1.
Wolverhampton
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Wolverhampton is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 249,470, the demonym for people from the city is Wulfrunian. Historically part of Staffordshire, the city is named after Wulfrun, prior to the Norman Conquest, the areas name appears only as variants of Heantune or Hamtun, the prefix Wulfrun or similar appearing in 1070 and thereafter. Alternatively, the city may have earned its name from Wulfereēantūn after the Mercian King. The variation Wolveren Hampton is seen in records, e. g. in 1381. The city grew initially as a market town specialising in the woollen trade, in the Industrial Revolution, it became a major centre for coal mining, steel production, lock making and the manufacture of cars and motorcycles. The economy of the city is based on engineering, including a large aerospace industry. A local tradition states that King Wulfhere of Mercia founded an abbey of St Mary at Wolverhampton in 659, the Mercians and West Saxons claimed a decisive victory and the field of Woden is recognised by numerous place names in Wednesfield. In 985, King Ethelred the Unready granted lands at a place referred to as Heantun to Lady Wulfrun by royal charter and this became the site for the current St. Peters Church. A statue of Lady Wulfrun, sculpted by Sir Charles Wheeler, Wolverhampton is recorded in the Domesday Book in 1086 as being in the Hundred of Seisdon and the county of Staffordshire. The lords of the manor are listed as the canons of St Mary, with the tenant-in-chief being Samson, Wolverhampton at this date is a large settlement of fifty households. In 1179, there is mention of a market held in the town and this charter for a weekly market held on a Wednesday was eventually granted on 4 February 1258 by Henry III. From the 16th century onwards, Wolverhampton became home to a number of industries including lock and key making and iron. Wolverhampton suffered two Great Fires, the first in April 1590, and the second in September 1696, both fires started in todays Salop Street. The first fire lasted for five days and left nearly 700 people homeless and this second fire led to the purchase of the first fire engine within the city in September 1703. There is also evidence that Wolverhampton may have been the location of the first working Newcomen Steam Engine in 1712. In Victorian times, Wolverhampton grew to be a town mainly due to the huge amount of industry that occurred as a result of the abundance of coal. The remains of this wealth can be seen in houses such as Wightwick Manor and The Mount
2.
Linux
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Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
3.
KDE
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KDE is an international free software community that develops Free and Libre software. Well-known products include the Plasma Desktop, KDE Frameworks and a range of applications designed to run on modern Unix-like. It further provides tools and documentation for developers that enables them to write software and this supporting role makes KDE a central development hub and home for many popular applications and projects like Calligra Suite, Krita or digiKam. The Plasma Desktop, being one of the most recognized projects of KDE, is the desktop environment on many Linux distributions, such as openSUSE, Mageia, Chakra, Kubuntu. It was also the default desktop environment on PC-BSD, but was replaced with Lumina. The work of the KDE community can be measured in the following figures, more than 1800 contributors participate in developing KDE software. About 20 new developers contribute their first code each month, KDE Software consists of over 6 million lines of code. KDE Software is translated in over 108 languages, KDE Software is available on more than 114 official FTP mirrors in over 34 countries. A read-only mirror of all repositories can be found on Github, K Desktop Environment was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen. At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop, among his concerns was that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the creation of not merely a set of applications but a desktop environment in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this easy to use, one of his complaints about desktop applications of the time was that it is too complicated for end user. His initial Usenet post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born, the name KDE was intended as a wordplay on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems. CDE is an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM and it was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment. The K was originally suggested to stand for Kool, but it was decided that the K should stand for nothing in particular. Therefore, the KDE initialism expanded to K Desktop Environment before it was dropped altogether in favor of KDE = Community due to the rebranding effort. The rebranding focused on de-emphasizing the desktop environment as just another product, what would have been previously known as KDE4 was split into three products, Plasma Workspaces, KDE Applications, and KDE Platform – bundled as KDE Software Compilation 4. As of today the name KDE no longer stands for K Desktop Environment, the financial and legal matters of KDE are handled by KDE e. V
4.
Canonical Ltd.
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Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Boston, Taipei, Shanghai, Tokyo and the Isle of Man. Canonical Ltd. has created and continues to back several projects, principally these are free and open-source software or tools designed to improve collaboration between free software developers and contributors. Some projects require a Contributor License Agreement to be signed. K, Canonical also claimed it would wait for the business to turn into a profitable one within another three to five years. Shuttleworth regarded Canonical as positioning itself as demand for services related to free software rose and this strategy has been compared to Red Hats business strategies in the 1990s. In an early 2009 New York Times article, Shuttleworth said that Canonicals revenue was creeping towards $30 million, however, as of 2013 the company was again in investment mode, making a $21.3 million loss as it invested in mobile. At the same time, the word Ubuntu was trademarked in connection with clothing, Canonical Group Ltd is located in London. Canonical USA Inc. is located in Lexington, Massachusetts, Canonical China Ltd is located in Shanghai. Canonical Brasil Ltda is located in São Paulo, Canonical Canada Ltd is located in Montreal. Canonical Ltd Taiwan Br. is located in Taipei, Canonical has more than 500 employees. The head office is in London, previously on the 27th floor of Millbank Tower, in the summer of 2006, Canonical opened an office in Montreal to house its global support and services operation. Taipei 101 is also home to a Canonical office, there is also an OEM team in Lexington, Massachusetts, United States. Bernard, was responsible for all major marketing deployments Stuart Langridge Jono Bacon, Ubuntu community leader Official website
5.
Ubuntu (operating system)
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Ubuntu is published by Canonical Ltd, who offer commercial support. It uses Unity as its user interface for the desktop. Ubuntu is the most popular operating system running in hosted environments, so–called clouds, development of Ubuntu is led by UK-based Canonical Ltd. a company of South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth. Canonical generates revenue through the sale of technical support and other related to Ubuntu. The Ubuntu project is committed to the principles of open-source software development, people are encouraged to use free software, study how it works, improve upon it. Ubuntu is built on Debians architecture and infrastructure, to provide Linux server, desktop, phone, tablet, the first release was in October 2004. Starting with Ubuntu 6.06, every release, one release every two years, receives long-term support. Long-term support includes updates for new hardware, security patches and updates to the Ubuntu stack. The first LTS releases were supported for three years on the desktop and five years on the server, since Ubuntu 12.04 LTS, LTS releases get regular point releases with support for new hardware and integration of all the updates published in that series to date. Ubuntu packages are based on packages from Debians unstable branch, both distributions use Debians deb package format and package management tools. Debian and Ubuntu packages are not necessarily compatible with each other, however. Many Ubuntu developers are also maintainers of key packages within Debian, Ubuntu cooperates with Debian by pushing changes back to Debian, although there has been criticism that this does not happen often enough. Ian Murdock, the founder of Debian, had expressed concern about Ubuntu packages potentially diverging too far from Debian to remain compatible, before release, packages are imported from Debian unstable continuously and merged with Ubuntu-specific modifications. One month before release, imports are frozen, and packagers then work to ensure that the frozen features interoperate well together, Ubuntu is currently funded by Canonical Ltd. On 8 July 2005, Mark Shuttleworth and Canonical announced the creation of the Ubuntu Foundation, the purpose of the foundation is to ensure the support and development for all future versions of Ubuntu. Mark Shuttleworth describes the goal as to ensure the continuity of the Ubuntu project. On 12 March 2009, Ubuntu announced developer support for 3rd-party cloud management platforms, Unity has become the default GUI for Ubuntu Desktop, although following the release of Ubuntu 17.10 it will move to the GNOME3 desktop instead as work on Unity ends. A default installation of Ubuntu contains a range of software that includes LibreOffice, Firefox, Thunderbird, Transmission
6.
