1.
Serer people
–
The Serer people are a West African ethnoreligious group. They are the third largest ethnic group in Senegal making up 15% of the Senegalese population and they are also found in northern Gambia and southern Mauritania. They have had a sedentary settled culture and have known for their farming expertise. In the 20th century, most of them converted to Islam, the Serer society, like other ethnic groups in Senegal, has had social stratification featuring endogamous castes and slaves. The Serer people are referred to as Sérère, Sereer, Serere, Sarer, Kegueme, Seereer. The Serer people are found in contemporary Senegal, particularly in the west-central part of the country. In The Gambia, they occupy parts of old Nuimi and Baddibu as well as the Gambian Kombo, the Serer-Noon occupy the ancient area of Thiès in modern-day Senegal. The Serer-Ndut are found in southern Cayor and north west of ancient Thiès, the Serer-Njeghen occupy old Baol, the Serer-Palor occupies the west central, west southwest of Thiès and the Serer-Laalaa occupy west central, north of Thiès and the Tambacounda area. Senegal,1.84 million The Gambia,31,900 Mauritania,3500 The Serer occupy the Sine, the Serer people include the Seex, Serer-Noon, Serer-Ndut, Serer-Njeghene, Serer-Safene, Serer-Niominka, Serer-Palor, and the Serer-Laalaa. Each group speaks Serer or a Cangin language, Serer is the standard English spelling. Seereer or Sereer reflects the Serer pronunciation of the name and are used by Senegalese Serer historians or scholars. The meaning of the word Serer is uncertain, issa Laye Thiaw views it as possibly pre-Islamic and suggests four possible derivations,1. From the Serer Wolof word reer meaning misplaced, i. e. doubting the truth of Islam, from the Serer Wolof expression seer reer meaning to find something hidden or lost. From the Arabic word seereer meaning sahir magician or one who practices magic, from a Pulaar word, meaning separation, divorce, or break, again referring to refusing Islam. Professor Cheikh Anta Diop citing the work of the 19th century French archeologist and egyptologist - Paul Pierret, Diop went on to write, That would be consistent with their present religious position, they are one of the rare Senegalese populations who still reject Islam. Their route is marked by the stones found at about the same latitude from Ethiopia all the way to the Sine-Salum. Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and this lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices. The actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system and their own oral traditions recite legends on they being part of, or related to the Toucouleur people in the Senegal River valley area
2.
Timeline of Serer history
–
This is a timeline of the history and development of Serer religion and the Serer people of Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania. This timeline merely gives an overview of their history, consisting of calibrated archaeological discoveries in Serer countries, Serer religion, politics, royalty, dates are given according to the Common Era. For a background to these events, see Roog, Serer religion, Serer creation myth, Serer prehistory, Lamane, States headed by Serer Lamanes, Serer history, the Takrur period represents the prehistory of the Serer people. The Senegalese, Namandiru and Waalo period inaugurates Serer history,800 AD, John Trimingham lists states on the Senegal,800 States on the Senegal, Sanghana, Takrur, Silla, and Galam. Many of the Serer village and town names they have founded still survives today,850 AD, A state centered around Tekrur may have developed at this time, either as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley. Or according to John Donnelly Fage formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara, early 11th century, According to Serer tradition Lamane Jegan Joof founded Tukar. 1030, War Jabi usurped the throne of Tekrur following a revolution, from this point to 1042, the Serers of Tekrur became the subject of persecution and jihads by the African converts to Islam such as the Fula and Toucouleurs with their Almoravid allies. The Serers defeated the Muslim coalition army forcing them to refuge in Mauritania. This era marks the exodus of the Serers of Tekrur and those who survived the wars and refused to convert migrated southwards to what later became known as the Serer Kingdoms of Sine, Saloum and previously Baol, rather than convert to Islam. In the south, they were granted asylum by their distant Serer relatives, endorsed by the Great Council of Lamanes, Trimingham notes that, Tekrur was the first in the region to adopt Islam but lost completely its Serer identity. War Jabi died in 1040 and was succeeded by his son Leb, Leb is reported to have been fighting for the Almoravids in 1056 probably as a result of the subjugation of Tekrur by the Almoravids in 1042 and a well enforced Sharia law. Economically, the Kingdom of Tekrur benefit with the introduction of Islam and it also created political ties with the North. Many Fulanis/Toucouleurs were part of the Almoravid army that conquered parts of Europe,1235, Mansa Jolofing ransacked the caravan of gold sent by Sundiata Keita for the purchase of horses in Jolof. After this, Mansa Sundiata sent his general and cousin Tiramakhan Traore to Jolof to assassinate the Mansa Jolofing, 1285/7, Lamane Jaw on the throne of Jolof. During his reign, Mansa Sakoura launched an expedition in Senegal, conquered Jolof,1290, Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof, ancestor of the Joof dynasty of Sine and Saloum succeeded to the throne of Laah in Baol. 1350–1400, The Kingdom of Sine renamed, the Guelowar period starts from 1350. Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh elected first Guelowar king to rule in one of the Serer countries. Nominated and elected by the Serers of Sine and the Great Council of Lamanes whose Council he served as adviser for 15 years and gave his sisters
3.
