1.
Violence in sports
–
There are two major theories on the cause of violence in sports. One theory holds that humans have an instinct for violence, developed during a time when human ancestors had to resort to violence and aggressiveness to survive. Another theory deals with the aspects of violence in sports. Through a civilizing process, many sports have become less tolerant of bloodshed than past versions. Athletes sometimes resort to violence, in hopes of injuring and intimidating opponents, such incidents may be part of a strategy developed by coaches or players. Outlawed tactics in boxing include hitting the opponent on the back of the head, under the belly during clinching, other tactics that are outlawed, but less seen, are pushing an opponent extremely hard to the floor, kicking, or hitting repeatedly after the round has ended. Similar actions have also happened in ice hockey and Australian Football League matches, high school, college, and even professional sports teams often include initiation ceremonies as a rite of passage. A1999 study by Alfred University and the NCAA found that four out of five college US athletes experienced hazing. Half were required to take part in alcohol-related initiations, while two-thirds were subjected to humiliation rituals, Violence may also be related to nationalism or as an outlet for underlying social tensions. Violence by supporters of sports teams dates back to Roman times, usually, underlying political and/or theological issues helped fuel riots related to sporting events in the Roman era. The Nika riots of 532 were especially deadly, with tens of thousands reportedly killed, the actions of English football hooligans and firms in the 1980s caused English teams to be banned from European competition for six years after the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985. Many known hooligans were prevented from traveling to the tournament in Portugal, there was a collective sigh of relief from security experts in the USA when England failed to qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Alan Rothenberg said, In 532, the rivalry between supporters of the Blue and Green chariot-racing teams in Constantinople led to 30,000 deaths in the Nika riots. The first meeting in the American football rivalry between Brigham Young University and the University of Utah took place in April 1896, when BYU was known as Brigham Young Academy. The two schools disagree to this day as to whether this game was official, but it mattered greatly to the spectators—at the end of the game, the two sets of fans fought one another. In 1972, Oregon pummeled Oregon State 30–3 in their annual Civil War football rivalry game, after the game, jubilant Oregon fans rushed the field and tore down the south goal post. They then turned to do the same to the goal post. In 1975, cyclist Eddy Merckx was viciously punched by a spectator as he climbed the Puy de Dôme in the Tour de France, the 1980 Scottish Cup Final between bitter Old Firm rivals Celtic and Rangers was marred by an on-pitch riot between rival fans
2.
African Americans
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
3.
Johnny Bright
–
Johnny D. Bright was a professional Canadian football player in the Canadian Football League. He played college football at Drake University, in 1951, Bright was named a First Team College Football All-American, and was awarded the Nils V. Swede Nelson Sportsmanship Award. In 1969, Bright was named Drake Universitys greatest football player of all time, in February 2006, the football field at Drake Stadium, in Des Moines, Iowa, was named in his honor. In November 2006, Bright was voted one of the CFLs Top 50 players of the modern era by Canadian sports network TSN. Born in Fort Wayne, Indiana on June 11,1930, Bright was a three-sport star at Fort Waynes Central High School. Bright eventually lettered in football, track, and basketball, during his career at Drake. In Brights junior year, the halfback/quarterback rushed for 1,232 yards and passed for 1,168 yards, setting an NCAA record for total offense in 1950, Brights senior year began with great promise. During the first seven minutes of the game, Bright had been knocked unconscious three times by blows from Oklahoma A&M defensive tackle Wilbanks Smith. Bright finished the game with 75 yards, the first time he had finished a game less than 100 yards in his three-year collegiate career at Drake. Oklahoma A&M eventually won the game 27-14 and it had been an open secret before the game that A&M was planning to target Bright. Even though A&M had integrated two years earlier, the Jim Crow spirit was still much alive in Stillwater. Ultang and Robinson had actually set up their camera after rumors of Bright being targeted became too loud to ignore. When it became apparent that neither Oklahoma A&M nor the MVC would take any action against Smith, Drake withdrew from the MVC in protest. The Johnny Bright Incident, as it widely known, eventually provoked changes in NCAA football rules regarding illegal blocking. Recalling the incident without apparent bitterness in a 1980 Des Moines Register interview three years before his death, Bright commented, Theres no way it couldnt have been racially motivated. Bright went on to add, What I like about the deal now. It made the NCAA take a look and clean up some things that were bad. As a senior, Bright earned 70 percent of the yards Drake gained and scored 70 percent of the Bulldogs points, following his final football season at Drake, Bright was named a First Team College Football All-American and finished fifth in the balloting for the 1951 Heisman Trophy
4.