X Prize Foundation
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XPRIZE is a non-profit organization that designs and manages public competitions intended to encourage technological development that could benefit mankind. Their Board of Trustees include James Cameron, Larry Page, Arianna Huffington, the XPRIZE mission is to bring about “radical breakthroughs for the benefit of humanity” through incentivized competition. The most high-profile XPRIZE to date was the Ansari X Prize relating to spacecraft development awarded in 2004 and this prize was intended to inspire research and development into technology for space exploration. In 1927, underdog Charles Lindbergh won the prize in a modified single-engine Ryan aircraft called the Spirit of St. Louis, in total, nine teams spent $400,000 in pursuit of the Orteig Prize. The contest, later titled the Ansari XPRIZE for Suborbital Spaceflight, on October 4,2004, the Ansari XPRIZE was won by Mojave Aerospace Ventures, who successfully completed the contest in their spacecraft SpaceShipOne. The prize was awarded in a ceremony at the Saint Louis Science Center in St. Louis, as of 2011, the Science Center maintains numerous exhibits about the XPRIZE. The foundation has created the XPRIZE Cup rocket challenge competition. XPRIZES are monetary rewards to incentivize three primary goals, Attract investment from outside the sector that takes new approaches to difficult problems, create significant results that are real and meaningful. Competitions have measurable goals, and are created to promote adoption of the innovation, cross national and disciplinary boundaries to encourage teams around the world to invest the intellectual and financial capital required to solve difficult challenges. Other organizations such as the Nobel Prize committee award prizes and financial rewards to individuals or organizations that produce novel advances in science, medicine, the prize can increase attention to endeavors that otherwise might not receive much publicity. For example, attempts in the recent Lunar Lander competition have been publicized in the media. With the Ansari XPRIZE, XPRIZE established a model in which offering a prize for achieving a goal can stimulate entrepreneurial investment. Since then, new challenges have expanded into a range of other fields, XPRIZE is developing new prizes in Exploration, Life Sciences, Energy & Environment, Education and Global Development. Some hope the prizes will help improve lives, create equity of opportunity and stimulate new, as of June 2016, there are six completed contests, seven active contests and one contest that has been canceled. The Ansari XPRIZE for Suborbital Spaceflight was the first prize from the foundation and it successfully challenged teams to build private spaceships capable of carrying three people and fly two times within two weeks to open the space frontier. On that ship, Melvill broke the 100-kilometer mark, the recognized as the boundary of outer space. Brian Binnie completed the part of the requirements on October 4,2004. As a result, US$10 million was awarded to the winner, today, Sir Richard Branson, Jeff Bezos and others are creating a personal spaceflight industry
7.
GitHub
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GitHub is a web-based Git or version control repository and Internet hosting service. It offers all of the version control and source code management functionality of Git as well as adding its own features. It provides access control and several features such as bug tracking, feature requests, task management. GitHub offers both plans for private and free repositories on the account which are commonly used to host open-source software projects. As of April 2016, GitHub reports having more than 14 million users and more than 85.5 million repositories, the trademark mascot of GitHub is Octocat, an anthropomorphized cat with cephalopod limbs. Development of the GitHub platform began on 1 October 2007, the site was launched in April 2008 by Tom Preston-Werner, Chris Wanstrath, and PJ Hyett after it had been made available for a few months prior as a beta release. Projects on GitHub can be accessed and manipulated using the standard Git command-line interface, GitHub also allows registered and non-registered users to browse public repositories on the site. Multiple desktop clients and Git plugins have also created by GitHub. The site provides social networking-like functions such as feeds, followers, wikis, a user must create an account in order to contribute content to the site, but public repositories can be browsed and downloaded by anyone. With a registered account, users are able to discuss, manage, create repositories, submit contributions to others repositories. The software that runs GitHub was written using Ruby on Rails and Erlang by GitHub, Inc. developers Chris Wanstrath, PJ Hyett, GitHub is mostly used for code. Emojis GitHub Pages, small websites can be hosted from public repositories on GitHub, nested task-lists within files Visualization of geospatial data 3D render files that can be previewed using a new integrated STL file viewer that displays the files on a 3D canvas. The viewer is powered by WebGL and Three. js, photoshops native PSD format can be previewed and compared to previous versions of the same file. GitHubs Terms of Service do not require public software projects hosted on GitHub to meet the Open Source Definition. For that reason, it is advisable for users and developers intending to use a piece of software found on GitHub to read the license in the repository to determine if it meets their needs. The Terms of Service state, By setting your repositories to be viewed publicly, you agree to allow others to view, GitHub also operates other services, a pastebin-style site called Gist that is for hosting code snippets, and a slide hosting service called Speaker Deck. Tom Preston-Werner presented the then-new Gist feature at a punk rock Ruby conference in 2008, Gist builds on the traditional simple concept of a pastebin by adding version control for code snippets, easy forking, and SSL encryption for private pastes. Because each gist has its own Git repository, multiple code snippets can be contained in a single paste, further, forked code can be pushed back to the original author in the form of a patch, so gists can become more like mini-projects
8.
Linux Magazine
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Linux Magazine is an international magazine for Linux software enthusiasts and professionals. It is published by the Linux New Media division of the German media company Medialinx AG, the magazine was first published in German in 1994, and later in English, Polish, Brazilian Portuguese, and Spanish. The German edition is called Linux-Magazin, the American/Canadian edition is Linux Pro Magazine, the founding company was Articon GmbH. The magazine is published on the first Thursday of each month, every issue includes a DVD-ROM, usually featuring a recent version of a Linux distribution. Linux-Magazin is among the oldest magazines about Linux in the world, the first German language issue appeared in October 1994, seven months after Linux Journals first issue, as the information paper for DELUG, the German Linux user group. The slogan of the magazine is „Die Zeitschrift für Linux-Professionals“, Linux Magazine was a magazine about Linux written in English and published in the United States by Mountain View, California-based InfoStrada. Their magazine covered system administration, Linux distros, free software, Linux development, in June 2008, Linux New Media purchased assets from InfoStrada related to their magazine. InfoStradas Linux Magazine is no longer offering print subscriptions, the website for InfoStradas Linux Magazine was acquired by QuinStreets Internet. com network, so no name-change was applied to Linux New Medias North American magazine. The latest article on QuinStreets site is dated June 30,2011, in October 2016, Linux Voice merged as a special section into Linux Magazine. Linux Format Linux Journal Linux Voice Official website Linux Pro Magazine Linux-Magazin Linux Magazine Brazil Linux Magazine Poland Linux Magazine Spain
9.
PC Plus
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PC Plus was a computer magazine published monthly from 1986 until September 2012 in the UK by Future plc. The magazine was aimed at intermediate to advanced PC users, computer professionals, the magazine was specifically for users of PCs and related technologies so features articles were undiluted by coverage of other platforms. For many years the editor was Dave Pearman, PC Plus print magazine was closed in October 2012, when the editor was Martin Cooper. Each edition of the print magazine was centered on four main sections - news, reviews, features, the magazine frequently drew on images of Bath, its office base, during multimedia tutorial articles. Future plc. no longer publishes PC Plus as a print publication although the domain is still serviced by parent brand TechRadar. com
10.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
11.
