1.
Johns Hopkins University
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The Johns Hopkins University is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named for its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur, abolitionist and his $7 million bequest—of which half financed the establishment of The Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States at that time. Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institutions first president on February 22,1876, led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U. S. by integrating teaching and research. Adopting the concept of a school from Germanys ancient Heidelberg University. Johns Hopkins is organized into 10 divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D. C. with international centers in Italy, China, and Singapore. The two undergraduate divisions, the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood. The medical school, the school, and the Bloomberg School of Public Health are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore. Johns Hopkins was a member of the American Association of Universities. Over the course of almost 140 years, thirty-six Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins, founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured 44 national titles and joined the Big Ten Conference as an affiliate member in 2014. On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland. At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore, the first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins, Samuel named one of his sons for his father and that son would become the universitys benefactor. Milton Eisenhower, a university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as President of John Hopkins. Eisenhower retorted that he was glad to be here in Pittburgh, the original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany. Building on the German education model of Wilhelm von Humboldt, it dedicated to research. Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the discovery of new knowledge. The trustees worked alongside four notable university presidents – Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, Noah Porter of Yale College and they each vouched for Daniel Coit Gilman to lead the new University and he became the universitys first president
2.
Johns Hopkins Hospital
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The Johns Hopkins Hospital is the teaching hospital and biomedical research facility of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, located in Baltimore, Maryland, U. S. It was founded in 1889 using money from a bequest by philanthropist Johns Hopkins, many medical specialties were formed at the hospital including neurosurgery, by Harvey Cushing, cardiac surgery by Alfred Blalock, and pediatrics and child psychiatry, by Leo Kanner. Johns Hopkins Hospital is widely regarded as one of the worlds greatest hospitals and it was ranked by U. S. News & World Report as the best overall hospital in America for 21 consecutive years. Johns Hopkins, a Baltimore merchant and banker, left an estate of $7 million when he died on Christmas Eve 1873 at the age of 78. In his will, he asked that his fortune be used to two institutions that would bear his name, Johns Hopkins University and The Johns Hopkins Hospital. At the time that it was made, Hopkinss gift was the largest philanthropic bequest in the history of the United States, Johns Hopkins vision, of two institutions in which the practice of medicine would be wedded to medical research and medical education was nothing short of revolutionary. When completed in 1889 at a cost of $2,050,000, the trustees obtained the services of four outstanding physicians, known as the Big Four, to serve as the founding staff of the hospital when it opened on May 7,1889. They were pathologist William Henry Welch, surgeon William Stewart Halsted, internist William Osler, in 1893, Johns Hopkins University was one of the first medical schools to admit women. Four of the original trustees’ daughters offered to raise the money needed to open the school, after several discussions the trustees agreed to their terms and accepted the financial help of these four women, with only one of doctors, William Henry Welch resisting. Eventually even Welch changed his views on coeducation, The necessity for coeducation in some form, he wrote later, in no form of education is this more evident than in that of medicine. We regard coeducation a success, those of us who were not enthusiastic at the beginning are now sympathetic and he also introduced the idea of bringing medical students into actual patient care early in their training, at the time medical school consisted almost entirely of lectures. He once said he hoped his tombstone would say only, He brought medical students into the wards for bedside teaching and his other achievements included the introduction of the surgical glove and advances in thyroid, biliary tree, hernia, intestinal and arterial aneurysm surgeries. Halsted also established the first formal surgical training program in the United States. Kelly is credited with establishing gynecology as a true specialty and he created new surgical approaches to womens diseases and invented numerous medical devices, including a urinary cystoscope. He was one of the first to use radium to treat cancer, Welch was responsible for training many of the outstanding physicians of the day, such as Walter Reed. He also founded at Hopkins the nations first School of Public Health. In 1903, Harriet Lane Johnston left a sum of over $400,000 at her death in 1903 to establish the Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children as a memorial to two sons who had died in childhood, in October 1912 the Harriet Lane Home officially opened. It was the first children’s clinic in the United States that was associated with a medical school, eventually treating over 60,000 children a year, the Harriet Lane Home became a pioneer treatment, teaching, and research clinic
3.