College football
–
It was through college football play that American football rules first gained popularity in the United States. No minor league farm organizations exist in American football and it is in college football where a players performance directly impacts his chances of playing professional football. The best collegiate players will declare for the professional draft after 3 to 4 years of collegiate competition. Those not selected can still attempt to land an NFL roster spot as a free agent. Even after the emergence of the professional National Football League, college football remained extremely popular throughout the U. S, in many cases, college stadiums employ bench-style seating, as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests. This allows them to more fans in a given amount of space than the typical professional stadium. College athletes, unlike players in the NFL, are not permitted by the NCAA to be paid salaries, colleges are only allowed to provide non-monetary compensation such as athletic scholarships that provide for tuition, housing, and books. Modern North American football has its origins in various games, all known as football, by the 1840s, students at Rugby School were playing a game in which players were able to pick up the ball and run with it, a sport later known as Rugby football. The game was taken to Canada by British soldiers stationed there and was soon being played at Canadian colleges, the first documented gridiron football match was a game played at University College, a college of the University of Toronto, November 9,1861. One of the participants in the game involving University of Toronto students was William Mulock, a football club was formed at the university soon afterward, although its rules of play at this stage are unclear. In 1864, at Trinity College, also a college of the University of Toronto, F. Barlow Cumberland, modern Canadian football is widely regarded as having originated with a game played in Montreal, in 1865, when British Army officers played local civilians. The game gradually gained a following, and the Montreal Football Club was formed in 1868, early games appear to have had much in common with the traditional mob football played in England. The games remained largely unorganized until the 19th century, when games of football began to be played on college campuses. Each school played its own variety of football, Princeton University students played a game called ballown as early as 1820. A Harvard tradition known as Bloody Monday began in 1827, which consisted of a mass ballgame between the freshman and sophomore classes, in 1860, both the town police and the college authorities agreed the Bloody Monday had to go. The Harvard students responded by going into mourning for a figure called Football Fightum. The authorities held firm and it was a dozen years before football was again played at Harvard. Dartmouth played its own version called Old division football, the rules of which were first published in 1871, all of these games, and others, shared certain commonalities
5.
Stillwater, Oklahoma
–
Stillwater is a city in north east Oklahoma at the intersection of US-177 and State Highway 51. It is the county seat of Payne County, Oklahoma, United States, as of 2012, the city population was estimated to be 46,560, making it the tenth largest city in Oklahoma. Stillwater is the city of the Stillwater Micropolitan Statistical Area which had a population of 78,399 according to the 2012 census estimate. Stillwater was part of the first Oklahoma Land Run held April 22,1889, the city charter was adopted on August 24 later that year. Stillwater has an economy with a foundation in aerospace, agribusiness, biotechnology, optoelectronics, printing and publishing. The city operates under a government system. The citys largest employer is Oklahoma State University and it was one of the 100 top places to live in 2010, according to CNN Money Magazine. Stillwater is located in the popularly known as Tornado Alley. It has a subtropical climate and the highest recorded temperature was 115 °F on August 11,1936. The city is home to the National Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum, the north-central region of Oklahoma became part of the United States with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. In 1832, author and traveler Washington Irving provided the first recorded description of the area around Stillwater in his book A Tour on the Prairies and he wrote of “a glorious prairie spreading out beneath the golden beams of an autumnal sun. The deep and frequent traces of buffalo, showed it to be a one of their grazing grounds. ”According to one legend, local Native American tribes — Ponca, Kiowa, Osage. A second legend states that cattlemen driving herds from Texas to railways back east always found water still there, a third legend holds that David L. Payne walked up to Stillwater Creek and said, “This town should be named Still Water”. Members of the thought he was crazy, but the name stuck. Stillwater Creek received its name in 1884 when William L. Couch established his “boomer colony” on its banks. On April 22,1889, the cannons fired signaling the first Land Run that opened up the Unassigned Lands of the Oklahoma Territory, which included Stillwater. By the end of the day,240 acres had been claimed and designated as Stillwater township, the Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture simply says that the name officiallybecame Stillwater only when the post office opened on May 28,1889. On Christmas Eve,1890, the legislature of Oklahoma Territory passed a bill certifying Stillwater as the land grant college site, in 1894, Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College held a dedication of its first brick building, Assembly Building, later known as Old Central
6.
Drake Bulldogs
–
The Drake Bulldogs are the intercollegiate athletics teams of Drake University located in Des Moines, Iowa, United States. The Bulldogs athletic program is a member of the Missouri Valley Conference, Drake also sponsors teams in the Pioneer Football League and Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference. Drakes live bulldog mascot is Griff, a show dog, the costumed mascot is Spike. The mens basketball began in 1906. In 1907, Drake joined the Missouri Valley Conference, having played as an independent. Drakes current live mascot, Griff, is named for Griffith as a result, Griffith was later instrumental in another major component of Drake athletics when he organized the first Drake Relays in 1910. The Relays moved to Drake Stadium when it opened in 1925, Drake played the first-ever night game at Soldier Field in 1930, falling to Oregon Oregon 14-7. Drake won the championships for cross country in 1944,1945. On October 20,1951, Drakes black football star Johnny Bright was assaulted in a game at Oklahoma A&M. Bright would finish 5th in the balloting for the Heisman Trophy, Drake rejoined the Missouri Valley Conference for non-football sports in 1956. In 1969, the basketball team advanced to the national semifinals. Legend Dolph Pulliam becomes the first athlete to be selected in both the NBA and NFL drafts, Pulliam was drafted by the Boston Celtics and Dallas Cowboys in 1969. Football returned to the MVC in 1971,20 years after the Bright incident, following changes in NCAA regulation in 1985, football was briefly dropped before returning as a non-scholarship Division III sport, it later returned to Division I but remains non-scholarship. Alumnus Zach Johnson has won two championships, the 2007 Masters and the 2015 Open Championship. This track and field event has held since 1910, and, after the NCAA Championships, is the second-largest collegiate track. Participants come from all over the world to compete in this three-day event, many Olympic athletes can be found participating in these events, which commonly break national and world records
7.