Benjamin Mako Hill
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Benjamin Mako Hill is a free software activist, hacker, and author. Hill is an assistant professor in Communication at the University of Washington, Hill has a masters degree from the MIT Media Lab and received a PhD in an interdepartmental program involving the MIT Sloan School of Management and the MIT Media Lab. Since fall 2013, he is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Washington and he is also a Fellow at the MIT Center for Civic Media where he coordinates the development of software for civic organizing. He has worked as an advisor and contractor for the One Laptop per Child project and he is a speaker for the GNU Project, and serves on the board of Software Freedom International. Since 2006 he is married to Mika Matsuzaki, having used mathematically constrained wedding vows at the marriage ceremony, since 1999, Hill has been an active member of Debian. In addition he served on the board of Software in the Public Interest from March 2003 until July 2006, Hill is also a core developer and founding member of Ubuntu, and continues to be an active contributor to the project. In addition to technical responsibilities, he coordinated the construction of a community around the Ubuntu Project as project community manager during Ubuntus first year, during this period, he worked full-time for Canonical Ltd. Within the Project, he served on the Community Council governance board that oversees all aspects of the project. His work included contributing to a code of conduct and diversity statement for the project, in addition to software development, Hill writes extensively. He has been published in books and magazines, newsletters, and online journals. He has also studied the sociology of community involvement in web communities and he has talked about these topics publicly, as well as giving a keynote address at 2008 OSCON. He spends a significant amount of his traveling and giving talks on FOSS and intellectual property primarily in Europe. Previous to his current positions, Hill pursued research full-time as a researcher at the MIT Media Laboratory. At the lab, he has worked in both the Electronic Publishing and Computing Culture groups on collaborative writing and decision-making software, One project, Selectricity is an award-winning voting tool which received prizes and grants from MTV and Cisco. He was a fellow at the Harvard Berkman Center for Internet & Society and he serves on the advisory board of the Wikimedia Foundation, the advisory council of the Open Knowledge Foundation and the board of the Free Software Foundation. He was a member of the Ubuntu Community Council in 2009. Debian GNU/Linux 3. com MIT LabCAST, Selectricity Laboratories of Oligarchy, video recording of a presentation at the Berkman Center for Internet and Society
12.
LugRadio
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LugRadio was a British podcast on the topic of Linux and events in the free and open source software communities, as well as coverage of technology, digital rights and politics. The show was launched in 2004 as a result of discussions between members of the Wolverhampton Linux User Group. After five seasons, on June 30,2008, LugRadio announced they would be ending the show at their convention, the show was presented by Jono Bacon, Stuart Langridge, Chris Procter and Adam Sweet. Jono Bacon and Stuart Langridge are the two presenters who have been with the show from the beginning, with Jono Bacon being the only presenter to appear on every show. Previous regular presenters were Matthew Revell, Adrian Bradshaw and Stephen Parkes, the show has also featured a number of guest presenters. Guests have included Ximian co-founder Nat Friedman, Google Open Source program manager Chris DiBona, Sun Head of Open Source Strategy Simon Phipps, LugRadio was conceived by Jono Bacon and Matthew Revell in 2003. The pair met at Wolverhampton Linux User Group and it was agreed that Stuart Langridge, the first show, called The Phantom Message, was released on 26 February 2004. An effort was made to relicense earlier content under the same license where possible, LugRadio has previously received coverage in Linux Format magazine, Linux User and Developer magazine and Linux Magazine as well as online coverage by sites such as Slashdot. LugRadio has been included on the cover CD of Linux User and Developer magazine, LugRadio Live is an annual event organised by the LugRadio team and held in Wolverhampton. It is a Linux, Free Software and Open Source event intended to be fun and it was first held in 2005 with 250 attendees,14 speakers — including Mark Shuttleworth, who arrived by helicopter — and 18 exhibitors including Ubuntu, Debian, KDE and OReilly. In 2006 LugRadio Live saw around 400 attendees, over 30 speakers including Michael Meeks and 27 exhibitors including Ubuntu, OpenSolaris, KDE, MythTV, Debian, Fedora and GNOME. LugRadio Live 2007 took place on 7–8 July 2007 at the Light House Media Centre, speakers included Chris DiBona, Gervase Markham and a representative from the Department for Communities and Local Government. LugRadio Live USA2008 took place on 12–13 April 2008 at The Metreon in San Francisco, the wide selection of speakers included many celebrities including Miguel de Icaza, Robert Love, Ian Murdock, and Jeremy Allison. The show attracted about five hundred Linux enthusiasts from countries around the world with several travelling from as far as Europe. LugRadio Live UK2008 took place on the weekend of 19 July 2008 in Wolverhampton at the Light House Media Centre, LugRadio Live 2009 took place on 24 October 2009 in Wolverhampton at the Newhampton Arts Centre. LugRadio home page #lugradio connect on freenode
13.
Jim Adams (musician)
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Defiance was an American thrash metal band from Oakland, California. They played a decidedly technical style of thrash originally evoking bands like Testament, though they would move on to playing in their own unique. After dissolving in 1995, they reformed in 2005 and released their studio album The Prophecy in late 2009. However, they broke up again in 2012, Defiance was formed in 1985 by guitarist Brad Bowers, drummer Matt Vander Ende, and bassist Mike Kaufmann. Doug Harrington joined later but left the band not long after due to conflicts with Bowers, eventually the band ousted Bowers and replaced him with Harrington. In 1987 the band recruited a vocalist in Mitch Mayes, now with a stable and complete lineup, Defiance began playing shows in the Bay Area. With the local thrash scene gaining momentum, the band attained local notoriety and their first demo was released in 1987. Shortly afterwards Mayes left the band and was replaced by Ken Elkington, with Elkington the band issued their Hypothermia demo in 1988. This demo caught the attention of the independent metal label Roadracer Records, at Roadracers insistence, the band traveled to Vancouver, Canada to record their debut album with Annihilator guitarist Jeff Waters. The bands debut, Product of Society was released in 1989, nonetheless the album managed to attract attention in the thrash community despite the frequent label as a Testament knock-off. With Esquivel on board, Defiance released their album, Void Terra Firma in 1990. Produced by John Cuniberti, the production was better but still a bit sketchy. The bands overall sound became a more progressive but stuck to the Bay Area thrash ideals. This was the bands biggest commercial success, featuring a hit in its cover of Iron Maidens Killers. The band toured with Vio-Lence in support of the album that year, the band went into the studio with Rob Beaton to record their 3rd album in 1991, but problems arose when Steev Esquivels drug addictions became over the top and he left the group. He was briefly replaced by former Militia vocalist Matt Ulrickson, but the band was dissatisfied with the results, the now cleaner Esquivel returned to the band, but this led to the delay of the recording of the album. Defiances third release Beyond Recognition was finally released in 1992 and this coupled with the much improved production made for it to be considered Defiances best work by many fans. It was by far the bands most critically acclaimed album, but due to a lack of support from Roadracer, around this time Roadracer began to apparently treat the band poorly
14.