Anne Arundel County, Maryland
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Anne Arundel County /ˌænəˈrʌndəl/ is a county located in the U. S. state of Maryland. As of the 2010 census, its population was 537,656 and its county seat is Annapolis, which is also the capital of the state. The County was named for Lady Ann Arundell, the daughter of Thomas Arundell, 1st Baron Arundell of Wardour, members of the ancient family of Arundells in Cornwall, England. She married Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, and the first Lord Proprietor of the colony, Province of Maryland, in an arranged marriage contract in 1627 or 1628. Anne Arundel County was originally part of St. Marys County in the portion of the Province of Maryland which had first been settled by the arriving settlers in 1634. In 1650, the year after Lady Ann Arundells death, the County separated from St. Marys and erected into its own jurisdiction, between 1654 and 1658, the County was known as Providence by many of its early settlers. The Commonwealth forces under William Fuller were victorious, prior to the move, Annapolis was known as Providence. During the American Revolutionary War, citizens of Anne Arundel County supported the Continental Army by providing troops for three regiments, the 3rd Maryland Regiment, the 4th Maryland Regiment, and the 6th Maryland Regiment were recruited in the county. During the War of 1812, the one of the six heavy frigates of the recently reestablished United States Navy. Constitution sailed from Annapolis prior to its victorious engagement with the H. M. S, guerriere of the British Royal Navy. This was the first regular passenger service in the United States. In 1831, land west of the railroad was considered the Howard District of Anne Arundel County, in 1851, The Howard District was broken off to form Howard County, now the 21st county in Maryland. The County has a number of properties on the National Register of Historic Places, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 588 square miles, of which 415 square miles is land and 173 square miles is water. Anne Arundel County is located to the south of the city of Baltimore, most of the Countys borders are defined by water. The largest of these include, the Magothy River, Severn River, South River. Further south, the upper Patuxent River forms the border of Anne Arundel with Prince Georges County to the west, deep Run forms part of the northwestern border with Howard County, and Lyons Creek forms part of the southern border with Calvert County. Anne Arundel County originally included all of the land between the Patuxent River and the Patapsco River upstream to their headwaters on Parrs Ridge. The northwestern section of this long tract later became Howard County, as a result, Anne Arundel County lies almost entirely within the Atlantic Coastal Plain while Howard County is almost entirely within the Piedmont province
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
6.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
7.
Entrepreneurship
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What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
8.
Investor
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An investor allocates capital with the expectation of a future financial return. Types of investments include, equity, debt securities, real estate, currency, commodity, token, derivatives such as put and call options, futures, forwards and this definition makes no distinction between those in the primary and secondary markets. That is, someone who provides a business with capital and someone who buys a stock are both investors, an investor who owns a stock is a shareholder. The assumption of risk in anticipation of gain but recognizing a higher than average possibility of loss, the term speculation implies that a business or investment risk can be analyzed and measured, and its distinction from the term investment is one of degree of risk. It differs from gambling, which is based on random outcomes, investors can include stock traders but with this distinguishing characteristic, investors are owners of a company which entails responsibilities. There are two types of investors, retail investors and institutional investors, Individuals gambling in games of chance, in this respect, an important distinctive investor psychology trait is risk attitude. The term investor protection defines the entity of efforts and activities to observe, safeguard and enforce the rights and this includes advice and legal action. Countries with stronger investor protections tend to grow faster than those with poor investor protections, investor protection includes accurate financial reporting by public companies so the investors can make an informed decision. Investor protection also includes fairness of the market which means all participants in the market have access to the same information, investor protection through government is regulations and enforcements by government agencies to ensure that market is fair and fraudulent activities are eliminated. An example of a government agency provides protection to investors is the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Investor protection through individual is the strategy that one utilizes to minimize loss, individual investors can protect themselves by purchasing only shares of businesses that they understand, or only those that remain calm through market volatility. An individual investor may be protected by the strategy he uses in investment, the strategy includes an appropriate price of the stocks or assets in the right time he enters. Its hard to fix what an appropriate price is, and when it is appropriate because no one makes a purchase or a sale absolutely in his most favorable situation, however, determination may be made when the price of such share or assets are undervalued comparing to its potentiality. This is called the margin of safety where an investor can feel at ease when the price of the stocks is alarmingly down, in various instances, the term investor is associated with a means of getting rich quickly. Historically, the road to successful investment is founded on preparation, with various goals that help smooth the journey to the ultimate. To be successful, authorities such as Investopedia advise that an investment plan must include an objective, a determined period of time for completion. A planned investment structure would be dependent on the desired investment target, for an investor, understanding the influencing factors related to finance is a valuable asset which can be gained from various sources. A financial awareness will help any investor learn and understand the mechanism of the investment marketplace, warren Buffett, an established and recognized expert on the subject of successful investing, has a simple philosophy, If I cannot understand it, I will not invest in it
9.