Boone Pickens Stadium
–
Boone Pickens Stadium has been home to the Oklahoma State University Cowboys football team in rudimentary form since 1913, and as a complete stadium since 1920. The facility is the oldest football stadium in the Big 12 Conference but was largely neglected and enjoyed only modest renovations throughout its near-century of existence. An ambitious fund-raising project for the renovation dubbed The Next Level became the flagship effort of the Oklahoma State athletic department, Oklahoma State, then known as Oklahoma A&M, first began playing at the current site of Pickens Stadium in 1913. In addition to his duties as dean and instructor at OAMC, under his brief administration, OAMC established the first school of commerce and marketing in the nation and developed experimental stations around the state. In addition to naming the field after him, the students also dedicated the 1914 yearbook, its first, the school built a permanent 8, 000-seat grandstand—roughly corresponding to the lower level of the current facilitys north grandstand—in 1920. The stadium originally was positioned in the traditional north-south direction, but was reoriented east-west to avoid the prevailing winds. It remains one of a handful of stadiums in the United States with goals at the east and west ends. The university planned to build a stadium, similar to Ohio State Universitys Ohio Stadium. During the 1929–1930 seasons,8,000 permanent seats were built on the side for an overall capacity of 13,000. In 1947 the south stands were increased from 20 to 53 rows, for the first time, a permanent press box was then added. Prior to the 1950 season,10,600 seats were added to the north stands, after the 1971 season the cinder track was removed, lowering the field 12 feet and making the space between the field and the stadium retaining walls among the smallest in college athletics. Twenty rows of permanent seats were added to both sides of the stadium. This expansion, including conversion to an artificial turf playing surface. Press box construction was completed in 1980 at a cost of $1.8 million, a lighting system for night games was installed in time for the 1985 season and cost approximately $750,000. The all-time attendance record for Lewis Field is 51,458 for the Bedlam Series game in 1979, in a side note to history, the field hosted the Oklahoma Outlaws and the Houston Gamblers of the USFL professional football league in 1984. Due to a conflict at Tulsas Skelly Stadium, the Outlaws were forced to play their last Exhibition game in Stillwater, only 6,120 attended the cold February 19 game. Lewis Field was officially renamed Boone Pickens Stadium during a ceremony at the 2003 football game versus the University of Wyoming. The stadium’s name was changed to honor OSU alumnus T. Boone Pickens, the stadium turf was replaced in 2005
8.
Pulitzer Prize
–
The Pulitzer Prize /ˈpʊlᵻtsər/ is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine and online journalism, literature, and musical composition in the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher, Prizes are awarded yearly in twenty-one categories. In twenty of the categories, each receives a certificate. The winner in the service category of the journalism competition is awarded a gold medal. The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media, entries must fit in at least one of the specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can also only be entered in a maximum of two categories, regardless of their properties, each year,102 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 20 separate juries for the 21 award categories, one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards. For each award category, a jury makes three nominations, the board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75% majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award, the board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work, however, the jurors in letters, music, and drama receive a $2,000 honorarium for the year, and each chair receives $2,500. Anyone whose work has been submitted is called an entrant, the jury selects a group of nominated finalists and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists who were submitted, but not nominated as finalists. For example, Bill Dedman of msnbc, Dedman wrote, To call that submission a Pulitzer nomination is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters Thats My Boy in the Academy Awards. Many readers realize that the Oscars dont work that way—the studios dont pick the nominees and its just a way of slipping Academy Awards into a bio. The Pulitzers also dont work that way, but fewer people know that, newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch a journalism school and establish the Prize. It allocated $250,000 to the prize and scholarships and he specified four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships. After his death, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4,1917, many people have won more than one Pulitzer Prize. Nelson Harding is the person to have won a Prize in two consecutive years, the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1927 and 1928. Four prizes Robert Frost, Poetry Eugene ONeill, Drama Robert E, in rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs, infrequently, Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction
9.
Running back
–
A running back is an American and Canadian football position, a member of the offensive backfield. The primary roles of a running back are to receive handoffs from the quarterback for a play, to catch passes from out of the backfield. There are usually one or two running backs on the field for a play, depending on the offensive formation. A running back may be a halfback or a fullback, a running back will sometimes be called a feature back if he is the teams starting running back. The halfback or tailback position is responsible for carrying the ball on the majority of running plays, in the modern game, an effective halfback must have a blend of both quickness and agility as a runner, as well as sure hands and good vision up-field as a receiver. Quarterbacks depend on halfbacks as a safety valve receiver when primary targets downfield are covered or when they are under pressure, occasionally, halfbacks line up as additional wide receivers. As a trick play, running backs are used to pass the ball on a halfback option play or halfback pass. The difference between halfback and tailback is the position of the player in the offensive formation. In historical formations, the lined up approximately halfway between the line of scrimmage and the fullback. Because the halfback is usually the main ball carrier, modern offensive formations have positioned the halfback behind the fullback. As a result, some systems or playbooks will call for a tailback as opposed to a halfback, in most modern college and professional football schemes, fullbacks carry the ball infrequently, instead using their stronger physiques as primary lead blockers. On most running plays, the leads the halfback, attempting to block potential tacklers before they reach the ball carrier. When fullbacks are called upon to carry the ball, the situation calls for gaining a short amount of yardage. Fullbacks are technically running backs, but today the term running back is used in referring to the halfback or tailback. Although modern fullbacks are rarely used as carriers, in previous offensive schemes fullbacks would be the designated ball carriers. In high school football, where player sizes vary greatly, fullbacks are still used as ball carriers. In high school and college offenses, the triple option uses the fullback as a primary ball carrier. The fullback plays a role by establishing an inside running threat on every play
10.