Totem
–
A totem is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe. However, the people of those cultures have words for their guardian spirits in their own languages. Totem poles of the Pacific Northwest of North America are monumental poles of heraldry and they feature many different designs that function as crests of families or chiefs. They recount stories owned by families or chiefs, or commemorate special occasions. Totemism is a associated with animistic religions. The totem is usually an animal or other natural figure that represents a group of related people such as a clan. Scottish ethnologist John Ferguson McLennan, following the vogue of 19th-century research, addressed totemism in a perspective in his study The Worship of Animals. McLennan did not seek to explain the origin of the totemistic phenomenon. If the origin of the name was forgotten, Lang argued, through nature myths animals and natural objects were considered as the relatives, patrons, or ancestors of the respective social units. In 1910, Russian American ethnologist Alexander Goldenweiser, subjected totemistic phenomena to sharp criticism, the leading representative of British social anthropology, A. R. As a chief representative of modern structuralism, French ethnologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, poets, and to a lesser extent fiction writers, often use anthropological concepts, including the anthropological understanding of totemism. For this reason literary criticism often resorts to psychoanalytic, anthropological analyses
4.
Symbol
–
A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences, all communication is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to other ideas. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for STOP, on a map, a blue line might represent a river. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds, personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion, the variable x, in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space. In cartography, a collection of symbols forms a legend for a map The word derives from the Greek symbolon meaning token or watchword. It is an amalgam of syn- together + bole a throwing, a casting, the sense evolution in Greek is from throwing things together to contrasting to comparing to token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine. The meaning something which stands for something else was first recorded in 1590, later, expanding on what he means by this definition Campbell says, a symbol, like everything else, shows a double aspect. We must distinguish, therefore between the sense and the meaning of the symbol. The term meaning can only to the first two but these, today, are in the charge of science – which is the province as we have said, not of symbols. The ineffable, the unknowable, can be only sensed. Heinrich Zimmer gives an overview of the nature, and perennial relevance. Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. They are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own, in the book Signs and Symbols, it is stated that A symbol. Is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth, Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. This separates symbols from signs, as signs have only one meaning, human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture
5.
Antelope
–
An antelope is a member of a number of even-toed ungulate species indigenous to various regions in Africa and Eurasia. Antelopes comprise a wastebasket taxon within the family Bovidae, encompassing those Old World species that are not cattle, sheep, buffalo, bison, a group of antelope is called a herd. It perhaps derives from Greek anthos and ops, perhaps meaning beautiful eye or alluding to the animals long eyelashes and this, however, may be a later folk etymology. The word talopus and calopus, from Latin, came to be used in heraldry, in 1607, it was first used for living, cervine animals. The 91 species, most of which are native to Africa, the classification of tribes or subfamilies within Bovidae is still a matter of debate, with several alternative systems proposed. Antelope are not a cladistic or taxonomically defined group, the term is used to describe all members of the family Bovidae that do not fall under the category of sheep, cattle, or goats. Usually, all species of the Alcelaphinae, Antilopinae, Hippotraginae, Reduncinae, Cephalophinae, many Bovinae, the grey rhebok, and the impala are called antelopes. No antelope species is native to Australasia or Antarctica, nor do any extant species occur in the Americas, North America is currently home to the native pronghorn, which taxonomists do not consider a member of the antelope group, but which is locally referred to as such. More species of antelope are native to Africa than to any other continent, almost exclusively in savannahs, other species occur in Asia, the Arabian Peninsula is home to the Arabian oryx and Dorcas gazelle. India is home to the nilgai, chinkara, blackbuck, Tibetan antelope, and four-horned antelope, while Russia and Central Asia have the Tibetan antelope, many species of antelopes have been imported to other parts of the world, especially the United States, for exotic game hunting. With some species possessing spectacular leaping and evasive skills, individuals may escape, Texas in particular has many game ranches, as well as habitats and climates, that are very hospitable to African and Asian plains antelope species. Accordingly, wild populations of antelope, gemsbok, and nilgai may be found in Texas. Antelope live in a range of habitats. Numerically, most live in the African savannahs, species living in forests, woodland, or bush tend to be sedentary, but many of the plains species undertake long migrations. These enable grass-eating species to follow the rains and thereby their food supply, the gnus and gazelles of East Africa perform some of the most impressive mass migratory circuits of all mammals. For example, a male common eland can measure 178 cm at the shoulder and weigh almost 950 kg, whereas an adult royal antelope may stand only 24 cm at the shoulder and weigh a mere 1.5 kg. Not surprisingly for animals with long, slender yet powerful legs, many antelopes have long strides, some are also adapted to inhabiting rock koppies and crags. Both dibatags and gerenuks habitually stand on their two legs to reach acacia and other tree foliage
6.