Philanthropy
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Philanthropy means etymologically, the love of humanity, in the sense of caring, nourishing, developing, and enhancing what it means to be human. In this meaning, it both the benefactor in their identifying and exercising their values, and the beneficiary in their receipt. A person who practices philanthropy is called a philanthropist, Philanthropy has distinguishing features from charity, not all charity is philanthropy, or vice versa, though there is a recognized degree of overlap in practice. The literal, classical definitions and understandings of the term philanthropy derive from its origins in the Greek φιλανθρωπία, the most conventional modern definition is private initiatives, for public good, focusing on quality of life. This combines the social scientific aspect developed in the century with the humanistic tradition. These distinctions have been analyzed by Olivier Zunz, and others, instances of philanthropy commonly overlap with instances of charity, though not all charity is philanthropy, or vice versa. The difference commonly cited is that charity relieves the pains of social problems, the first use of the noun form philanthrôpía came shortly thereafter, in the early Platonic dialogue Euthyphro. Socrates is reported to have said that his out of his thoughts freely to his listeners was his philanthrôpía. In the second century CE, Plutarch used the concept of philanthrôpía to describe superior human beings and this Classically synonymous troika, of philanthropy, the humanities, and liberal education, declined with the replacement of the classical world by Christianity. During the Middle Ages, philanthrôpía was superseded by Caritas charity, selfless love, Philanthropy was modernized by Sir Francis Bacon in the 1600s, who is largely credited with preventing the word from being owned by horticulture. Bacon considered philanthrôpía to be synonymous with goodness, which correlated with the Aristotelian conception of virtue, then in the 1700s, an influential lexical figurehead by the name of Samuel Johnson simply defined philanthropy as love of mankind, good nature. This definition still survives today and is cited more gender-neutrally as the love of humanity. However, it was Noah Webster who would more accurately reflect the usage in American English. The precise meaning of philanthropy is still a matter of some contention, nevertheless, there are some working definitions to which the community associated with the field of philanthropic studies most commonly subscribes. The Greeks adopted the love of humanity as an ideal, whose goal was excellence —the fullest self-development, of a body, mind, and spirit. The Platonic Academys philosophical dictionary defined Philanthropy as a state of well-educated habits stemming from love of humanity, just as Prometheus human-empowering gifts rebelled against the tyranny of Zeus, philanthropic was also associated with freedom and democracy. Both Socrates and the laws of Athens were described as philanthropic and democratic, gradually there emerged a non-religious agricultural infrastructure based on peasant farming organized into manors, which were, in turn, organized for law and order by feudalism. Francis Bacon in 1592 wrote in a letter that his vast contemplative ends expressed his philanthropic, Henry Cockeram, in his English dictionary, cited philanthropy as a synonym for humanity—thus reaffirming the Classical formulation
10.
Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
11.