Quarterback
–
A quarterback is a position in American and Canadian football. Quarterbacks are members of the team and line up directly behind the offensive line. In modern American football, the quarterback is considered the leader of the offensive team. In modern American football, the quarterback is usually the leader of the offense, the quarterback touches the ball on almost every offensive play, and his successes and failures can have a significant impact on the fortunes of his team. Accordingly, the quarterback is among the most glorified and scrutinized positions in team sports, prior to each play, the quarterback will usually tell the rest of his team which play the team will run. After the team is lined up, the center will pass the ball back to the quarterback, usually on a running play, the quarterback will then hand or pitch the ball backwards to a half back or full back. On a passing play, the quarterback is almost always the responsible for trying to throw the ball downfield to an eligible receiver downfield. Depending on the scheme by his team, the quarterbacks role can vary. While quarterbacks in Canadian football need to be able to throw the ball often, in the NFL, quarterbacks are required to wear a uniform number between 1 and 19. In the CFL, the quarterback can wear any number from 0 to 49 and 70 to 99. Because of their numbering, quarterbacks are eligible receivers in the NCAA, NFHS, after a Super Bowl victory, the starting quarterback is the first player to be presented with the Vince Lombardi Trophy. The starting quarterback of the victorious Super Bowl team is chosen for the Im going to Disney World. Campaign, whether they are the Super Bowl MVP or not, examples include Joe Montana, Trent Dilfer, Dilfer was chosen even though teammate Ray Lewis was the MVP of Super Bowl XXXV, due to the bad publicity from Lewis murder trial the prior year. In addition to their role, quarterbacks are occasionally used in other roles. Most teams utilize a backup quarterback as their holder on placekicks, in the Wildcat, a formation where a halfback lines up behind the center and the quarterback lines up out wide, the quarterback can be used as a receiving target or a blocker. A more rare use for a quarterback is to punt the ball himself, Denver Broncos quarterback John Elway was known to perform quick kicks occasionally, typically when the Broncos were facing a third-and-long situation. As Roger Staubachs back-up, Dallas Cowboys quarterback Danny White was also the teams punter, ascending the starting role upon Staubachs retirement, White held his position as the teams punter for several seasons—a double duty he performed to All-American standard at Arizona State University. White also had two touchdown receptions as a Dallas Cowboy, both from the halfback option, if quarterbacks are uncomfortable with the formation the defense is using, they may call an audible change to their play
11.
Oklahoma State Cowboys and Cowgirls
–
Oklahoma State Cowboys and Cowgirls are the athletic teams that represent Oklahoma State University. The programs mascot is a cowboy named Pistol Pete, Oklahoma State participates at the National Collegiate Athletic Association s Division I Football Bowl Subdivision as a member of the Big 12 Conference. The universitys current athletic director is Mike Holder, in total, Oklahoma State has 51 NCAA team national titles, which ranks fourth in most NCAA team national championships. These national titles have come in wrestling, golf, basketball, baseball, the 1945 Oklahoma A&M football team was retroactively awarded a national title in October 2016 by the American Football Coaches Association. Prior to 1957, OSU was known as Oklahoma A&M, as was common with most land-grant schools, its teams were known for many years as Aggies. However, in 1923, A&M was looking for a new mascot to replace its pet tiger, a group of students saw Frank Eaton leading the Armistice Day Parade. He was approached to see if he would be interested in being the model for the new mascot, the caricature, Pistol Pete, that was drawn that year is more or less the same as the one in use today. Only a few decades removed from the cattle drive era, the cowboy was still an important figure in the Southwest, the new mascot had become so popular that by 1924, Charles Saulsberry, sports editor of the Oklahoma City Times, began calling A&Ms teams the Cowboys. Aggies and Cowboys were used interchangeably until A&M was elevated to university status in 1957, the Waving Song is one of the fight songs for Oklahoma State. At Oklahoma State football games, the song is played by the Cowboy Marching Band during the pregame traditions, following touchdowns, for other athletic events, the Waving Song is played after an OSU victory as the start of the fight song trilogy. While the song is played, fans wave their arms in the air. The songs melody is that of The Streets of New York, the lyrics used by Oklahoma State were written by H. G. Seldomridge, a professor who heard the tune on a visit to New York City. The original lyrics used the abbreviation OAMC in place of Oklahoma State and it was first sung in 1908 at a follies show at Stillwaters Grand Opera House. Ever since, it has been a tradition to play the song at OSU athletic events, Oklahoma State first took the basketball court in 1908. Under head coach Henry Iba, the team won NCAA championships in 1945, A&M center Bob Kurland was named the NCAA Tournament MVP during their two championship seasons. Kurland was the first player to win the two times. Oklahoma State has a total of six Final Four appearances, under Eddie Sutton, the team made two Final Four appearances—in 1995 and in 2004. Suttons son, Sean Sutton, began coaching the team in 2006, the team is now coached by Brad Underwood after firing Travis Ford following the 2015-2016 season
12.