Open content
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Open content is a neologism coined by David Wiley in 1998 which describes a creative work that others can copy or modify. The term evokes the concept of open source software. It has since come to describe a class of content without conventional copyright restrictions. Unlike open source and free content, there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as open content, in 2003 Wiley announced that the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses, where he joined as Director of Educational Licenses. The Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation, in 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as Approved for Free Cultural Works among other licenses. Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation, founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge, UK in 2004 as a global network to promote and share open content. In October 2014 with version 2, a distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain and that it focuses also on the accessibility and the readability. Among several conformant licenses, six are recommended, three own and the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0 creative commons licenses. The OpenContent website once defined OpenContent as freely available for modification, use, however, such a definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbade charging a fee for the itself, a right required by free and open source software licenses. The term since shifted in meaning, OpenContent is licensed in a manner that provides users with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities. However, it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources, Open access refers to toll-free or gratis access to content, consisting mainly of published peer-reviewed scholarly journal articles. Some open access works are also licensed for reuse and redistribution, over the past decade, open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education. Traditional universities are expensive, and their rates are increasing. Open content allows a way of obtaining higher education that is focused on collective knowledge. There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content, including OpenCourseWare Initiative, The Saylor Foundation, some universities, like MIT, Yale, and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet. The textbook industry is one of the industries in which open content can make the biggest impact. Traditional textbooks, aside from being expensive, can also be inconvenient and out of date, Open textbooks help to eliminate this problem, because they are online and thus easily updatable. Being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers, because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teachers unique curriculum, there are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks
15.
Creative Commons license
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A Creative Commons license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work. A CC license is used when an author wants to give people the right to share, use, there are several types of CC licenses. The licenses differ by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution and they were initially released on December 16,2002 by Creative Commons, a U. S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, as of 2016, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. In October 2014 the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA, work licensed under a Creative Commons license is governed by applicable copyright law. This allows Creative Commons licenses to be applied to all work falling under copyright, including, books, plays, movies, music, articles, photographs, blogs, Creative Commons does not recommend the use of Creative Commons licenses for software. There are over 35,000 works that are available in hardcopy and have a registered ISBN number, Creative Commons splits these works into two categories, one of which encompasses self-published books. However, application of a Creative Commons license may not modify the rights allowed by fair use or fair dealing or exert restrictions which violate copyright exceptions, furthermore, Creative Commons licenses are non-exclusive and non-revocable. Any work or copies of the work obtained under a Creative Commons license may continue to be used under that license, in the case of works protected by multiple Creative Common licenses, the user may choose either. The CC licenses all grant the rights, such as the right to distribute the copyrighted work worldwide for non-commercial purposes. For software, Creative Commons includes three free licenses created by other institutions, the BSD License, the GNU LGPL, mixing and matching these conditions produces sixteen possible combinations, of which eleven are valid Creative Commons licenses and five are not. Of the five invalid combinations, four include both the nd and sa clauses, which are exclusive, and one includes none of the clauses. Of the eleven valid combinations, the five that lack the by clause have been retired because 98% of licensors requested attribution, to address this issue, Creative Commons asked its affiliates to translate the various licenses to reflect local laws in a process called porting. As of July 2011, Creative Commons licenses have been ported to over 50 jurisdictions worldwide, the latest version 4.0 of the Creative Commons licenses, released on November 25,2013, are generic licenses that are applicable to most jurisdictions and do not usually require ports. No new ports have implemented in version 4.0 of the license. Version 4.0 discourages using ported versions and instead acts as a single global license, since 2004, all current licenses require attribution of the original author, the BY component. The attribution must be given to the best of ability using the information available, generally this implies the following, Include any copyright notices. Cite the authors name, screen name, or user ID, if the work is being published on the Internet, it is nice to link that name to the persons profile page, if such a page exists
16.
Ars Technica
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Ars Technica is a website covering news in technology, science, politics, and society, created by Ken Fisher and Jon Stokes in 1998. It publishes news, reviews, and guides on issues such as hardware and software, science, technology policy. Many of the writers are postgraduates and some work for research institutions. Articles on the website are written in a less-formal tone than those in traditional journals, Ars Technica was privately owned until May 2008, when it was sold to Condé Nast Digital, the online division of Condé Nast Publications. Condé Nast purchased the site, along with two others, for $25 million and added it to the companys Wired Digital group, which also includes Wired and, formerly, Reddit. The staff mostly works from home and has offices in Boston, Chicago, London, New York City, the operations of Ars Technica are funded primarily by online advertising, and it has offered a paid subscription service since 2001. The website generated controversy in 2010, when it experimentally prevented readers who used advertisement-blocking software from viewing the site, Ken Fisher and Jon Stokes created the Ars Technica website and limited liability company in 1998. Its purpose was to publish computer hardware- and software-related news articles and guides, in their words, the best multi-OS, PC hardware, having fun, being productive, and being as informative and as accurate as possible. Ars technica is a Latin phrase that translates to technological art, the website published news, reviews, guides, and other content of interest to computer enthusiasts. On May 19,2008, Ars Technica was sold to Condé Nast Digital, the sale was part of a purchase by Condé Nast Digital of three unaffiliated websites costing $25 million in total, Ars Technica, Webmonkey, and HotWired. Ars Technica was added to the companys Wired Digital group, which included Wired, Fisher, Stokes, and the eight other writers at the time were employed by Condé Nast, with Fisher as editor-in-chief. Layoffs at Condé Nast in November 2008 affected websites owned by the company across the board, on May 5,2015, Ars Technica launched its United Kingdom site to expand its coverage of issues related to the U. K. and Europe. The U. K. site began with around 500,000 readers and had reached roughly 1.4 million readers a year after its launch. The content of articles published by Ars Technica has generally remained the same since its creation in 1998 and are categorized by four types, news, guides, reviews, Ars Technica also hosts OpenForum, a free Internet forum for the discussion of a variety of topics. Originally, most news articles published by the website were relayed from other technology-related websites, Ars Technica provided short commentary on the news, generally a few paragraphs, and a link to the original source. After being purchased by Condé Nast, Ars Technica began publishing more news, investigating topics. A significant portion of the articles published there now are original. Relayed news is published on the website, ranging from one or two sentences to a few paragraphs
17.
Linux kernel
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The Linux kernel is a monolithic Unix-like computer operating system kernel. The Android operating system for computers, smartphones and smartwatches is also based atop the Linux kernel. While the adoption on desktop computers is low, Linux-based operating systems dominate nearly every segment of computing. As of November 2016, all but two of the worlds 500 most powerful supercomputers run Linux, Linux rapidly attracted developers and users who adopted it as the kernel for other free software projects, notably the GNU Operating System. The Linux kernel has received contributions from nearly 12,000 programmers from more than 1,200 companies, the Linux kernel API, the application programming interface through which user programs interact with the kernel, is meant to be very stable and to not break userspace programs. As part of the functionality, device drivers control the hardware. However, the interface between the kernel and loadable kernel modules, unlike in many other kernels and operating systems, is not meant to be stable by design. The Linux kernel, developed by contributors worldwide, is a prominent example of free, day-to-day development discussions take place on the Linux kernel mailing list. The Linux kernel is released under the GNU General Public License version 2, in April 1991, Linus Torvalds, at the time a 21-year-old computer science student at the University of Helsinki, Finland, started working on some simple ideas for an operating system. He started with a task switcher in Intel 80386 assembly language, on 25 August 1991, Torvalds posted the following to comp. os. minix, a newsgroup on Usenet, Im doing a operating system for 386 AT clones. This has been brewing since April, and is starting to get ready, id like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat. Ive currently ported bash and gcc, and things seem to work and this implies that Ill get something practical within a few months Yes - its free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable, and it never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as thats all I have. Its mostly in C, but most people wouldnt call what I write C and it uses every conceivable feature of the 386 I could find, as it was also a project to teach me about the 386. As already mentioned, it uses a MMU, for both paging and segmentation and its the segmentation that makes it REALLY386 dependent. Some of my C-files are almost as much assembler as C, unlike minix, I also happen to LIKE interrupts, so interrupts are handled without trying to hide the reason behind them. After that, many people contributed code to the project, early on, the MINIX community contributed code and ideas to the Linux kernel. At the time, the GNU Project had created many of the components required for an operating system
18.