Johns Hopkins School of Nursing
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The Johns Hopkins University School of Nursing is part of the Johns Hopkins University located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Established in 1889, it is one of the nation’s oldest and schools for nursing education and it is also among the top recipients of nursing research funding from the National Institutes of Health. The schools mission is to provide leadership to improve care and advance the nursing profession through education, research, practice. The founder Johns Hopkins desire for a school for female nurses was formally stated in a posthumous 1873 instruction letter to the board of trustees of the Johns Hopkins institutions. It is one of the few campuses in the world where highly ranked schools of nursing, medicine, the School of Nursing offers a variety of programs from pre-licensure programs to Masters, DNP and PhD programs, online options, post-degree opportunities, and nursing prerequisites. The school is home to the country’s first and only Peace Corps Fellows Program in nursing. The school offers a program for Arts and Science College students to transfer after two years. The school ranks #1 among nursing schools for Federal Research Grants, nearly 95 percent of graduates pass the NCLEX on their first try. Among the faculty, more than 40 percent are ranked as Fellows of the American Academy of Nursing. The School of Nursing is associated with nursing practice at Johns Hopkins Hospital, isabel Hampton and the Professionalization of Nursing in the 1890s, in Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg, eds. Therapeutic Revolution, Essays in the Social History of American Medicine pp 201–244 Kaufman M et al, greenwood Press, Westport CN, vol 2. The Johns Hopkins Training School For Nurses, A Tale Of Vision, Labor, And Futility, Nursing History Review, Vol.5, pp 23–48
12.
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
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The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, located in Baltimore, Maryland, U. S. is the academic medical teaching and research arm of Johns Hopkins University. Johns Hopkins has consistently been among the top medical schools in the number of research grants awarded by the National Institutes of Health. Its major teaching hospital, the Johns Hopkins Hospital, was ranked the #1 hospital in the United States for 22 years by U. S. News & World Report. The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is located in the East Baltimore campus of Johns Hopkins University together with the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, together they form an academic health science center. For years, Johns Hopkins has been among the top medical schools in the number of competitive research grants awarded by the National Institutes of Health. According to U. S. News and World Report, Johns Hopkins has always ranked in the top 3 research-oriented medical schools. Its major teaching hospital, the Johns Hopkins Hospital, was ranked the top hospital in the United States every year from 1991 to 2011 by U. S. News & World Report, according to the Flexner Report, Hopkins has served as the model for American medical education. It was the first medical school to require its students to have a degree and was also the first graduate-level medical school to admit women on an equal basis as men. Mary Elizabeth Garrett, head of the Womens Medical School Fund, was a force behind both of these firsts. Sir William Osler became the first Professor of Medicine at Johns Hopkins, Osler was responsible for establishing the residency system of postgraduate medical training, where young physicians were required to reside within the hospital to better care for their patients. The Colleges were established to foster camaraderie, networking, advising, mentoring, professionalism, clinical skills, students are assigned to faculty advisors within their colleges. Each advisor has a group of five students each of the four years. They instruct these same five students in Clinical Skills, a core first-year course, every year, the Colleges compete in the “College Olympics. ”The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine is led by Ronald J. Daniels, the president of Johns Hopkins University, Paul B. Rothman, CEO and dean of the faculty, and Ronald R. Peterson, president of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. The CFO of Johns Hopkins Medicine is Richard A. Grossi, vice deans preside over specific administrative task areas. The deans office also includes over twenty administrators in the position of associate or assistant dean, sixteen Nobel laureates associated with the School of Medicine as alumni and faculty have won the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Chemistry. S. S. In the television drama Private Practice, the character Charlotte King is a graduate of Hopkins Med, in the Fox television program House, Dr. Gregory House is a world-famous diagnostician who attended Johns Hopkins University for his undergraduate degree. He was expelled from the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine for cheating, neurologist Dr. Eric Foreman also attended Hopkins
13.