Heisman Trophy
–
The Heisman Memorial Trophy, is awarded annually to the most outstanding player in college football in the United States whose performance best exhibits the pursuit of excellence with integrity. Winners epitomize great ability combined with diligence, perseverance, and hard work and it is presented by the Heisman Trophy Trust in early December before the postseason bowl games. The award was created by the Downtown Athletic Club in 1935 to recognize the most valuable football player east of the Mississippi. After the death in October 1936 of the Clubs athletic director, John Heisman, Heisman had been active in college athletics as a football player, a head football, basketball, and baseball coach, and an athletic director. It is the oldest of several awards in college football, including the Maxwell Award, Walter Camp Award. The most recent winner of the Heisman Trophy is University of Louisville quarterback Lamar Jackson, the trophy itself, designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu, is modeled after Ed Smith, a leading player in 1934 for the now-defunct New York University football team. The trophy is made out of cast bronze, is 13.5 inches tall, Eliscu had asked Smith, his former George Washington High School classmate, to pose for a commissioned sculpture of a football player. Smith did not realize until 1982 that the sculpture had become the Heisman Trophy, the Downtown Athletic Club presented Smith with a Heisman Trophy of his own in 1985. From its inception in 1935, the statue was cast by Dieges & Clust in New York until 1980, for a time until at least 2008, the statues were cast by Roman Bronze Works in New York. There are 870 media voters,145 voters from each of six regions, according to Heisman. com there are currently 57 prior winners eligible to vote and, thus,57 potential votes. Fans, As the Premier Partner of the Heisman Trophy, Nissan has a vote, fan voting done through a survey collected by ESPN on NissanHeismanHouse. com. Each voter identifies three selections, ranking them in order, each first-place selection is awarded three points. Each second-place selection is awarded two points, each third-place selection is awarded one point. Voters must make three selections and cannot duplicate a selection, else the ballot is invalid and none of the selections count, the accounting firm Deloitte is responsible for the tabulation of votes, which has moved almost exclusively to online voting since 2007. Larry Kelley and Clint Frank of Yale were the first teammates to win the Heisman Trophy, nile Kinnick of Iowa was the only Heisman Trophy winner to have a stadium named after him. In 1972, the University of Iowa renamed its football complex Kinnick Stadium, Kinnick is also the only winner to die in military service of the United States, he went down piloting an F4F Wildcat from the deck of USS Lexington. His death in 1943 made him the first Heisman Trophy winner to die, Doc Blanchard was the first junior to win the Heisman Trophy when he led Army to the national title in 1945. Paul Hornung was the player to win the Heisman Trophy as a player for a losing team
13.
Rush (gridiron football)
–
Rushing has two different meanings in gridiron football. The first is a taken by the offense that means to advance the ball by running with it, as opposed to passing. The other is a taken by the defense that means to charge towards the quarterback. When players on the defense are collectively rushing the passer, it is called the pass rush, in both offense and defense, any rushing player is called a rusher. Rushing, on offense, is running with the ball starting from behind the line of scrimmage. While this usually means a play, any offensive play that does not involve a forward pass is a rush - also called a run. It is usually done by the back after a handoff from the quarterback, although quarterbacks. The quarterback will run when a passing play has broken down - such as when there is no receiver open to catch the ball -. A team with a quarterback who is fast and skilled at running may regularly call intentional running plays for that quarterback, but this is rare due to the increased risk of injury. A wide receiver can act as a rusher on several kinds of plays, such as on a reverse, on an end-around, or on a pass behind the line of scrimmage. However, a wide receiver screen play is intended to be a forward pass so that if the receiver drops the ball it is an incomplete pass instead of a fumble. A rushing attempt may also be referred to as a carry, with any yards gained referred to as rushing yards, as in the running back had 20 carries for 100 rushing yards
14.
Forward pass
–
In several forms of football a forward pass is a throwing of the ball in the direction that the offensive team is trying to move, towards the defensive teams goal line. In some football codes, such as football, the kicked forward pass is used so ubiquitously that it is not thought of as a distinct kind of play at all. In these sports, the concept of offside is used to regulate who can be in front of the play or be nearest to the goal, however, this has not always been the case. Some earlier incarnations of football allowed unlimited forward passing, while others had strict offside rules similar to rugby, the development of the forward pass in American football shows how the game has evolved from its rugby roots into the distinctive game it is today. Illegal and experimental forward passes had been attempted as early as 1876, another change in rules occurred on January 18,1951, which established that no center, tackle, or guard could receive a forward pass. Today, the only linemen who can receive a forward pass are the ends, current rules regulate who may throw and who may receive a forward pass, and under what circumstances, as well as how the defensive team may try to prevent a pass from being completed. In American and Canadian football, a pass, usually referred to simply as a pass. This is permitted only once during a scrimmage down by the team before team possession has changed, provided the pass is thrown from in or behind the neutral zone. An illegal forward pass can incur a penalty and the loss of a down, although it may be legally intercepted by the opponents. If an eligible receiver on the passing team legally catches the ball, the pass is completed, if an opposing player legally catches the ball it is an interception. That players team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his opponents goal, if no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an incomplete pass and the ball becomes dead the moment it touches the ground. It will then be returned to the line of scrimmage for the next down. If any player interferes with an eligible receivers ability to catch the ball it is pass interference which draws a penalty of varying degree. The person passing the ball must be a member of the team. The moment that a forward pass begins is important to the game, the pass begins the moment the passers arm begins to move forward. If the passer drops the ball before this moment it is a fumble, in this case anybody can gain possession of the ball before or after it touches the ground. If the passer drops the ball while his arm is moving forward it is a pass, regardless of where the ball lands or is first touched. The quarterback generally either starts a few paces behind the line of scrimmage or drops back a few paces after the ball is snapped
15.