Serer creation myth
–
The Serer creation myth is the traditional creation myth of the Serer people of Senegal, the Gambia and Mauritania. Many Serers who adhere to the tenets of the Serer religion believe these narratives to be sacred, some aspects of Serer religious and Ndut traditions are included in the narratives contained herein but are not limited to them. The Serer people have many gods, goddesses and Pangool, but one supreme deity, Serer creation myth developed from Serer oral traditions, Serer religion, legends, cosmogonies. The specifics of the myth are found in two main Serer sources, A nax and A leep. The former is a narrative for a short myth or proverbial expression. Broadly, they are equivalent to verbs and logos respectively, especially when communicating fundamental religious education such as the supreme being, in addition to being fixed-Serer sources, they set the structure of the myth. The creation myth of the Serer people is linked to the first trees created on Planet Earth by Roog. Earths formation began with a swamp, the Earth was not formed until long after the creation of the first three worlds, the waters of the underworld, the air which included the higher world and earth. Roog is the creator and fashioner of the Universe and everything in it, the creation is based on a mythical cosmic egg and the principles of chaos. There are slightly different and competing versions of the myth, however, there are more similarities than differences, and the differences complement each other in the greater understanding of Serer creation mythology. They all posits that, the Universe and everything in it were created by Roog, the first three worlds created through a mythical egg and under the principles of chaos were, the waters of the underworld, the air including the higher world and earth. These three were the first primordial worlds created by the supreme being through thought, speech and action, Planet Earth was not created until long after the creation of these worlds. The contentious points are, which of the sacred trees in Serer society grew not just first. Somb - Prosopis africana a species of Prosopis 4, Nqual - Mitragyna inermis part of Rubiaceae family of the genus Mitragyna 5. Mbos - Gardenia ternifolia The importance of trees are crucial to the formation of Earth, at least in the Serer worldview. Being the first tree does not necessarily equate to being the first living thing on Earth, in the creation myth, animals such as the jackal, hyena, the serpent and ostrich figure prominently in the competing creation narrative. In some narratives, trees and animals merge in order to justify their legitimacy and these mythical animals may be seen as sacred and totems, in the Serer totemic and sentient worldly-view of animals and nature in general. The significance of trees in the Serer creation myth does not mean the place of the supreme deity
7.
Kingdom of Sine
–
The Kingdom of Sine was a pre-colonial Serer kingdom along the north bank of the Saloum River delta in modern Senegal. The inhabitants are called Siin-Siin or Sine-Sine, over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices. The actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system. }The actual foundation of the Kingdom of Sine is unclear and they were led by a matrilineal clan known as the Gelwaar. Serer oral history says that after Maysa Wali assimilated into Serer culture and served as advisor to the laman council of electors, he was chosen by the lamans. Almost a decade later he elected the legendary Ndiadiane Ndiaye and founder of the Jolof Empire to rule the Kingdom of Jolof. He was the first Senegambian king to voluntarily gave his allegiance to Ndiadiane Ndiaye and asked others to do so and it is for this reason that scholars propose the Jolof Empire was not an empire founded by conquest but by voluntary confederacy of various states. Around early 1550, both Sine and its sister Serer Kingdom overthrew the Jolof and became independent Kingdoms, the historian Sylviane Diouf states that Each vassal kingdom—Walo, Takrur, Kayor, Baol, Sine, Salum, Wuli, and Niani—recognized the hegemony of Jolof and paid tribute. The rulers of Sine as well as Jolof continued to follow the Traditional African religion, the rulers of Sine retained their titles throughout the colonial period and did not lose all official recognition until 1969 after the death of Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof. Since he had never set foot in Serer country, his accounts about the Serer people were based on what his Wolof interpreters were telling him. Barbacini is a corruption of the Wolof phrase Buur ba Sine meaning King of Sine, the economic base of Sine was agriculture and fishing. Millet and other crops were grown, Sine was very reluctant to grow groundnut for the French market, in spite of French colonial directives. It was less dependent on groundnut than other states and their religious philosophy of preserving the ecosystem affected groundnut production in Sine. Even after mass production was adopted, succession struggles in the late 19th century between the royal houses hampered production. However, the Kingdom of Sine was less susceptible to hunger and indebtedness and it was very common for people from other states to migrate to the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum in search of a better life. The inhabitants of Sine rarely migrated, some of the kings government include, the Lamanes, the heir apparents such as the Buumi, Thilas and Loul, the Great Farba Kaba, the Farba Binda and the Great Jaraff. The following diagram gives a version of the political structure of Sine. Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin, bulletin de lIfan, Tome 34, Série B, n°4, Diop, Cheikh Anta & Modum, Egbuna P
8.