History of Linux
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The history of Linux began in 1991 with the commencement of a personal project by Finnish student Linus Torvalds to create a new free operating system kernel. Since then, the resulting Linux kernel has been marked by constant growth throughout its history, after AT&T had dropped out of the Multics project, the Unix operating system was conceived and implemented by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie in 1969 and first released in 1970. Later they rewrote it in a new programming language, C, the availability and portability of Unix caused it to be widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses. In 1977, the Berkeley Software Distribution was developed by the Computer Systems Research Group from UC Berkeley, since BSD contained Unix code that AT&T owned, AT&T filed a lawsuit in the early 1990s against the University of California. This strongly limited the development and adoption of BSD, in 1983, Richard Stallman started the GNU project with the goal of creating a free UNIX-like operating system. As part of work, he wrote the GNU General Public License. By the early 1990s, there was almost enough available software to create a full operating system, however, the GNU kernel, called Hurd, failed to attract enough development effort, leaving GNU incomplete. In 1985, Intel released the 80386, the first x86 microprocessor with a 32-bit instruction set, in 1986, Maurice J. Bach, of AT&T Bell Labs, published The Design of the UNIX Operating System. This definitive description principally covered the System V Release 2 kernel, with new features from Release 3. In 1987, MINIX, a Unix-like system intended for use, was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbook, Operating Systems, Design. While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted, in addition, MINIXs 16-bit design was not well adapted to the 32-bit features of the increasingly cheap and popular Intel 386 architecture for personal computers. In the early nineties a commercial UNIX operating system for Intel 386 PCs was too expensive for private users and these factors and the lack of a widely adopted, free kernel provided the impetus for Torvalds starting his project. He has stated that if either the GNU Hurd or 386BSD kernels had been available at the time, in 1991, in Helsinki, Linus Torvalds began a project that later became the Linux kernel. He wrote the program specifically for the hardware he was using, development was done on MINIX using the GNU C compiler. The GNU C Compiler is still the choice for compiling Linux today. The code however, can be built with other compilers, such as the Intel C Compiler, as Torvalds wrote in his book Just for Fun, he eventually ended up writing an operating system kernel. On 25 August 1991, he announced this system in a Usenet posting to the newsgroup comp. os. minix, hello everybody out there using minix - Im doing a operating system for 386 AT clones. This has been brewing since april, and is starting to get ready, Id like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat
19.
Linux-libre
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Linux-libre is an operating system kernel and a GNU package. Software components with no source code are called binary blobs and. While generally redistributable, binary blobs do not give the user the freedom to audit, modify or, consequently, the Linux kernel started to include binary blobs in 1996. The work to clear out the binary blobs began in 2006 with gNewSenses find-firmware and this work was taken further by the BLAG Linux distribution in 2007 when deblob and Linux-libre was born. Linux-libre was first released by the Free Software Foundation Latin America and it became a GNU package on March 2012. Alexandre Oliva is the project maintainer, the removal process is achieved by using a script called deblob-main. This script is inspired by the one used for gNewSense, jeff Moe made subsequent modifications to meet certain requirements for its use with the BLAG Linux and GNU distribution. There is another script called deblob-check, which is used to check if a source file. The downside of removing proprietary firmware from the kernel is that it will cause loss of functionality of certain hardware that does not have a free software replacement available and this affects certain sound, video, TV tuner, and network cards, as well as some other devices. When possible, free software replacement firmware is provided as a substitute, such as the openfwwf for b43, carl9170, the source code and precompiled packages of the deblobbed Linux kernel are available directly from the distributions which use the Linux-libre scripts. Freed-ora is a subproject which prepares and maintains RPM packages based on the Fedora kernel
20.
Linux kernel oops
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In computing, an oops is a deviation from correct behavior of the Linux kernel, one that produces a certain error log. The better-known kernel panic condition results from many kinds of oops, the term does not stand for anything, other than that it is a simple mistake. After a system has experienced an oops, some resources may no longer be operational. Thus, even if the system appears to work correctly, undesirable side effects may have resulted from the task being killed. A kernel oops often leads to a panic when the system attempts to use resources that have been lost. The official Linux kernel documentation regarding oops messages resides in the file Documentation/oops-tracing. txt of the kernel sources, some logger configurations may affect the ability to collect oops messages. The kerneloops software can collect and submit kernel oopses to a such as the www. kerneloops. org website. For a person not familiar with technical details of computers and operating systems, unlike other operating systems such as Windows or macOS, Linux chooses to present details explaining the crash of the kernel rather than display a simplified, user-friendly message. Kernel Oops Howto Useful information on files and tools to help display oops messages. Oops. kernel. org, a public service collecting kernel oops reports
21.
Tux (mascot)
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Tux is a penguin character and the official mascot of the Linux kernel. Originally created as an entry to a Linux logo competition, Tux is the most commonly used icon for Linux, the character is used in many other Linux programs and as a general symbol of Linux. The concept of the Linux mascot being a penguin came from Linus Torvalds, Tux was created by Larry Ewing in 1996 after an initial suggestion made by Alan Cox and further refined by Linus Torvalds on the Linux kernel mailing list. Torvalds took his inspiration from an image he found on an FTP site, the first person to call the penguin Tux was James Hughes, who said that it stood for orvalds ni. However, tux is also an abbreviation of tuxedo, the outfit which often springs to mind when one sees a penguin, Tux was originally designed as a submission for a Linux logo contest. Three such competitions took place, Tux won none of them and this is why Tux is formally known as the Linux mascot and not the logo. Tux was created by Larry Ewing using the first publicly released version of GIMP and it was released by him under the following condition, Permission to use and/or modify this image is granted provided you acknowledge me lewing@isc. tamu. edu and The GIMP if someone asks. Torvalds supposed illness is a joke, but he really was bitten by a penguin on a visit to the National Zoo & Aquarium, Canberra. Torvalds was looking for something fun and sympathetic to associate with Linux, in an interview Linus commented on the penguin bite, Ive been to Australia several times, these days mostly for Linux. Conf. Au. But my first trip—and the one when I was bitten by a ferocious fairy penguin, you really should keep those things locked up. —was in 93 or so, talking about Linux for the Australian Unix Users Group. Tuz, a Tasmanian devil wearing a fake penguin beak, was the mascot of the 2009 linux. conf. au conference, the image was designed by Andrew McGown and recreated as an Inkscape SVG by Josh Bush, and released under Creative Commons license CC-BY-SA. For the Linux 3.11, which was released in 1993, in some Linux distributions, for example Gentoo, Tux greets the user during booting with multi-processor systems displaying multiple images of Tux, one for each processor core. Tux has taken on a role in the Linux community similar to that which Mario holds in the Nintendo community, see also List of video games with Tux below. Some games that star Tux also include explicitly female penguin characters, one such female penguin is Tuxs friend Gown. Gown is variously depicted as being a version of Tux or as having a somewhat less fat appearance and wearing items of clothing such as a red and white short skirt. In SuperTux and SuperTuxKart, there is a different female penguin called Penny who is purple, in the arcade game Tux 2 there is a female penguin called Trixi, and in FreeCiv the female leader name for the Antarctican civilization is Tuxette. In a Froot Loops commercial, Tux appears as a squeaky toy, in the comics Hellblazer, in issue 234 Joyride, part 1, a Tux plush toy makes an appearance, set on the side of the road where a little girl was killed in a hit-and-run accident. Tux appeared as a character during one arc in the webcomic User Friendly, in 1999, Corel Linux Deluxe included a free Linux Penguin toy
22.