The O'Colly
–
The OColly, formerly The Daily OCollegian, is the student-run newspaper at Oklahoma State University. The OColly is published three times a week and distributed at cost to OSU students at various points around the campus in Stillwater, the newspaper has been in distribution since May 1895. The OColly is ranked as one of the top newspapers in the country. Though the student-run newspaper at Oklahoma State has been around almost from the beginning, the papers original name, The College Mirror, was used from 1895 to 1899. The name would change to The College Paper in 1899, The Orange and Black in 1907. In December 1924 The OCollegian began daily publication, increased its circulation to 2,983, the only other college newspapers holding AP membership at the time were at the University of Illinois, Indiana University, the University of Iowa and Dartmouth College. In 1927, the name was amended a final time. The OCollys online edition was launched in 1995, starting with the fall 2014 semester, the paper cut Tuesday and Thurday edition and rebranded as The OColly with a new tabloid format. The OColly has received All-America honors, the highest rating given by the Associated Collegiate Press and National Scholastic Press Association, every year since 1989. In 1990, the paper produced the National SPJ Sports Photo of the year, one photographer received SPJs Sports Photo of the Year and was a runner-up for News Photo of the Year in 2004. In 1991, The OColly produced the National Story of the Year from the Associated Collegiate Press, also in 1991, the paper received the Distinguished Newspaper Adviser Award from College Media Advisers Inc. The OColly received the National Newspaper Pacemaker Award, often considered the Pulitzer Prize of college journalism, chester Gould - Created the Dick Tracy strip Paul Miller - Helped in the creation of the Gannett media empire, also served as president of the Associated Press The Ocally
16.
Jim Crow laws
–
Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
17.
Defensive tackle
–
A defensive tackle is typically the largest and strongest of the defensive players in American football. The defensive tackle lines up opposite one of the offensive guards. Depending on a teams defensive scheme, a defensive tackle may be called upon to fill several different roles. These roles may include holding the point of attack by refusing to be moved or penetrating a certain gap between offensive linemen to break up a play in the opponents backfield. If a defensive tackle reads a play, his primary responsibility is to pursue the quarterback. Other responsibilities of the tackle may be to pursue the screen pass or drop into coverage in a zone blitz scheme. In a traditional 4–3 defensive set, there is no nose tackle, instead there is a left and right defensive tackle. Some teams especially in the NFL do have a nose tackle in this scheme, nose tackle is a defensive alignment position for a defensive lineman. In the 3–4 defensive scheme the sole defensive tackle is referred to as the nose tackle, the nose tackle aligns across the line of scrimmage from the offenses center before the play begins in the 0-technique position. In this position, frequently taking on the center and at least one if not both of the guards, the tackle is considered to be the most physically demanding position in football. In five-linemen situations, such as a formation, the nose guard is the innermost lineman. Typical 3–4 nose tackles are big wide bodies who can hold the point of attack and force double teams by the guard and they are usually the heaviest players on the roster, with weights ranging from 325 to 375 pounds. Also, height is critical, as they are supposed to get under the offensive line, recent examples of such nose tackles include Ron Simmons, Casey Hampton, Jamal Williams, Gilbert Brown, Dontari Poe, and Vince Wilfork. Rather uncommon are taller nose tackles, such as Ted Washington and Maake Kemoeatu, in some 4–3 defensive set, the nose tackle is one of two defensive tackles. Some teams especially in the NFL do have a nose tackle in the 4–3 defensive set, in a 4–3 defensive set, nose tackles are rather quick and supposed to shoot the A gap and beat the center and very likely the weak-side or pulling guard into the backfield. Height is not as important, and their weight is closer to 300 pounds, the terms nose guard or middle guard were more commonly used with the five-man defensive line of the older 5-2 defense. Effective against most plays of the day, but with a weakness to the short pass. In the 4-3 defense, the middle linebacker replaced the middle guard
18.
Touchdown
–
A touchdown is a means of scoring in both American and Canadian football. Whether running, passing, returning a kickoff or punt, or recovering a turnover, to score a touchdown, one team must take the football into the opposite end zone. The touchdown is scored the instant the ball crosses the plane of the line while in possession of a player whose team is trying to score in that end zone. The play is dead and the scores the moment the ball crosses the goal line in possession of a player. The slightest part of the ball being over the line is sufficient for a touchdown to score. However, only the ball counts, not a players helmet, foot, touching one of the pylons at either end of the goal line with the ball constitutes breaking the plane as well. Touchdowns are usually scored by the offense by running or passing the ball, however, the defense can also score a touchdown if they have recovered a fumble or made an interception and return it to the opposing end zone. Special teams can score a touchdown on a kickoff or punt return, in short, any play in which a player legally carries the ball across the goal line scores a touchdown, and the manner in which he gained possession is inconsequential. A touchdown is worth six points, the scoring team is also awarded the opportunity for an extra point or a two-point conversion. Afterwards, the team scored the touchdown kicks off to the opposing team. This rule was changed to the iteration in 1889. If the teammate could fair catch the ball, he could follow with a try for goal from the spot of the catch, the governing rule at the time read, A match shall be decided by a majority of touchdowns. A goal shall be equal to four touchdowns, but in the case of a tie, in 1881, the rules were modified so that a goal kicked from a touchdown took precedence over a goal kicked from the field in breaking ties. In 1882, four touchdowns were determined to take precedence over a goal kicked from the field, two safeties were equivalent to a touchdown. In 1883, points were introduced to football, and a touchdown counted as four points, a goal after a touchdown also counted as four points. In 1889, the provision requiring the ball to actually be touched to the ground was removed, a touchdown was now scored by possessing the ball beyond the goal line. In 1897, the touchdown scored five points, and the goal after touchdown added another point, in 1900, the definition of touchdown was changed to include situations where the ball becomes dead on or above the goal line. In 1912, the value of a touchdown was increased to six points, the end zone was also added
19.