Saloum
–
The Kingdom of Saloum was a Serer/Wolof kingdom in present-day Senegal. Its kings may have been of Mandinka/Kaabu origin, the capital of Saloum was the city of Kahone. It was a kingdom of Sine. Their history, geography and culture were intricately linked and it was common to refer to them as the Sine-Saloum, Saloum, just like its sister kingdom, is known for its many ancient burial mounds or tumuli containing the graves of kings and others. The kingdom has numerous stone circles whose functions and history were unknown until recently. From a settlement near the mouth of the Saloum River, these lineages soon mixed with the existing Wolof and Serer population and established the state of Saloum. According to Abdou Bouri Ba the Kingdom of Saloum was previously known as Mbey and was renamed Saloum by the Maad Saloum Mbegan Ndour in the part of the 15th century. For several centuries prior to its renaming, its capital was called Ngap, according to Serer oral tradition, it was named after Saalum Suwareh, a marabout of Maad Saloum Mbegan Ndour. After this oral contract, Mbegan Ndour defeated Ali Elibana and drove his Muslim marabout forces out of Saloum, like the Kingdom of Sine, the population is overrun and ruled by the Serer people. The two are referred to as the Serer Kingdoms. Many parts of present-day Gambia were former colonies of the Kingdom of Saloum, originally, Saloum extended south to the north banks of the Gambia River. Present-day Gambia was referred to as Lower Saloum, upper Saloum was where modern day Saloum is in Senegal. Saloum also had control for a time the Kingdom of Baol, the States of Sabakh and Sandial were ruled by the Fara Sabakh and Fara Sandial, and were both tributary to the king at Kahone. Around 1862, Sambou Oumanneh Touray, a deciple of Maba Diakhou Bâ launched a jihad in Sabakh, having defeated the Fara Sabakh and Fara Sandial, he joined the two countries together and ruled it. The final Fara Sabakh and Fara Sandial died in that jihad, during the Serer paternal and Guelowar maternal dynasties from the 15th century to 1969, nearly 50 kings have been enthroned. The kings continued to hold their court in Kahone, but the city was eclipsed commercially by neighboring Kaolack, portuguese explorers in the 15th century referred to Saloum as the kingdom of Borçalo, after Bor-ba-Saloum. Although the Kingdom won some battles against the French, it was later defeated. However, like the Kingdom of Sine, the dynasty survived up to 1969
9.
Takrur
–
Takrur, Tekrur, or Tekrour was an ancient state of West Africa, which flourished roughly parallel to the Ghana Empire. Takrur was the name of the capital of the state which flourished on the lower Senegal River, takruri was a term, like Bilad-ul-Sudan, that was used to refer to all people of West African ancestry. The formation of the state may have taken place as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley, john Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and Negro agricultural peoples who were essentially Serer. Located in the Senegal Valley, along the border of present-day Senegal and Mauritania, it was a trading center and it was rival of the Ghana Empire and the two states clashed from time to time with the Soninké usually winning. Despite these clashes, Takrur prospered throughout the 9th and 10th centuries, according to Levtzion, It is significant that the cotton tree and the manufacture of cloth were first reported from Takrur. The kings of Takrur eventually adopted Islam, in 1035 that War Jabi introduced Sharia law in the Kingdom. The Fulani of Tarkur became independent after Ghanaian power faded, Takrur in turn set out to conquer the kingdom of Diara, which was a Ghanaian province before. Then in 1203, Takrur leader Sumanguru took control of Kumbi Saleh, thus, Takrur became the sole power in the region. Among these were the Susu who carved out the sizeable though short-lived Kaniaga, waalo, the first Wolof state, emerged out its south. By the time Mandinka tribes united to form the Mali Empire in 1235, the state was finally conquered by the usurper emperor Sabakoura of Mali in the 1280s. Takrur was later conquered by Mali, it was conquered by Jolof in the 15th century. Serer people Fula people Toucouleur people J. F. Ade Ajayi, columbia University ISBN 0-231-03628-0 J. Hunwick. Takrur, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden 2000, X, 142-3, medieval West Africa Before 1400, Ghana, Takrur, Gao and Mali. The Cambridge History of Africa, vol, the Wind of Change in the Western Sahara. The Geographical Journal, Vol.130, No, general history of Africa, Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. University of California Press,1999, ISBN 0-520-06700-2, p 146, the Cambridge history of Africa, From c.1600 to c. ISBN 0-521-20981-1, p484 African Kingdoms About – Takrur Empire Takrur — webPulaaku
10.
