the closely related model of computation known as a Boolean circuit relates time complexity to circuit complexity. Whereas in elementary algebra expressions denote mainly numbers, in Boolean algebra they denote the truth values false and these values are represented with the bits, namely 0 and 1. Addition and multiplication then play the Boolean roles of XOR and AND respectively, Boolean algebra also deals with functions which have their values in the set. A sequence of bits is a commonly used such function, another common example is the subsets of a set E, to a subset F of E is associated the indicator function that takes the value 1 on F and 0 outside F. The most general example is the elements of a Boolean algebra, as with elementary algebra, the purely equational part of the theory may be developed without considering explicit values for the variables. The basic operations of Boolean calculus are as follows, AND, denoted x∧y, satisfies x∧y =1 if x = y =1 and x∧y =0 otherwise. OR, denoted x∨y, satisfies x∨y =0 if x = y =0, NOT, denoted ¬x, satisfies ¬x =0 if x =1 and ¬x =1 if x =0. Alternatively the values of x∧y, x∨y, and ¬x can be expressed by tabulating their values with truth tables as follows, the first operation, x → y, or Cxy, is called material implication. If x is then the value of x → y is taken to be that of y
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System of linear equations
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In mathematics, a system of linear equations is a collection of two or more linear equations involving the same set of variables. A solution to a system is an assignment of values to the variables such that all the equations are simultaneously satisfied. A solution to the system above is given by x =1 y = −2 z = −2 since it all three equations valid. The word system indicates that the equations are to be considered collectively, in mathematics, the theory of linear systems is the basis and a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in most parts of modern mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of linear algebra, and play a prominent role in engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science. A system of equations can often be approximated by a linear system. For solutions in an integral domain like the ring of the integers, or in other structures, other theories have been developed. Integer linear programming is a collection of methods for finding the best integer solution, gröbner basis theory provides algorithms when coefficients and unknowns are polynomials. Also tropical geometry is an example of linear algebra in a more exotic structure, the simplest kind of linear system involves two equations and two variables,2 x +3 y =64 x +9 y =15. One method for solving such a system is as follows, first, solve the top equation for x in terms of y, x =3 −32 y. Now substitute this expression for x into the equation,4 +9 y =15. This results in an equation involving only the variable y. Solving gives y =1, and substituting this back into the equation for x yields x =3 /2. Here x 1, x 2, …, x n are the unknowns, a 11, a 12, …, a m n are the coefficients of the system, and b 1, b 2, …, b m are the constant terms. Often the coefficients and unknowns are real or complex numbers, but integers and rational numbers are seen, as are polynomials. One extremely helpful view is that each unknown is a weight for a vector in a linear combination. X1 + x 2 + ⋯ + x n = This allows all the language, If every vector within that span has exactly one expression as a linear combination of the given left-hand vectors, then any solution is unique. This is important because if we have m independent vectors a solution is guaranteed regardless of the right-hand side, and otherwise not guaranteed
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Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
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Vacuum tube
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In electronics, a vacuum tube, an electron tube, or just a tube, or valve, is a device that controls electric current between electrodes in an evacuated container. Vacuum tubes mostly rely on thermionic emission of electrons from a hot filament or a cathode heated by the filament and this type is called a thermionic tube or thermionic valve. A phototube, however, achieves electron emission through the photoelectric effect, the simplest vacuum tube, the diode, contains only a heater, a heated electron-emitting cathode, and a plate. Current can only flow in one direction through the device between the two electrodes, as electrons emitted by the travel through the tube and are collected by the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids, Tubes with grids can be used for many purposes, including amplification, rectification, switching, oscillation, and display. In the 1940s the invention of devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, more reliable, more durable. Hence, from the mid-1950s solid-state devices such as transistors gradually replaced tubes, the cathode-ray tube remained the basis for televisions and video monitors until superseded in the 21st century. However, there are still a few applications for which tubes are preferred to semiconductors, for example, the used in microwave ovens. One classification of vacuum tubes is by the number of active electrodes, a device with two active elements is a diode, usually used for rectification. Devices with three elements are used for amplification and switching. Additional electrodes create tetrodes, pentodes, and so forth, which have additional functions made possible by the additional controllable electrodes. X-ray tubes are vacuum tubes. Phototubes and photomultipliers rely on electron flow through a vacuum, though in those cases electron emission from the cathode depends on energy from photons rather than thermionic emission, since these sorts of vacuum tubes have functions other than electronic amplification and rectification they are described in their own articles. A vacuum tube consists of two or more electrodes in a vacuum inside an airtight enclosure, most tubes have glass envelopes, though ceramic and metal envelopes have been used. The electrodes are attached to leads which pass through the envelope via an airtight seal, Tubes were a frequent cause of failure in electronic equipment, and consumers were expected to be able to replace tubes themselves. In addition to the terminals, some tubes had an electrode terminating at a top cap. The principal reason for doing this was to avoid leakage resistance through the tube base, the bases were commonly made with phenolic insulation which performs poorly as an insulator in humid conditions. There was even a design that had two top cap connections