The Des Moines Register
–
The Des Moines Register is the daily morning newspaper of Des Moines, Iowa. A separate edition of the Register is sold throughout much of Iowa, the first newspaper in Des Moines, the Iowa Star, was founded in 1849. In 1855, the Iowa Citizen began publication, it was renamed the Iowa State Register in 1860, in 1902, the Register merged with the Des Moines Leader, a descendant of the Star, to become the Des Moines Register and Leader. In 1903, Des Moines banker Gardner Cowles, Sr. purchased the Register and Leader, under the ownership of the Cowles family, the Register became Iowas largest and most influential newspaper, eventually adopting the slogan The Newspaper Iowa Depends Upon. Newspapers were distributed to all four corners of the state by train, during the 1960s, circulation of the Register peaked at nearly 250,000 for the daily edition and 500,000 for the Sunday edition–more than the population of Des Moines at the time. In 1935, the Register & Tribune Company founded radio station KRNT-AM, named after the newspapers nickname, the R n T. In 1955, the company, renamed Cowles Communications some years earlier, founded Des Moines third television station, KRNT-TV, Cowles eventually acquired other newspapers, radio stations and television stations, but almost all of them were sold to other companies by 1985. In 1943, the Register became the first newspaper to sponsor a statewide opinion poll when it introduced the Iowa Poll, Sports coverage was increased under sports editor Garner Sec Taylor – for whom Sec Taylor Field at Principal Park is named – in the 1920s. For many years the Register printed its sports sections on peach-colored paper, another Register tradition – the sponsorship of RAGBRAI – began in 1973 when writer John Karras challenged columnist Donald Kaul to do a border-to-border bicycle ride across Iowa. The liberal-leaning editorial page has brought Donald Kaul back for Sunday opinion columns, other local columns have faded and given way to Gannett-distributed material. In 1985, faced with declining circulation and revenues, the Cowles family sold off its various properties to different owners, at the time of sale, only The New York Times had won more Pulitzer Prizes for national reporting. Many of the Registers news stories and editorials focus on Des Moines, the Register opened a new printing and distribution facility on the south side of Des Moines in 2000. The news & advertising offices remained in downtown Des Moines, the old building was sold in late 2014 and will be redeveloped into a combination of apartments and retail space. In the three decades before the Cowles family acquired the Register in 1903, the Register was a voice of pragmatic conservatism. However, Garner Cowles Sr. who served as a Republican in the Iowa General Assembly and was a delegate to the 1916 Republican National Convention, was an advocate of progressive Republicanism. The new owners presented a variety of viewpoints, including Darling cartoons that frequently made fun of progressive politicians, Garner Cowles Sr. served in the administration of President Herbert Hoover. The publishers strongly supported Republican Wendell Willkies 1940 presidential campaign against Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, the newspaper also supported Republican Dwight Eisenhowers campaigns for the Republican nomination and general election in 1952, and again in 1956. Although the Register endorsed presidential candidates Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964, Hubert Humphrey in 1968, the paper was a severe critic of George W. Bushs warrantless wiretapping strategy, claiming that in doing so, President Bush has declared war on the American people
20.
Nigger
–
In the present-day English language, the word nigger is an ethnic slur, usually directed at black people. The word originated as a term referring to people with black skin, as a variation of the Spanish and Portuguese noun negro. It was often used derogatorily, and by the century, particularly in the United States, its usage became unambiguously pejorative. Accordingly, it began to disappear from popular culture, and its inclusion in classic works of literature has sparked controversy. In contemporary English, using the word nigger is considered extremely offensive, the variant nigga has to some extent been reclaimed by African Americans. The variants neger and negar derive from the Spanish and Portuguese word negro, etymologically, negro, noir, nègre, and nigger ultimately derive from nigrum, the stem of the Latin niger. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the first English use to 1577, other early spellings attested include nigor and Nigre, the first spelling of nigger is in 1608. The second meaning, of a term of abuse or contempt from whites to blacks is first attested in print in 1775. Its use by people both as a neutral or favourable term and as a depreciatory term go back to 1831 and 1834 respectively. In the colonial America of 1619, John Rolfe used negars in describing the African slaves shipped to the Virginia colony, lexicographer Noah Webster, whose eponymous dictionary did much to solidify the distinctive spelling of American English, suggested the neger spelling in place of negro in 1806. The dialect spoken in the Southern United States changes the pronunciation of negro to nigra, during the fur trade of the early 1800s to the late 1840s in the Western United States, the word was spelled niggur, and is often recorded in literature of the time. George Fredrick Ruxton used it in his mountain man lexicon, without pejorative connotation, niggur was evidently similar to the modern use of dude or guy. It was not used as a term exclusively for blacks among mountain men during this period, as Indians, Mexicans, the noun slipped back and forth from derogatory to endearing. The term colored became a respectful alternative, in 1851 the Boston Vigilance Committee, an Abolitionist organization, posted warnings to the Colored People of Boston and vicinity. Writing in 1904, journalist Clifton Johnson documented the opprobrious character of the word nigger, by the turn of the century, colored had become sufficiently mainstream that it was chosen as the racial self-identifier for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. In 2008 Carla Sims, its communications director, said the term colored is not derogatory and its outdated and antiquated but not offensive. Nineteenth-century literature features usages of nigger without racist connotation, mark Twain, in the autobiographic book Life on the Mississippi, used the term within quotes, indicating reported speech, but used the term negro when writing in his own narrative persona. Joseph Conrad published a novella in Britain with the title The Nigger of the Narcissus, president Thomas Jefferson had used this word of his slaves in his Notes on the State of Virginia, but black had not been widely used until the later 20th century
21.