Serer history
–
Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared terminology, institutions, political structures, the actual Sereer ethnic group is a mixture of the two groups, and this may explain their complex bilinear kinship system. After the Arab invasion of North Africa, the Berbers of the north advanced Islam via the Almoravid movement, penetrating parts of Africa, Europe, the Serer earned their living from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, boat building and transporting people over the river. The jihads that had affected Tekrur in the 11th century which led to the Serers of Tekrur exodus only affected those Serers living in Tekrur at the time and it did not apply to all Serer people. The Serer people are very diverse and spread throughout the Senegambia founding towns and villages, in the Senegambia region, the Serer people were ruled by Lamanes. The Serer who have migrated from Tekrur to join their distant Serer relatives created a southward migration for Mandinka migrants, godfrey Mwakikagile proposed that the Mandinkas were either defeated in battle or incorporated into Serer society. The Serers ruled over the Wolof kingdom of Jolof and they were ruling Jolof before the Jaw, Ngom, Mengue and Njie dynasties. However, these Serer and Lebou rulers of Jolof became assimilated into Wolof culture, the actual foundation of the Kingdom of Sine is unclear, but in the late 14th century Mandinka migrants entered the area. They were led by a clan known as the Gelwaar. Marriages between the Serer paternal clans such as Faye and Joof to the Guelwar women created the Serer paternal dynasties, according to Serer oral tradition a king named Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh – was the first Guelowar king of Sine. Having served for years as legal advisor to The Great Council of Lamans and assimilated into Serer culture. His sisters and nieces were married off to the Serer nobility, in reporting this tradition, Henry Gravrand did not notice that this is actually a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala. Njaajan Njie (English spelling in Gambia, Ndiandiane Ndiaye or NDiadian NDiaye – French spelling in Senegal, or Njaajaan Njaay - in the Serer language, umar, is the traditional founder of the Jolof Empire by the Wolof people. Traditional stories of the ancestry of this leader vary, one suggests that he was the first and only son of a noble and saintly Arab father Abdu Darday and a Tukuler woman, Fatamatu Sail. This gives him an Almoravid lineage, ie a Berber and Islamic background, on his fathers side, and a link on his mothers side to Takrur. James Searing adds that In all versions of the myth, Njaajaan Njaay speaks his first words in Pulaar rather than Wolof, njaajan Njie was the founder of the first Wolof kingdom and claimed by the Wolof as their ancestor. In 1446, a Portuguese caravel carrying the Portuguese slave trader - Nuno Tristão, none of the adult passengers of that caravel survived. They all succumbed to Serer poisoned arrows except five young Portuguese, one of them was left with the task to charter the caravel back to Portugal
11.
Senegal
–
Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country in West Africa. Senegal is bordered by Mauritania in the north, Mali to the east, Guinea to the southeast, and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest. Senegal also borders The Gambia, a country occupying a narrow sliver of land along the banks of the Gambia River, Senegal also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde. Senegals economic and political capital is Dakar and it is the westernmost country in the mainland of the Old World, or Afro-Eurasia, and owes its name to the Senegal River, which borders it to the east and north. The name Senegal comes from the Wolof Sunuu Gaal, which means Our Boat, Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres and has an estimated population of about 15 million. The climate is Sahelian, but there is a rainy season, the territory of modern Senegal has been inhabited by various ethnic groups since prehistory. Organized kingdoms emerged around the century, and parts of the country were ruled by prominent regional empires such as the Jolof Empire. The present state of Senegal has its roots in European colonialism, which began during the mid-15th century, the establishment of coastal trading posts gradually led to control of the mainland, culminating in French rule of the area by the 19th century, albeit amid much local resistance. Senegal peacefully attained independence from France in 1960, and has since been among the politically stable countries in Africa. Senegals economy is centered mostly on commodities and natural resources, major industries are fish processing, phosphate mining, fertilizer production, petroleum refining, construction materials, and ship construction and repair. As in most African nations, agriculture is a sector, with Senegal producing several important cash crops, including peanuts, sugarcane, cotton, green beans, tomatoes, melons. Owing to its stability, tourism and hospitality are also burgeoning sectors. A multiethnic and secular nation, Senegal is predominantly Sunni Muslim with Sufi, French is the official language, although many native languages are spoken and recognized. Since April 2012 Senegals president has been Macky Sall, Senegal has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 1970. Senegal is named after the Senegal River, the etymology of which is contested, one popular theory is that it stems from the Wolof phrase sunu gaal, which means our canoe, resulting from a miscommunication between 15th-century Portuguese sailors and Wolof fishermen. The our canoe theory has been embraced in modern Senegal for its charm. It is frequently used in appeals to national solidarity, frequently heard in the media, modern historians believe the name probably refers to the Sanhaja, Berbers who lived on the northern side of the river. A competing theory is that it derives from the town of Sanghana
12.
Gambia
–
The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is entirely surrounded by Senegal except for its coastline on the Atlantic Ocean at its western end. It is the smallest country in mainland Africa, the Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River, the nations namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres with a population of 1,882,450 at the April 2013 census, Banjul is the Gambian capital, and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama. Later, on 25 May 1765, The Gambia was made a part of the British Empire when the government formally assumed control, in 1965, The Gambia gained independence under the leadership of Dawda Jawara, who ruled until Yahya Jammeh seized power in a bloodless 1994 coup. Adama Barrow became The Gambias third president in January 2017, after defeating Jammeh in December 2016 elections, Jammeh initially refused to accept the results, which triggered a constitutional crisis and military intervention by the Economic Community of West African States, resulting in his exile. The Gambias economy is dominated by farming, fishing, and especially tourism, in 2008, about a third of the population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. The name Gambia is derived from the Mandinka term Kambra/Kambaa, meaning Gambia river, upon independence as a Commonwealth realm, the country used the name The Gambia. Following the proclamation of a republic in 1970, the name of the country became Republic of The Gambia. The administration of Yahya Jammeh changed the name to Islamic Republic of The Gambia in December 2015. On 29 January 2017 the new President Adama Barrow said the name will go back to Republic of The Gambia. Arab traders provided the first written accounts of the Gambia area in the ninth and tenth centuries, during the tenth century, Muslim merchants and scholars established communities in several West African commercial centres. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to an export trade in slaves, gold and ivory. At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called Gambia was part of the Mali Empire, the Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and began to dominate overseas trade. In 1588, the claimant to the Portuguese throne, António, Prior of Crato, letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I confirmed the grant. In 1618, King James I of England granted a charter to an English company for trade with the Gambia, between 1651 and 1661, some parts of the Gambia were under the rule of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, and were bought by Prince Jacob Kettler. The British Empire occupied the Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River and this was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856. As many as three million slaves may have taken from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade operated
13.