Carey Business School
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The Johns Hopkins Carey Business School, also referred to as Carey Business School or JHUCarey or simply Carey, is the business school of the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. The Carey Business School is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business. James Carey, the namesake of the Carey Business School, is a relative to Johns Hopkins, a co-founder of the Gilman School, and ancestor to several founding trustees of the university and hospital. His sixth-generation decedent, William P. Carey, has been in pursuit of establishing a business school for Johns Hopkins University since 1950s. The origins of the school can be traced back to 1909, in 1925 the school changed its name to College for Teachers, then adopted the name McCoy College in 1947 as it welcomed into its classrooms many World War II veterans studying on the G. I. In 1965, the name changed again, to Evening College and Summer Session, until 1983. Then, in 1999, in order to clearly reflect its two remaining major divisions, the school was renamed as the School of Professional Studies in Business. Throughout all of these iterations, the objective of serving the educational needs of working professionals, allowing them to complete degrees while maintaining careers. Over the years, the school evolved from a college to one of nine major schools within the university. 1 ranked education school in the U. S, the gift remains the largest to Hopkins in support of business education to date. The school is named in honor of Wm, the current dean of Carey Business School is Bernard T. Ferrari. Since then, the Executive MBA and several full-time Masters of Science degrees were added, the full-time MS degree concentrations include Real Estate and Infrastructure, Health Care Management, Enterprise Risk Management, Finance, and Marketing. The school also offers part-time Flex MBA and Master of Science degrees in Finance, Marketing, Real Estate and Infrastructure, Health Care Management, Finance, Marketing, certificate programs are offered in Financial Management and Investments. An online graduate certificate in the Business of Health Care was added in 2014, from these partnerships have come a number of joint-degree MBA programs, including the MBA/MS in Nursing, the MBA/MS in Biotechnology, the MBA/MA in Government, and the MBA/MA in Communication. In 2012, Carey began offering a MBA/MA in Design Leadership, the Carey Business School continues to undergo significant institutional development, hiring additional full-time faculty and exploring new course and program offerings. The Carey Business Schools flagship program is the full-time Global MBA, discovery to Market, groups of students are paired with inventors through the Johns Hopkins Technology Transfer office to assess the commercial feasibility of new discoveries. Innovation for Humanity, a program in sustainable business which pairs groups of students with entrepreneurs in developing countries. This includes an international residency
14.
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
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The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health is part of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. The school is ranked first in health in the U. S. News. Originally named the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, Bloomberg has donated a total of $1.1 billion to Johns Hopkins University over a period of several decades. The school is also the founder of Delta Omega, the honorary society for graduate studies in public health. The Bloomberg School is fully accredited by the Council on Education for Public Health, in 1913, the Rockefeller Foundation sponsored a conference on the need for public health education in the United States. Foundation officials were convinced that a new profession of public health was needed and it would be allied to medicine but also distinct, with its own identity and educational institutions. The Report, reflected the different preferences of the plans two architects—William Henry Welch favoured scientific research, whereas Wickliffe Rose wanted an emphasis on public health practice. Welch, the first Dean of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine also became the founding Dean of the first school of health in the United States. The facility is located on the former Maryland Hospital site founded in 1797, the Maryland Hospital was originally built as a hospital to care for Yellow Fever for the indigent away from the city. In 1840, the hospital expanded to care for the mentally ill. In 1873, the buildings were torn down as the facility relocated to a new site as the Spring Grove Hospital Center, the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health represents the archetype for formalized public health education in the United States. By 1922, other schools of health at Harvard, Columbia. The Bloomberg School is the largest school of health in the world, with 530 full-time and 620 part-time faculty. It is home to over fifty Research Centers and Institutes with research ongoing in the U. S. combined and certificate training programs in various areas of public health. The Bloomberg School of Public Health is located in the East Baltimore campus of the Johns Hopkins University, the main building on which the school is located is on North Wolfe Street, it has nine floors and features an observation area and a fitness center on the top floor. The Bloomberg School also occupies Hampton House on North Broadway, the school is also serviced by the Welch Medical Library, a central resource shared by all the schools of the Medical Campus. The campus includes the Lowell Reed Residence Hall and the Denton Cooley Recreational Center, Public transportation to and from the campus is served by the Baltimore Metro Subway, local buses, and the JHMI shuttle. In 1931, it was changed to Dean and in 1946 back to Director, in 1958, the title again became Dean