Fullback (gridiron football)
–
A fullback is a position in the offensive backfield in American and Canadian football, and is one of the two running back positions along with the halfback. Examples of players who have excelled at the hybrid running-blocking-pass catching role include Mike Alstott, in the days before two platoons, the fullback was usually the teams punter and drop kicker. In modern play, the fullback is a misnomer. Before the emergence of the T-formation in the 1940s, most teams used four offensive backs on every play, a quarterback, two halfbacks, and a fullback. The quarterback began each play a quarter of the way back, the halfbacks began each play side by side and halfway back, and the fullback began each play the farthest back. In the modern game, when the quarterback is under center, fullbacks are typically known less for speed and agility and more for muscularity and the ability to shed tackles. In the modern NFL, fullbacks, while deployed as ball carriers, are often primarily a lead blocker to allow running backs to get to the secondary of the opposing teams defense. In the early 2000s, many NFL teams used blocking fullbacks, such as Tony Richardson and Lorenzo Neal and these backs cleared the way for some of the decades great running backs. There are still fullbacks who remaining prominent in the NFL, among them Aaron Ripkowski, Jamize Olawale, James Develin, John Kuhn, Patrick DiMarco, Mike Tolbert, Kyle Juszczyk, and Marcel Reece. However, in spite of their usually infrequent carries in modern NFL offenses, notably LeRon McClain was the rushing leader for the Baltimore Ravens in 2008 and Tony Richardson led the Kansas City Chiefs in rushing in 2000. Giants running back Peyton Hillis started his NFL career as a fullback before being reverted into a halfback, although technically a running back, typically fullbacks are primarily valued for their blocking in most modern day offenses. The most common and simple runs, the Dive and the Blast, in the flexbone formation, however, the fullback can often be used as the primary rushing threat. In many other schemes, the fullback is used as a receiver. In selected plays, some teams will have a defensive lineman report as a receiver to line up as a fullback or tight end in a Miami package in goalline formation. Defensive Tackle William The Refrigerator Perry scored a touchdown in Super Bowl XX from the fullback position, most teams in the NFL do not have a substitute fullback, though there are exceptions. The role can be filled by backup or number three or four tight ends or bigger and less-frequently-used running backs. In modern offenses, fullbacks in an I-formation can be motioned into a 2-TE formation or H-back formation, the position is less frequently used in Canadian football, which focuses more on passing than running the ball
22.
Pulitzer Prize for Photography
–
The Pulitzer Prize for Photography was one of the American Pulitzer Prizes annually awarded for journalism. It was inaugurated in 1942 and replaced by two photojournalism prizes in 1968, the Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography and Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography, the latter was renamed for Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News Photography in 2000. The Pulitzer Prizes were established by the bequest of Joseph Pulitzer, which suggested four journalism awards, by 1942 there were eight Pulitzers for journalism, for several years now there have been 14 including the two for photojournalism. There were 26 simple Photography prizes awarded in 26 years including two in 1944 and none in 1946,1942, Milton Brooks of Detroit News, for his photo Ford Strikers Riot. 1943, Frank Noel of the Associated Press, for his photo Water,1944, Earle L. Bunker of World-Herald, for his photo Homecoming. 1944, Frank Filan of the Associated Press, for his photo Tarawa Island,1945, Joe Rosenthal of the Associated Press, for his photograph Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima. 1946, no award 1947, Arnold Hardy, amateur photographer, Atlanta, for his photo of a woman leaping from a fire in the Winecoff Hotel,1948, Frank Cushing of Boston Traveler, for his photo Boy Gunman and Hostage. 1949, Nathaniel Fein of New York Herald-Tribune, for his photo, The Babe Bows Out,1950, Bill Crouch of Oakland Tribune, for his picture Near Collision at Air Show. 1951, Max Desfor of Associated Press, for his coverage of the Korean War. 1953, William M. Gallagher of the Flint Journal for Ex-Governor Adlai E. Stevenson,1956, Staff of the New York Daily News for its consistently excellent news picture coverage in 1955, an outstanding example of which is its photo Bomber Crashes in Street. 1959, William Seaman of the Minneapolis Star for his photograph of the sudden death of a child in the street. 1962, Paul Vathis of the Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, bureau of the Associated Press, for the photograph Serious Steps, published April 22,1961. 1963, Héctor Rondón of La República, for his picture of a priest holding a wounded soldier in the 1962 El Porteñazo insurrection in Venezuela. The photograph was distributed by the Associated Press,1964, Robert H. Jackson of the Dallas Times-Herald, for his photograph of Jack Ruby shooting Lee Harvey Oswald. 1965, Horst Faas of the Associated Press, for his photography of the war in South Vietnam during 1964. 1966, Kyoichi Sawada of United Press International, for his photography of the war in Vietnam War during 1965. 1967, Jack R. Thornell of Associated Press New Orleans bureau for his picture of the shooting of James Meredith in Mississippi by a roadside sniper. NEWSEUM, View Pulitzer Prize Winning Pictures from 1945,1969,1971,1973,1982,1996,2000, and 2007 The 1957 Pulitzer Prize Photo