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Capacitor
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A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance, a capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser. The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, the nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitors charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. No current actually flows through the dielectric, instead, the effect is a displacement of charges through the source circuit, if the condition is maintained sufficiently long, this displacement current through the battery ceases. However, if a voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units is the farad, capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pF to about 1 mF. The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the area of the plates. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and it has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance, Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies, in resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in digital computers. Von Kleists hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric, von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine
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Dynamic random-access memory
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Dynamic random-access memory is a type of random-access memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. The capacitor can be charged or discharged, these two states are taken to represent the two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1. Since even nonconducting transistors always leak a small amount, the capacitors will slowly discharge, because of this refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory as opposed to static random-access memory and other static types of memory. Unlike flash memory, DRAM is volatile memory, since it loses its data quickly when power is removed, however, DRAM does exhibit limited data remanence. DRAM is widely used in digital electronics where low-cost and high-capacity memory is required, one of the largest applications for DRAM is the main memory in modern computers, and as the main memories of components used in these computers such as graphics cards. In contrast, SRAM, which is faster and more expensive than DRAM, is used where speed is of greater concern than cost. The advantage of DRAM is its simplicity, only one transistor. This allows DRAM to reach high densities. The transistors and capacitors used are small, billions can fit on a single memory chip. Due to the nature of its memory cells, DRAM consumes relatively large amounts of power. The cryptanalytic machine code-named Aquarius used at Bletchley Park during World War II incorporated a dynamic memory. Paper tape was read and the characters on it were remembered in a dynamic store, the store used a large bank of capacitors, which were either charged or not, a charged capacitor representing cross and an uncharged capacitor dot. Since the charge gradually leaked away, a pulse was applied to top up those still charged. In 1964, Arnold Farber and Eugene Schlig, working for IBM, created a hard-wired memory cell, using a transistor gate and they replaced the latch with two transistors and two resistors, a configuration that became known as the Farber-Schlig cell. In 1965, Benjamin Agusta and his team at IBM created a 16-bit silicon memory chip based on the Farber-Schlig cell, with 80 transistors,64 resistors, in 1966, DRAM was invented by Dr. Robert Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center. He was granted U. S. patent number 3,387,286 in 1968, capacitors had been used for earlier memory schemes such as the drum of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, the Williams tube and the Selectron tube. The Toshiba Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator, which was introduced in November 1966, the first DRAM was introduced in 1969 by Advanced Memory system, Inc of Sunnyvale, CA </ref>. This 1000 bit chip was sold to Honeywell, Raytheon, Wang Computer among others, in 1969 Honeywell asked Intel to make a DRAM using a three-transistor cell that they had developed
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History of computing hardware
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The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day computers. Before the 20th century, most calculations were done by humans, early mechanical tools to help humans with digital calculations, such as the abacus, were called calculating machines, by proprietary names, or even as they are now, calculators. The machine operator was called the computer, later, computers represented numbers in a continuous form, for instance distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a voltage. Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanical mechanism, although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision of results. A series of breakthroughs, such as miniaturized transistor computers, the cost of computers gradually became so low that by the 1990s, personal computers, and then, in the 2000s, mobile computers, became ubiquitous in industrialized countries. Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, the earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC, since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These include the Antikythera mechanism and the astrolabe from ancient Greece, hero of Alexandria made many complex mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart. Ramon Llull invented the Lullian Circle, a machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by Leibniz centuries later, and is one of the founding elements in computing. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications and it was at this point that he designed his Napiers bones, an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division. Edmund Gunter built a device with a single logarithmic scale at the University of Oxford. His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division, William Oughtred greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule. He followed this up with the slide rule in 1632. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, Wilhelm Schickard, a German polymath, designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanised form of Napiers rods with the worlds first mechanical adding machine built into the base
38.