Criticism of Linux
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The criticism of Linux focuses on issues concerning use of operating systems which use the Linux kernel. A group of security patches for the Linux kernel, called grsecurity, have proposed to add features like address space layout randomization into the official release of the kernel. Con Kolivas, a kernel developer, tried to optimize the kernel scheduler for interactive desktop use. He finally dropped the support for his patches due to the lack of appreciation for his development and you know, the ones who constitute 99. 9% of the Linux user base. The Linux kernel mailing list is the way to communicate with the kernel developers, to put it mildly, the Linux kernel mailing list is about as scary a communication forum as they come. Most people are terrified of mailing the list lest they get flamed for their inexperience. I think the kernel developers at large havent got the faintest idea just how big the problems in userspace are, uh, Id love to say we have a plan. I mean, sometimes its a bit sad that we are not the streamlined, small. The kernel is huge and bloated, and our icache footprint is scary, I mean, there is no question about that. And whenever we add a new feature, it gets worse. He complained that even subsystems have become very complex and he told the publication that he is afraid of the day there will be an error that cannot be evaluated anymore. Andrew Morton, one of Linux kernel lead developers, explains that many bugs identified in Linux are never fixed, Q, Most developers seem to be pretty sanguine about the overall quality problem. Assuming theres a difference of opinion here, where do you think it comes from, a, I used to think was in decline, and I think that I might think that it still is. I see so many regressions which we never fix, con Kolivas, a former Linux kernel developer, compared some OpenSolaris kernel code to Linux code and was surprised at the difference in code quality, The summary of my impression was that I was. Surprised. the code, as I saw it, was neat, in fact, I found it painful to read after a while. It was so laid out that I found myself admiring it. It seems to have been built like an aircraft and it has everything that opens and shuts, has code for just about everything Ive ever seen considered on a scheduler, and its all neatly laid out in clean code and even comments. It also appears to have been coded with a lot of effort to ensure its robust and measurable
23.
Criticism of desktop Linux
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Criticism of desktop Linux is a history of comment on the perceived shortcomings of the Linux operating system when installed on desktop computers. These criticisms have questioned the plethora of choice, their usefulness as desktop systems and also for multi-media playback, linus Torvalds has expressed that he intended the Linux kernel to be used in desktop operating systems. He argues that Android is widely used because it comes pre-installed on new phones, some critics do not believe Linux will ever gain a large share in the desktop market. In May 2009 Preston Gralla, contributing editor to Computerworld, james Donald from the Princeton University analyzed shared library concepts of several operation systems. In his 2003 paper titled Improved Portability of Shared Libraries, he worried about the lack of a Windows Application Compatibility Group equivalent, desktop Linux was criticized in late 2010 for having missed its opportunity to become a significant force in desktop computing. Nick Farrell, writing for TechEye felt that the release of Windows Vista was an opportunity to grab significant market share. Both critics indicated that Linux did not fail on the due to being too geeky, too hard to use. Both had praise for distributions, Strohmeyer saying the best-known distribution, both laid the blame for this failure on the open-source community. If you think the Apple fanboys are completely barking, they are models of sanity to the loudmouthed Open Sauce religious loonies who are out there. Like many fundamentalists they are totally inflexible – waving a GNU as if it were handed down by God to Richard Stallman. This creates a chicken or the egg situation where developers make games for Windows due to its market share as well as driver support, and gamers use Windows due to availability of games. As of September 2015, the Steam gaming service has 1,500 games available on Linux, additionally one can either run the games through Wine, a virtual machine, or dual-booting. In a 2004 article, Adam Geitgey questioned the compatibility of the culture with respect to the game development process. He suggested that perceived open-source development advantages dont work for games because users move on to new games relatively quickly, Geitgey further noted that music and art development is not built up from the work of others in the same way that coding would be. He argued that high quality art content is required, which is produced commercially by paid artists. While Linux operates on the philosophy, this may not benefit game development. The lack of strong API standards for multimedia has been criticised, for example the Adobe Systems development blog penguin. SWF discusses the complicated Linux audio infrastructure in the analysis Welcome to the jungle. Linux has in the past been criticized for a lack of driver support and it wasnt until 2004 that ATI started development of Linux drivers
24.
GNU/Linux naming controversy
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GNU/Linux is a term promoted by the Free Software Foundation and its founder Richard Stallman. In 1983, Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation, set forth plans of a complete Unix-like operating system, called GNU, composed entirely of free software. In September of that year, Stallman published a manifesto in Dr. Dobbs Journal detailing his new project publicly, Software development work began in January 1984. By 1991, the GNU mid-level portions of the system were almost complete, and the upper level could be supplied by the X Window System. The GNU kernel was called GNU Hurd, the Hurd followed an ambitious design which proved unexpectedly difficult to implement and has only been marginally usable. Independently, in 1991, Linus Torvalds released the first version of the Linux kernel, early Linux developers ported GNU code, including the GNU C Compiler, to the kernel. The free software community adopted the use of the Linux kernel as the kernel for the GNU operating system. This work filled the gaps in providing a completely free operating system. Over the next few years, several suggestions arose for naming operating systems using the Linux kernel, in 1992, the Yggdrasil Linux distribution adopted the name Linux/GNU/X. In Usenet and mailing-list discussions, one can find usages of GNU/Linux as early as 1992, gNUs June 1994 Bulletin describes Linux as a free Unix system for 386 machines, but the January 1995 Bulletin switched to the term GNU/Linux instead. Stallmans and the FSFs efforts to include GNU in the name started around 1994 and he later used GNU/Linux exclusively, and the essay was superseded by Stallmans 1997 essay, Linux and the GNU project. Desktop- and server-based distributions use GNU components such as the GNU C Library, GNU Core Utilities, and bash. In a 2002 analysis of the code for Red Hat Linux 7.1, a typical Linux distribution. Later, a 2011 analysis of Ubuntus Natty release main repository found that 8% to 13% of it consisted of GNU components, determining exactly what constitutes the operating system per se is a matter of continuing debate. A system running μClinux is likely to substitute uClibc for glibc, Googles Linux-based Android operating system does not use any GNU components or libraries, replacing glibc with Googles own BSD-based Bionic C library. The FSF agrees that GNU/Linux is not a name for these systems. There are also systems that use a GNU userspace and/or C library on top of a non-Linux kernel, but we dont think that is the right way to consider the question. The GNU Project was not, is not, a project to develop specific software packages, many people have made major contributions to the free software in the system, and they all deserve credit
25.