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Johns Hopkins University Press
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The Johns Hopkins University Press is the publishing division of Johns Hopkins University. It was founded in 1878 and is the oldest continuously running university press in the United States, the Press publishes books, journals, and electronic databases. Considering all its units it is a contender for Americas largest university press and its headquarters are in Charles Village, Baltimore. Daniel Coit Gilman, the first president of the Johns Hopkins University, the Press began as the Universitys Publication Agency, publishing the American Journal of Mathematics in its first year and the American Chemical Journal in its second. It published its first book, Sidney Lanier, A Memorial Tribute, in 1891, the Publication Agency became the Johns Hopkins Press, since 1972, it has been known as the Johns Hopkins University Press. After various moves on and off the Universitys Homewood campus, the Press acquired a permanent home in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood in 1993, when it relocated to a renovated former church. Built in 1897, the granite and brick structure was the church of the Saints Philip and James Roman Catholic parish. JHU Press publishes 65 scholarly journals and more than 200 new books each year, since 1993, JHU Press has run Project MUSE, an online provider of more than 550 scholarly journals and more than 20,000 electronic books
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Crofton, Maryland
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Crofton is a census-designated place and planned community in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, United States, located just west of the state capital Annapolis. Crofton is located 24 miles south of Baltimore,9.8 miles west of Annapolis, the community was established in 1964. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 27,348, in 1963, after the Crawford Corporation accumulated over 1,600 acres of land, it announced that it would build a new community called Crofton. This new town and planned community was founded at the time as Reston, Virginia and Columbia. Crofton would be anchored by a community golf course, which became the Crofton Country Club. Crofton was officially founded in the fall of 1964, the company considered picking an English name for the new town that sounds well and implies that this is a pleasant place to live. It ended up picking the name Crofton, named after a township in Cumberland County. The English town was originally called Croft-town, derived from the word Croft, originally an exclusive gated community, Croftons gates were opened and they now only serve as a symbol for the community. In July 2007 Crofton was named by Money magazine as one of 100 Best Places to Live in the United States, Crofton placed 72nd out of 100 cities on the list. It was selected for its relative anonymity while still boasting many major amenities, excellent schools, Crofton was selected again for the magazines 2011 list, this time placing 82nd. Crofton was in the news in late June and early July 2002 after a Northern Snakehead fish was discovered in a local pond. The infestation was found in water behind the Crofton post office, the snakehead species is highly aggressive and voracious. In order to ensure that the fish were eliminated, in September 2002 the main pond, six adult snakeheads and more than one thousand juvenile fish were found and destroyed. Ultimately, the incident initiated a discussion on invasive species. Several movies were inspired by this incident, syfy aired two movies in relation to the snakehead outbreak, in March 2004, a movie called Snakehead Terror was featured, and the movie Frankenfish was aired in June 2004. Ten Pound Films also produced a film titled Swarm of the Snakehead which related to this incident. The original community of Crofton was built within a triangle formed by three roads, Crain Highway to the northwest, Davidsonville Road to the northeast. Within the triangle, Crofton Parkway, a loop road 3.5 miles long, Crofton also has a community pool, the Crofton Swim and Tennis Club, which is restricted to those inhabitants of the triangle
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Loudoun County, Virginia
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Loudoun County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia. In 2015, the population was estimated at 375,629, Loudoun County is part of the Washington–Arlington–Alexandria, DC–VA–MD–WV Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of 2012, Loudoun County had a household income of $117,876. Since 2008 the county has been ranked first in the United States in median income among jurisdictions with a population of 65,000 or more. Loudoun County was established in 1757 from Fairfax County, the county is named for John Campbell, Fourth Earl of Loudoun and Governor General of Virginia from 1756–59. By the time of the American Revolution, it was Virginias most populous county and it was also rich in agriculture, and the countys contributions of grain to George Washingtons Continental Army, earned it the nickname Breadbasket of the Revolution. During the War of 1812, important Federal documents and government archives were evacuated from Washington, local tradition holds that these documents were stored at Rokeby House, making Leesburg briefly the capital of the United States. U. S. President James Monroe treated Oak Hill Plantation as a residence from 1823 until his death on July 4,1831. Early in the American Civil War, the Battle of Balls Bluff took place near Leesburg on October 21,1861, future jurist Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. was critically wounded in that battle along the Potomac River. During the Gettysburg Campaign in June 1863, Confederate Major General J. E. B, stuart