Ames, Iowa
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Ames is a city located in the central part of the U. S. state of Iowa in Story County. Lying approximately 30 miles north of Des Moines, it had a 2010 population of 58,965, while Ames is the largest city in Story County, the county seat is in the nearby city of Nevada 8 miles east of Ames. Ames is the home of Iowa State University of Science and Technology, a research institution with leading Agriculture, Design, Engineering. ISU is the nations first designated land-grant university, and the birthplace of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, Ames is also the home of the USDAs Agricultural Research Services National Animal Disease Center. NADC is the largest federal animal disease center in the U. S. conducting research aimed at solving animal health and food safety problems faced by livestock producers, Ames has the headquarters for the Iowa Department of Transportation. In 2010, Ames was ranked ninth on CNNMoney. com Best Places to Live list, the city was founded in 1864 as a station stop on the Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad and was named after 19th century U. S. Congressman Oakes Ames of Massachusetts, who was influential in the building of the transcontinental railroad, Ames was founded by local resident Cynthia Olive Duff and railroad magnate John Insley Blair, near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the Skunk River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.27 square miles. Ames is located on Interstate 35, U. S. Route 30 &69, two small streams run through the town, the South Skunk River and Squaw Creek. Campustown is the neighborhood south of Iowa State University Central Campus bordered by Lincoln Way on the north. Campustown is a high-density mixed-use neighborhood that is home to many student apartments, nightlife venues, restaurants, Ames has a humid continental climate. On average, the warmest month is July and the coldest is January, the highest recorded temperature was 102 °F in 1988 and the lowest was −28 °F in 1996. As of the census of 2010, there were 58,965 people,22,759 households, the population density was 2,435.6 inhabitants per square mile. There were 23,876 housing units at a density of 986.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 84. 5% White,3. 4% African American,0. 2% Native American,8. 8% Asian,1. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 4% of the population. 30. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.82. The median age in the city was 23.8 years. 13. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,40. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,22. 9% were from 25 to 44, 15% were from 45 to 64, and 8. 1% were 65 years of age or older
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Naval Ordnance Laboratory
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The Naval Ordnance Laboratory, now disestablished, formerly located in White Oak, Maryland was the site of considerable work that had practical impact upon world technology. The White Oak site of NOL has now taken over by the Food. The U. S. Navy Mine Unit, later the Mine Laboratory at the Washington, Navy Yard, was established in 1918, and the first Officer In Charge arrived in February 1919, marking the beginning of the Laboratory. In 1929 the Mine Laboratory was merged with the Experimental Ammunition Station in Indian Head to form the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, NOL began slowly, and it was not until the beginnings of World War II, when Germanys aircraft-laid magnetic mine began to cause serious problems for the Allies. As the importance of NOLs work became apparent, it became apparent that there wasnt enough space at the Navy Yard to accommodate the necessary research facilities. In 1944, acquisition, planning and construction began at a 712-acre wooded site located at 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring. Someone remarked to a Navy official during early 1945 that it seemed odd to be building the new laboratory at that time and that laboratory remarked the Navy man, is not being built for this war. This 1960s-era postcard image shows the NOL Administration Building and golf course as seen from New Hampshire Ave, after renovation for use by the FDA it still looks much the same, with Naval Ordnance Laboratory still carved in stone above the main entrance. The first technical facilities were in the new magnetic area and this area was in the middle of the woods, and remained so up until the Labs demise in 1994. It is believed that the area was selected because it was magnetically neutral - there was less iron in the earth than in areas to interfere with sensitive magnetic experiments. The buildings were made of wood, with wooden instead of nails. The buildings had unusual names, Bldg 203 was the Spherical Field Lab, the Phoenix/Casino building