Mauritania
–
Mauritania /mɔːrɪˈteɪniə/, officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country in the Maghreb region of western Africa. The country derives its name from the ancient Berber Kingdom of Mauretania, approximately 90% of Mauritanias land is within the Sahara and consequently the population is concentrated in the south, where precipitation is slightly higher. The capital and largest city is Nouakchott, located on the Atlantic coast, the government was overthrown on 6 August 2008, in a military coup détat led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz. On 16 April 2009, Aziz resigned from the military to run for president in the 19 July elections, about 20% of Mauritanians live on less than US$1.25 per day. Mauritania suffers from several human rights issues, including slavery, as at least 4% of the population are enslaved against their will, the Bafours were primarily agriculturalist, and among the first Saharan people to abandon their historically nomadic lifestyle. With the gradual desiccation of the Sahara, they headed south, many of the Berber tribes claimed Yemeni origins. There is little evidence to such claims, but a 2000 DNA study of Yemeni people suggested there might be some ancient connection between the peoples. Other peoples also migrated south past the Sahara to West Africa, in 1076, Moorish Islamic warrior monks attacked and conquered the large area of the ancient Ghana Empire. Over the next 500 years, Arabs overcame fierce resistance from the population to dominate Mauritania. The Char Bouba war was the final effort of the peoples to repel the Yemeni Maqil Arab invaders. The invaders were led by the Beni Hassan tribe, the descendants of the Beni Hassan warriors became the upper stratum of Moorish society. Hassaniya, a Berber-influenced Arabic dialect that derives its name from the Beni Hassan, berbers retained a niche influence by producing the majority of the regions marabouts, those who preserve and teach Islamic tradition. Imperial France gradually absorbed the territories of present-day Mauritania from the Senegal River area and upwards, in 1901, Xavier Coppolani took charge of the imperial mission. Through a combination of strategic alliances with Zawiya tribes, and military pressure on the Hassane warrior nomads, he managed to extend French rule over the Mauritanian emirates. Trarza, Brakna and Tagant quickly submitted to treaties with the colonial power, Adrar was finally defeated militarily in 1912, and incorporated into the territory of Mauritania, which had been drawn up and planned in 1904. Mauritania was part of French West Africa from 1920, French rule brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to inter-clan warfare. During the colonial period, 90% of the population remained nomadic, many sedentary peoples, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier, began to trickle back into Mauritania. After gaining independence, larger numbers of indigenous Sub-Saharan African peoples entered Mauritania, educated in French language and customs, many of these recent arrivals became clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state
14.
Lamane Jegan Joof
–
Lamane Jegan Joof, was a Serer lamane who according to Serer tradition founded the Serer village of Tukar now part of present-day Senegal. The Raan Festival takes place each year at Tukar, two weeks after the appearance of the new moon in April, according to the oral tradition of the Serer people, Jegan Joof migrated from Lambaye following a dispute with his cousin, the king of Lambaye. The dispute was about the governance of Lambaye and over-taxation, Jegan Joof who was also a mix-farmer and with a large cattle herd felt he was being overtaxed unjustly. They were former colanies of Tukar and part of Jegans estate, the Joof family reigned in Tukar for several centuries, inherited from their ancestor Lamane Jegan Joof. In the epic of Jegan Joof, he is reported to have had a son called Sosseh Joof who inherited his fathers estate, ndik Joof, brother of Jegan, is reported to have died in Tukar before Jegans own death. In 1937, a descendant of Jegan Joof called Biram Diouf pawned his familys estate to the Sene noble family of Sine and it took his descendants 50 years to pay off the debt and regained their family estate. In the Serer religion, the Raan Festival takes place once a year in Tukar, in this festival, the Serer high priests and priestesses known as the Saltigues make offering of millets and wine to the shrine of Saint Luguuñ Joof. This Holy Saint is said to have guided Lamane Jegan Joof when he migrated from Lambaye in search of new land to exploit, Serer people Joof family Lamane Kingdom of Baol Kingdom of Sine Kingdom of Saloum States headed by ancient Serer Lamanes Sarr, Alioune. Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker, version légèrement remaniée par rapport à celle qui est parue en 1986-87 co 1985. Bressers, Hans & Rosenbaum, Walter A. II, Pangool, Nouvelles éditions africaines, Dakar,1990, African Studies Program, African economic history, Volume 25, University of Wisconsin, African Studies Program, p 28-9
15.
Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof
–
Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof is one of the patriarchs of the Joof family, himself the medieval King of Laah in Baol now part of independent Senegal. He ruled from the late 13th century to the early 14th century and his descendants from the branch of Maad Patar Kholleh Joof ruled the pre-colonial Kingdoms of Sine, Saloum and Baol, from the 14th century to 1969. The last king of Sine and Saloum died in 1969, after their deaths, the Serer States of Sine and Saloum were incorporated into independent Senegal. He stems from the line of Lamane Jegan Joof, the 11th century founder. 7, 2e semestre 1991 Éthiopiques, Issues 55-56, sine-Saloum, 1847-1914, Edinburgh University Press,1968, p. XV
16.
Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof
–
Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof was the last king to rule the Serer Kingdom of Sine now part of independent Senegal. Maad a Sinig means king of Sine in Serer language and he reigned from 1924 until his death in 1969. After his death, the Kingdom of Sine was incorporated into independent Senegal, Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof came from the Joof paternal dynasty of Sine and Saloum, from The Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof. On his maternal line, he is a member of the Guelowar dynasty, by 1969, Maad Mahecor Joof although retired, was the only ruler in Senegal who possessed real power. The Serer kingdoms such as Sine and Saloum were the only pre-colonial kingdoms to survive up to 1969, the Maad a Sinig was very committed in the preservation of Serer culture and tradition. During his reign, the Kingdom of Sine was economically prosperous, indebtedness and migration was rare in Sine than it was elsewhere. He performed the role of the Maad a Sinig, presiding over the religious affairs of his subjects. In one of his last ever State address to his subjects regarding the history of Sine, he stated, Kingdom of Sine Serer people Kingdom of Saloum Kingdom of Baol Diouf. Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin, bulletin de lIfan, Tome 34, Série B, n°4, Sarr, Alioune, Histoire du Sine-Saloum. Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker, version légèrement remaniée par rapport à celle qui est parue en 1986-87 Villalón, Leonardo Alfonso. Islamic society and state power in Senegal, disciples and citizens in Fatick, ISBN 0-521-46007-7 Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847-1914. Edinburgh University Press Faye, Louis Diène, mort et Naissance le monde Sereer
17.
Maad a Sinig
–
Maad a Sinig means king of Sine. The ancient Kingdom of Sine, now part of Senegal, was a pre-colonial Serer kingdom and their kings were titled Maad or Maad. The royal title Maad is sometimes used interchangeably with their ancient kings, between 1350 and 1969, more than fifty Serer kings have been crowned Maad a Sinig. Maad a Sinig Waagaan Tening Jom Faye Maad a Sinig Wagane Kumba Sanjan Faye
18.
Maad Saloum
–
Maad Saloum means king of Saloum, in the Serer language. The ancient Kingdom of Saloum now part of present-day Senegal was a pre-colonial Serer kingdom and their kings bore the title Maad or Mad. The royal title was used interchangeably with that of their ancient kings. From 1493 to 1969, at least forty-nine kings were crowned Maad Saloum, during this Guelowar period, Maad Saloum Mbegan Ndour was the first Serer king of the maternal clan Guelowar to have reigned in Saloum. Maad Saloum Fode NGouye Joof was the last king of Saloum and he reigned from 1935 to 1969 - the year of his death
19.
The Royal House of Boureh Gnilane Joof
–
The Royal House of Boureh Gnilane Joof was a royal house founded in the 14th century by Jaraff Boureh Gnilane Joof. He was a member the Serer tribe, from the pre-colonial Kingdom of Sine now part of independent Senegal and it was the first royal house founded by the Joof family during the Guelowar period. Boureh Gnilane Joof was a prince and a Jaraff, a Serer title of nobility with the powers of a Prime Minister. He was neither a Maad a Sinig nor a Maad Saloum but a prince who had the title Jaraff bestowed upon him by his cousin. His father Maad Patar Kholleh Joof was the king of Laa, bourehs brothers were the first from this house to have succeeded to the throne of Sine during the Guelowar period. His name was adopted in his honour to refer to the first royal house founded by the Joof family during this dynastic period, the Joof family of Sine, from this royal house also ruled in the Kingdom of Saloum The Joof family also ruled in Baol. From the date of its foundation up to the abolition of the Serer monarchies of Sine and Saloum in 1969, the following is a list of kings from the Royal House of Boureh Gnilane Joof that reigned in the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum. Their royal titles, Maad a Sinig and Maad Saloum signifies king of Sine, the surname Joof is the English spelling in the Gambia, whilst Diouf is the French spelling in Senegal. The proper spelling is Juuf or Juf in Serer which reflects the pronunciation, Maad a Sinig Niokhobai Mane Nyan Joof, brother of Boureh Gnilane. Reigned, c.1369 -1379 Maad a Sinig Gejopal Mane Nyan Joof, brother of Boureh Gnilane and Maad a Sinig Niokhobai Mane Nyan Joof. Reigned, c.1379 -1394 During his reign, his reign, Maad a Sinig Latsouk Gnilane Samba Joof, reigned, c.1672 -1688. During his reign, the Serer priestly class were public humiliated if the event differs from what they had divined at the Xoy ceremony. Maad a Sinig Ama Kodu Samba Joof, reigned, c.1715 -1724 and he aided the Damel of Cayor at the Battle of Sanghai and defeated the Teigne of Baol. Maad a Sinig Boukar Tjilas Mahe Soum Joof, reigned,1750 -1763 and he was the father of Lingeer Kodu Kumba Yandeh Mbarou Joof the princess of Sine and queen mother of Cayor and Baol. Lingeer Kodu Kumba Yandeh Mbarou was the mother of Damel-Teigne Makodu Yandeh Mbarou Joof Faal, Maad a Sinig Ama Kodu Mahe Ngom Joof, reigned 1770 -1789. As well as chairing the meetings of the Saltigues during his reign, apart from his interference in religious matters, the Kingdom of Sine was very peaceful during his reign. He died few months after succeeding to the throne, after his death, the Junjung of Sine was recovered from his estate and kept by his successor and former adversary. Maad a Sinig Niokhobai Semou Joof, reigned 1886 -1887 Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Fa Ndeb Joof and he was the last Serer king of Sine from this royal house
20.