and Union cavalry clashed in the battles of Aldie, Middleburg, and Upperville. Confederate partisan John S. Mosby based his operations in Loudoun, in 1962, Washington Dulles International Airport was built in southeastern Loudoun County in Sterling. Since then, Loudoun County has experienced a boom and rapid growth. Others have moved to the county seat or to the small towns, the countys official motto, I Byde My Time, is borrowed from the coat of arms of the Earl of Loudoun. Loudoun County was traditionally a Republican-leaning county, before the 2008 election, it had not voted for a Democrat for President since Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. In recent years, the rapid growth in its eastern portion, driven mainly by commuters drawn by the close proximity to Washington. After giving Senator Barack Obama nearly 54% of its vote in 2008. Voters also removed two incumbent Democratic delegates, making Loudouns state House delegation all-Republican, Loudoun shifted back to the Democrats in 2012 in the presidential election, as Obama recaptured the county with 51. 5%, with Republican challenger Mitt Romney garnering 47%. Like many counties in Virginia, Loudoun is governed by a board of supervisors, the Chairman of the Board is elected by county voters at-large while the remaining supervisors are elected from each of eight electoral districts
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Tobacco
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Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae family, while more than 70 species of tobacco are known, the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used around the world, Tobacco contains the alkaloid nicotine, which is a stimulant. Dried tobacco leaves are used for smoking in cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco. They can be consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, dipping tobacco. Tobacco use is a factor for many diseases, especially those affecting the heart, liver. In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco as the single greatest preventable cause of death. The English word tobacco originates from the Spanish and Portuguese word tabaco, the precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived at least in part, from Taino, the Arawakan language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to either a roll of tobacco leaves or to tabago. Tobacco has long used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC. Many Native American tribes have traditionally grown and used tobacco, traditionally, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator, with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying ones thoughts and prayers to the Creator. Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became popular as a trade item. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo, more specifically in a known as Los Cigarrales named after the continuous plagues of cicadas. Before the development of lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru or smoking newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah. The alleged benefits of tobacco also account for its considerable success, Tobacco smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700. Tobacco has been a major crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular, James Bonsack created a machine that automated cigarette production
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Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
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Anne Arundel County Free School
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Anne Arundel County Free School is a historic school building at Davidsonville, Anne Arundel County, Maryland. The first Free School of Anne Arundel County was established by an Act of the General Assembly of colonial Maryland in 1723 and it was built somewhere between its contractual date of 1724 and 1746 when it was under full operation with John Wilmot as schoolmaster. The existing abandoned building is 49 x 18, and consists of six rooms on two floors and it was built as near the center of the county as may be, and as may be the most convenient for the boarding of children. The county then included what is now Howard County and it remained in operation until 1912 when the movement toward consolidation forced the closure of many early school buildings. It is the only surviving schoolhouse erected in Maryland in response to the Maryland Free School Act of 1723 and it may have served a prominent role in history as Johns Hopkins likely attended the school from 1806 to 1809. Later, when Hopkinss abolitionist parents freed their slaves, he was forced to quit school and his great value for education later led to his founding of The Johns Hopkins University. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983, the school is now a museum owned by the local board of education. It is open for groups and seasonally on Sunday afternoons. It is taken care of by the Anne Arundel Retired Educators Association, recently, there have been improvements made to the building and surrounding grounds. One of these has been the construction of a walkway leading to the building from the road. The walkway was built as part of an Eagle Scout project by a local Boy Scout, official website Anne Arundel County Free School, Anne Arundel County, including photo from 1990, at Maryland Historical Trust Historic American Buildings Survey No. MD-106, First Free School, Rutland Road, Gambrills vicinity, Anne Arundel County, MD,2 photos,3 measured drawings, supplemental material
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Davidsonville, Maryland