Linux distribution
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A Linux distribution is an operating system made from a software collection, which is based upon the Linux kernel and, often, a package management system. A typical Linux distribution comprises a Linux kernel, GNU tools and libraries, additional software, documentation, a system, a window manager. Most of the software is free and open-source software made available both as compiled binaries and in source code form, allowing modifications to the original software. Usually, Linux distributions optionally include some proprietary software that may not be available in source code form, the software is usually adapted to the distribution and then packaged into software packages by the distributions maintainers. The software packages are available online in so-called repositories, which are storage locations usually distributed around the world, almost six hundred Linux distributions exist, with close to five hundred out of those in active development. There are commercially backed distributions, such as Fedora, openSUSE and Ubuntu, most distributions come ready to use and pre-compiled for a specific instruction set, while some distributions are distributed mostly in source code form and compiled locally during installation. Linus Torvalds developed the Linux kernel and distributed its first version,0.01, since the installation procedure was complicated, especially in the face of growing amounts of available software, distributions sprang up to simplify this. Early distributions included the following, H. J, the SLS distribution was not well maintained, so in July 1993 a new distribution, called Slackware and based on SLS, was released by Patrick Volkerding. Also dissatisfied with SLS, Ian Murdock set to create a distribution by founding Debian. Most early adopters were familiar with Unix from work or school and they embraced Linux distributions for their low cost, and availability of the source code for most or all of the software included. Originally, the distributions were simply a convenience, but later became the usual choice even for Unix or Linux experts. To date, Linux has become popular in server and embedded devices markets than in the desktop market. For example, Linux is used on over 50% of web servers, many Linux distributions provide an installation system akin to that provided with other modern operating systems. Distributions are normally segmented into packages, each package contains a specific application or service. Examples of packages are a library for handling the PNG image format, the package is typically provided as compiled code, with installation and removal of packages handled by a package management system rather than a simple file archiver. Each package intended for such a PMS contains meta-information such as a description, version. Although Linux distributions typically contain much more software than proprietary operating systems, an example would be a newer version of a software application than that supplied with a distribution, or an alternative to that chosen by the distribution. If the additional software is distributed in form, this approach requires local compilation
26.
Comparison of netbook-oriented Linux distributions
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Netbooks are small laptops, with screen sizes between approximately 7 and 12 inches and low power consumption. They use either an SSD or a HDD for storage, have up to 2 gigabytes of RAM, lack an optical disk drive, the name emphasizes their use as portable Internet appliances. There are special Linux distributions, called netbook distributions, for these machines, all such distributions purport to be optimized for use with small, low-resolution displays. They tend to include a mix of VOIP and web-focused tools. For instance, Nokia Maemo and Asus customized Xandros both ship with Skype and Adobe Flash installed, and Ubuntus Netbook Edition offers the option to do the same for OEMs
27.
Light-weight Linux distribution
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A lightweight Linux distribution is a Linux distribution that uses relatively few resources, which may result in performance improvements especially on old computers with slower CPUs and less RAM. One big factor that determines the resource usage and speed of a distribution is the desktop environment it uses. Alpine Linux – a security-oriented, lightweight Linux distribution based on musl, mini download is 66 MB, base system is under 5 MB. Media download is 308 MB for version 3.1.3, absolute Linux – a lightweight desktop-oriented distribution based on Slackware antiX – lightweight version of its parent distribution MEPIS Linux, based on Debian testing. Core install,128 MB, Base approx, Package manager, Synaptic ArchBang – inspired by CrunchBang Linux but based on the Arch Linux distribution instead of Debian. It uses the lightweight Openbox Window Manager to achieve the same look, coreOS – a lightweight system than runs containers and provides cluster management capabilities CrunchBang Linux – No longer in development, succeeded by BunsenLabs. A relatively large Debian based distribution designed primarily for speed and ease of use, damn Small Linux – download,50 MB. Additional software available as DSL Extensions and using the Debian APT tool, light enough to power a 486DX with 16 MB of RAM DebianDog - Debian Live CD shaped after Puppy Linux. It is packaged with JWM and IceWM, or Openbox and XFCE, linuxBBQ – a very lightweight and resource-friendly distribution based on Debian Sid with TUI productivity applications. Lubuntu – lightweight in comparison to Ubuntu, it uses the LXDE desktop, LXLE – a full featured OS for older hardware, using minimal resources, respun from Lubuntu. Modern X - a full featured system based on openSUSE Leap, lightweight compared to openSUSE itself and other Linux distributions. Less than 1 Gigabyte Live CD/DVD MX Linux -, nanolinux – a 14 MB distribution based on Tiny Core Linux. Package Manager, Puppy Package Manager Salix OS -, based on a minified Debian base. V14.1 Core ISO is 212MB and uses ~173MB RAM, xubuntu – lightweight in comparison to Ubuntu
28.
Package manager
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A package manager deals with packages, distributions of software and data in archive files. Packages contain metadata, such as the name, description of its purpose, version number, vendor, checksum. Upon installation, metadata is stored in a package database. Package managers typically maintain a database of software dependencies and version information to prevent software mismatches and they work closely with software repositories, binary repository managers, and app stores. Package managers are designed to eliminate the need for manual installs, a software package is an archive file containing a computer program as well as necessary metadata for its deployment. The computer program can be in source code that has to be compiled, Package metadata include package description, package version, and dependencies. Package managers are charged with the task of finding, installing, maintaining or uninstalling software packages upon the users command, in these systems, complex relationships between different packages requiring different versions of libraries results in a challenge colloquially known as dependency hell. On Microsoft Windows systems, this is also called DLL hell when working with dynamically linked libraries, good package management is vital on these systems. System administrators may install and maintain software using other than package management software. For example, an administrator may download unpackaged source code, compile it. This may cause the state of the system to fall out of synchronization with the state of the package managers database. The local administrator will be required to take measures, such as manually managing some dependencies or integrating the changes into the package manager. There are tools available to ensure that locally compiled packages are integrated with the package management, particularly troublesome with software upgrades are upgrades of configuration files. There are exceptions to this that usually apply to kernel configuration, problems can be caused if the format of configuration files changes. For instance, if the old configuration file does not explicitly disable new options that should be disabled, some package managers, such as Debians dpkg, allow configuration during installation. In other situations, it is desirable to install packages with the configuration and then overwrite this configuration, for instance. This kind of pre-configured installation is also supported by dpkg, to give users more control over the kinds of software that they are allowing to be installed on their system, software is often downloaded from a number of software repositories. This process is called version pinning
29.
Linux Foundation
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In recent years, the Linux Foundation has expanded its services through events, training and certification and Collaborative Projects. The Linux Foundation promotes, protects, and standardizes Linux by providing a set of services to compete effectively with closed platforms. The origin of The Linux Foundation can be traced back to 2000 when the Open Source Development Labs was founded. In 2003, Linus Torvalds, the creator of the freely available Linux operating system announced he would join the organization as an OSDL Fellow to work full-time on future versions of Linux. In 2007, OSDL merged with the Free Standards Group, another organization promoting the adoption of Linux, at the time, Jim Zemlin, who headed FSG, took over as executive director of The Linux Foundation. Major parts including OpenPrinting were still offline on October 20,2011, the restoration was complete on January 4,2012. The Linux Foundation serves as a spokesperson for Linux and generates original content that advances the understanding of the Linux platform. It also fosters innovation by hosting collaboration events among the Linux technical community, application developers, industry, through the Linux Foundations community programs, end users, developers, and industry members collaborate on technical, legal, and promotional issues. In order for Linux Kernel creator Linus Torvalds and other key developers to remain independent. The Linux Foundation offers application developers standardization services and support that makes Linux an attractive target for their development efforts and these include, the Linux Standard Base and the Linux Developer Network. The Linux Foundation also provides services to key areas of the Linux community, including an open source developer travel fund, through its workgroups, members and developers can collaborate on key technical areas. There is also a program that is vendor-neutral, technically advanced. On March 3,2009, the Linux Foundation announced that they would take over management of Linux. com from its previous owners, SourceForge and it also includes a directory of Linux software and hardware. Much like Linux itself, Linux. com plans to rely on the community to create and drive the content, the Linux Foundation hosts a Linux video forum where users, developers and vendors can create and share Linux video tutorials. It also includes videos from recent Linux Foundation events, as well as other industry forums and it is the home for the annual Linux Foundation Video Contest. The Linux Foundation plans to add commissioned series of Linux video tutorials on Linux. com in the months ahead, the Linux Developer Network is an online community for Linux application developers and independent software vendors who want to start or continue to develop applications for the Linux platform. The Linux Developer Networks goal is to empower developers to target the Linux platform, one of the ways the Linux Developer Network helps developers accomplish this is to help them build portable Linux applications. The Linux Developer Network also gives developers tools to create the best Linux apps possible, the Linux Foundation Training Program features instructors and content straight from the leaders of the Linux developer community
30.