in the 200 Area was quite unique - in this building, systems and components were subjected to nuclear weapons radiation simulation. Phoenix undoubtedly refers to rising from the ashes after a nuclear explosion. The Casino moniker was apparently a reference to the luck of the draw on receiving funding for this facility and it was hoped that another military agency would take over the Casino facility after the base closure, but it is believed to have been abandoned. The largest area geographically, the 300 area, was the Explosives research area and this area included 50 or more buildings in which a wide range of explosives activities were performed, ranging from basic compound research and new formulations, to large scale weapon systems design. Some building were large manufacturing facilities while others were very small housing a single scientist and his or her lab, the largest test facility was Building 327, the 50-Pound Bombproof Facility, which became operational in 1984. The center of the building housed a 20 x 20 x 16 steel-lined reinforced concrete test chamber capable of containing an explosion equivalent to 50 pounds of TNT, numerous sophisticated high-speed cameras, x-ray equipment, and high-speed electronics were used to monitor a wide range of experiments. A four-inch single-stage light-gas gun and one-inch two-stage light-gas gun set up to fire projectiles into the chamber further extended the facilitys capabilities, the 400 area was home to a number of wind tunnels
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United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
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John von Neumann
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John von Neumann was a Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, inventor, computer scientist, and polymath. He made major contributions to a number of fields, including mathematics, physics, economics, computing, and statistics. He published over 150 papers in his life, about 60 in pure mathematics,20 in physics, and 60 in applied mathematics and his last work, an unfinished manuscript written while in the hospital, was later published in book form as The Computer and the Brain. His analysis of the structure of self-replication preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA, also, my work on various forms of operator theory, Berlin 1930 and Princeton 1935–1939, on the ergodic theorem, Princeton, 1931–1932. During World War II he worked on the Manhattan Project, developing the mathematical models behind the lenses used in the implosion-type nuclear weapon. After the war, he served on the General Advisory Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, along with theoretical physicist Edward Teller, mathematician Stanislaw Ulam, and others, he worked out key steps in the nuclear physics involved in thermonuclear reactions and the hydrogen bomb. Von Neumann was born Neumann János Lajos to a wealthy, acculturated, Von Neumanns place of birth was Budapest in the Kingdom of Hungary which was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was the eldest of three children and he had two younger brothers, Michael, born in 1907, and Nicholas, who was born in 1911. His father, Neumann Miksa was a banker, who held a doctorate in law and he had moved to Budapest from Pécs at the end of the 1880s. Miksas father and grandfather were both born in Ond, Zemplén County, northern Hungary, johns mother was Kann Margit, her parents were Jakab Kann and Katalin Meisels. Three generations of the Kann family lived in apartments above the Kann-Heller offices in Budapest. In 1913, his father was elevated to the nobility for his service to the Austro-Hungarian Empire by Emperor Franz Joseph, the Neumann family thus acquired the hereditary appellation Margittai, meaning of Marghita. The family had no connection with the town, the appellation was chosen in reference to Margaret, Neumann János became Margittai Neumann János, which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann. Von Neumann was a child prodigy, as a 6 year old, he could multiply and divide two 8-digit numbers in his head, and could converse in Ancient Greek. When he once caught his mother staring aimlessly, the 6 year old von Neumann asked her, formal schooling did not start in Hungary until the age of ten. Instead, governesses taught von Neumann, his brothers and his cousins, Max believed that knowledge of languages other than Hungarian was essential, so the children were tutored in English, French, German and Italian. A copy was contained in a private library Max purchased, One of the rooms in the apartment was converted into a library and reading room, with bookshelves from ceiling to floor. Von Neumann entered the Lutheran Fasori Evangelikus Gimnázium in 1911 and this was one of the best schools in Budapest, part of a brilliant education system designed for the elite