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Davidsonville is an unincorporated community in central Anne Arundel County, Maryland, USA. It is a community composed mostly of farms and suburban-like developments and is a good example of an exurb. Davidsonville has relatively little development and no high-density housing. The community is not served by public water, sewer or natural gas utilities. The nominal, if not geographic, center of Davidsonville is the intersection of Maryland routes 424 and 214, located at 38. 9229°N76. 6284°W /38.9229, the Davidsonville Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. As of the 2010 U. S. census, the Davidsonville ZIP code had a population of 7,815, ethnically,92 percent of the population was white, four percent was black or African American, two percent was Asian, with the rest other ethnicities. Ninety-four percent of homes were owner-occupied, as of the 2007 United States Census Bureaus Economic Census,13 year-round retail business establishments and three retail food establishments were located in Davidsonville. Before European colonists settled in what is now Davidsonville, the area was the home to Algonquian-speaking Native American tribes, europeans and their descendants settled and developed farms and plantations in and around what came to be known as Davidsonville in the 17th and 18th centuries. Several good examples of 18th century development in the area remain today, one is the Anne Arundel Free School. The Free School of Anne Arundel County was built in what was to become Davidsonville sometime between 1724 and 1746, when it was under full operation with John Wilmot as schoolmaster. The original structure, expanded and restored, still today, is located in the community of Lavall, off Rutland Road, about one-half mile from Maryland Route 450. Other examples of development in the 18th century also remain, george Washington is reported to have stayed at the house in 1760. Roedown is located off Harwood Rd. in Davidsonville, perhaps the most prominent example of 18th century settlement in Davidsonville is the Middle Plantation. The plantation itself dates to a 1664 land grant by Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore to Mareen Duvall, the current house known as Middle Plantation, located on Davidsonville Rd. includes several stages of construction dating as far back as 1790. The emergence of Davidsonville as a community began in the mid-19th century. In 1839, Thomas Davidson, from whose family Davidsonville received its name and they built a home at what is now the corner of Davidsonville Road and Central Avenue that still stands today. Davidson, like virtually all plantation owners in central and southern Maryland at the time, however, a staunch Methodist who was instrumental in the founding of what is now the Davidsonville United Methodist Church, Davidson apparently was conflicted as to the morality of slavery. Davidsonville is among the examples of this type of community remaining in the county
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War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
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Shenandoah Valley
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The Shenandoah Valley /ˌʃɛnənˈdoʊə/ is a geographic valley and cultural region of western Virginia and the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia in the United States. The cultural region covers a area that includes all of the valley plus the Virginia highlands to the west. It is physiographically located within the Ridge and Valley province and is a portion of the Great Appalachian Valley, named for the river that stretches much of its length, the Shenandoah Valley encompasses eight counties in Virginia and two counties in West Virginia. It has been described as being derived from the Anglicization of Native American terms, resulting in such as Gerando, Gerundo, Genantua. The meaning of words is of some question. Schin-han-dowi, the River Through the Spruces, On-an-da-goa, the River of High Mountains or Silver-Water, the most popular, romanticized belief is that the name comes from a Native American expression for Beautiful Daughter of the Stars. Another legend relates that the name is derived from the name of the Iroquoian chief Sherando, Opechancanough liked the interior country so much that he sent his son Sheewa-a-nee from the Tidewater with a large party to colonize the valley. Sheewa-a-nee drove Sherando back to his former territory near the Great Lakes, according to this account, descendants of Sheewanees party became the Shawnee. According to tradition, another branch of Iroquoians, the Senedo and they were exterminated by Southern Indians before the arrival of white settlers. Another story dates to the American Revolutionary War, throughout the war, Chief Skenandoa of the Oneida, an Iroquois nation based in New York, persuaded many of the tribe to side with the colonials against the British. Four Iroquois nations became British allies, and caused many fatalities, Skenandoa led 250 warriors against the British and Iroquois allies. According to Oneida oral tradition, during the winter of 1777-1778 at Valley Forge. The Oneida delivered bushels of dry corn to the troops to them survive. Polly Cooper, an Oneida woman, stayed some time with the troops to them how to cook the corn properly. General Washington gave her a shawl in thanks, which is displayed at Shako, wi, many Oneida believe that after the war, George Washington named the Shenandoah River and valley after his ally. Despite the valleys potential for productive farmland, colonial settlement from the east was delayed by the barrier of the Blue Ridge Mountains. These were crossed by explorers John Lederer at Manassas Gap in 1671, Batts and Fallam the same year, the Swiss Franz Ludwig Michel and Christoph von Graffenried explored and mapped the Valley in 1706 and 1712, respectively. Von Graffenried reported that the Indians of Senantona had been alarmed by news of the recent Tuscarora War in North Carolina, governor Alexander Spotswoods legendary Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition of 1716 crossed the Blue Ridge at Swift Run Gap and reached the river at Elkton, Virginia