Linux user group
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Many LUGs encompass FreeBSD and other free-software / open source Unix-based operating systems. Local Linux user groups meet to provide support and/or arrange and host presentations for Linux users, given that Linux is not dominated by any specific corporate or institutional entity, LUG meetings typically encompass a broader range of topics than do the meetings of other user groups. Linux is predominantly user-supported, and some support is vastly easier via telephone or in person than over e-mail or USENET, LUGs are still primarily focused on hobbyist users and professionals who are engaged in self-directed study. SVLUG is among the oldest and largest LUGs and it was originally formed as a Special Interest Group for the Silicon Valley Computer Society, founded by Daniel Kionka to support Xenix and low-cost PC UNIX systems. According to the Linux User Group HOWTO, Computer user groups are not new, giants like IBM eventually discovered the PC to be a good and profitable thing, but initial impetus came from the grassroots. To give just one indication of how LUGs differ from traditional user groups, while illegal copying of restricted proprietary software certainly occurred, it was officially discouraged—for good reason. At LUG meetings, however, that entire mindset simply does not apply, Far from being forbidden, in fact, there is anecdotal evidence of traditional user groups having difficulty adapting to Linuxs ability to be lawfully copied at will. LUGs typically meet once per month, in facilities provided by universities, colleges, community centers, private corporations. For example, Silicon Valleys SVLUG met for about 10 years in the back of a Carls Jr. restaurant, similarly, BALUG met for many years in the banquet room above the Four Seas Restaurant in San Franciscos Chinatown. Most LUGs are free, requiring no monthly or annual dues, in many cases, the participants are encouraged to patronize the host venues. Some LUGs are informal conferences or round table discussions, members sit around. For example, Linus Torvalds has occasionally talked to SVLUG or BALUG, presenters might be anyone in the community with something interesting to say. Occasionally, corporations will sponsor or encourage their employees to speak at user groups to promote their products, LUGs generally require that these presentations provide technically interesting content, rather than overt sales pitches. LUGs near each other geographically sometimes get together to hold conferences, for example, in Central America, in 2009, the first Encuentro Centro Americano de Software Libre was held in Nicaragua, where LUGs from the region, from Belize to Panama, attended. Groups from other countries are also invited, in 2010, this conference was held in Punta Renas, Nicaragua, where there were members from the region, including from Germany and Mexico. In 2011, it was held in El Salvador and these events usually take place in summer, as most of the LUG members are students. As a second example, several Los Angeles-area LUGs sponsor and staff the annual Southern California Linux Expo conference, many LUGs also organize installfests, which are opportunities for experienced Linux users to help others, especially novices with installation and configuration of Linux systems. Installfests may also have break-out sessions for teaching new tips and tricks—performance tuning, security hardening, a few LUGs have developed projects of regional or even international stature
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Linux Counter
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The Linux Counter attempts to measure the number of people using the Linux operating system, along with the number of machines those users use. The counter is run by a membership organization called the Linux Counter Project. This organization was created on 1 May 1999, taking over the running of the counter from Harald Tveit Alvestrand, Harald Alvestrand is chief executive officer of the organization. Active work is carried out by volunteers, the Country Managers maintain the data for their geographical areas. Coding and maintenance is carried out by teams, the Linux Counter is started as a for fun project to find out how many Linux users there are worldwide. The basic idea is for people to themselves as being a Linux user. Of course, this way you wont get all Linux users counted as not every Linux user will register themselves at the Linux Counter site. Thus, the way to know the number of Linux users worldwide, is to make a guess. In not making wild guesses, there is one way to go. So, the purpose of the Linux Counter is to deal with statistics on all kinds of numbers related to Linux usage. A second purpose of the Linux Counter is to make it possible for Linux users to each other. The Linux Counter is reporting Linux users sorted per almost any place in the world, so, when Linux users want their information to be public, you can quite simply find those users who live in places near you. At the time when Linux first burst into the limelight, there were quite a few articles about the Linux Counter. Linux Today reported how Microsoft Austria used the site for spamming Linux users, as of 2011 the original Linux Counter has been superseded by a new and re-written version linuxcounter. net, by Christin Löhner, which has since been Slashdotted. Smolt New Linux Counter TuxMachine article about the project
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Linux adoption
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Linux adoption refers to the adoption of Linux computer operating systems by households, nonprofit organizations, businesses, and governments. In recent years several governments, at levels, have enacted policies shifting state-owned computers to Linux from proprietary software regimes. In a company survey completed in the quarter of 2009. The Linux Foundation regularly releases publications regarding the Linux kernel, Linux OS distributions, One such publication, Linux Adoption Trends, A Survey of Enterprise End Users, is freely available upon registration. Traditionally, the term Linux adoption, refers to adoption of a Linux OS made for desktop computers, Adoption of that form on personal computers is still low relatively, while adoption of the Android operating system is very high. The term Linux adoption, often overlooks that operating system or other such as in Chrome OS that also use the Linux kernel. Outside of traditional web services, Linux powers many of the biggest Internet properties, Linux is used on desktop computers, servers and supercomputers, as well as a wide range of devices. Because Linux desktop distributions are not usually distributed by retail sale, One downloaded file may be used to create many CDs and each CD may be used to install the operating system on multiple computers. On the other hand, the file might be used only for a test, due to these factors estimates of current Linux desktop often rely on webpage hits by computers identifying themselves as running Linux. The use of statistics has been criticized as unreliable and as underestimating Linux use. Using webpage hits as a measure, until 2008, Linux accounted for only about 1% of desktop market share and this might have been because Linux was not seen at that time as a direct replacement for Windows. As of February 2017, W3Counter estimated Linux web browser market share to be 4. 63%, the Linux Counter uses an alternate method of estimating adoption, asking users to register and then using a mathematical model to estimate the total number of desktop users. In November 2014 this method estimated 73 million Linux users, in September 2014 Pornhub released usage statistics of their website and reported 1. 7% Linux users. The Unity game engine gathers user statistics and showed in March 20160. 4% Linux users, similarly, the Steam client tracks usage and reported in May 2015 around 1% Linux users. He stated that the North American-based web-measurement methods produce high Windows numbers, I think it is a lot higher. I have no data to share, I base my assessment on experience. There is something else that is more persuasive, and that is how Microsoft behaves. If Linux is so insignificant, why do they pay so much attention to it and he reasoned that the upsurge in Linux desktop use recently seen was due to Linux netbooks, a trend he saw as already diminishing and which would be further eroded when Windows 7 became available
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