The Royal House of Jogo Siga Joof
–
The Royal House of Jogo Siga Joof was the second royal house founded by the Joof family during the Guelowar dynastic period of Sine. The pre-colonial Kingdom of Sine now lies within present-day Senegal, the Royal House of Jogo Siga Joof was founded around the later half of the 15th to early 16th century by the Serer king Maad a Sinig Jogo Gnilane Joof. Unlike the other royal houses founded by the Joof family of pre-colonial Senegambia, only two known Serer kings are attested to have belonged to this royal house, including the founder. However, this royal house holds great significance in the survival of the Serer religion particularly in Sine, Maad a Sinig Jogo Gnilane Joof is reported to have defeated the Muslim marabout - Mamadou Koungo and kept the Islamic religion out of Sine. Maad a Sinig Jogo Gnilanes victory against the expedition of the Muslim marabout was celebrated by depositing the Eternal Stone of Sine at Diakhao. The city of Diakhao was where the took place. It is also the capital of many Serer Maad a Sinigs. The eternal stone is found in Diakhao, at the same spot it was placed by the king. After the collapse of the Royal House of Jogo Siga Joof and this is a list of Serer kings of Sine reported to have belonged to the Royal House of Jogo Siga Joof. Their royal title is Maad a Sinig and this royal house is the most contentious of all the royal houses founded by the Joof family, as the year of reign varies from one source to the next. Maad a Sinig Jogo Gnilane Joof, founder of this house, there is no consensus as to his exact date of reign. According to Diouf, he reigned from 1443 to 1461, teixeira da Mota postulates that he reigned in the 16th century Maad a Sinig Boukar Tjilas Jajel Joof is one of the most revered kings of Sine. Absolutely security and prosperity is reported to have prevailed throughout his dominion, in spite of his historical account, the exact date of his reign is a matter of conjecture. Diouf provides a range of 1698 -1715, whilst other sources with a degree of uncertainty states that he probably reigned just after 1785. Diouf, Niokhobaye, Chronique du royaume du Sine, Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin, bulletin de lIfan, Tome 34, Série B, n°4. La famille Juuf « Lépopée de Maad a Sinig SanSanmoon Fay », Éthiopiques, no 54,7, 2e semestre 1991 Sarr, Alioune, Histoire du Sine-Saloum. Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker, version légèrement remaniée par rapport à celle qui est parue en 1986-87 and UCAD Department of History, extract Senegal Klein, Martin. A. & Nyamweru, Celia, African sacred groves, ecological dynamics & social change, James Currey, p
21.
The Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof
–
The Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof was founded in the early 18th century by Maad Semou Njekeh Joof from the Kingdom of Sine, now part of present-day Senegal. It was the third and last royal house founded by the Joof family - during the Guelowar period, since the reignes of Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh and Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof. From the date of its foundation up to the dissolution of Sine in 1969, at least seven kings from this royal house had succeeded to the throne of Sine. List of kings from the Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof, Maad a Sinig Boukar Tjilas Sanghaie Joof, son of Maad Semou Njekeh Joof, Maad a Sinig Boukar Tjilas a Mbotil Joof, reigned, c. Maad a Sinig Mbaye Fotlou Juk Joof, reigned, c.1763 -1770, Maad a Sinig Ama Joof Gnilane Faye Joof, the most controversial king from this royal house. Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof, one of the most famous kings from this royal house, Maad a Sinig Semou Mak Joof, physically abused in childhood by his guardian and uncle, he later launched a war against him, defeated him and usurped his throne. In November 1881, he committed suicide by shooting himself in the head with a revolver, Maad a Sinig Amadi Baro Joof, he defeated Maad a Sinig Mbackeh Mak Njie at the Battle of Patar. While playing a game with his servant at Ndiob, he was surprised by the men of Maad a Sinig Mbackeh Mak. Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof, the last king of Sine and he died in 1969 the same year the last king of Saloum died. Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker, version légèrement remaniée par rapport à celle qui est parue en 1986-87. Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin, bulletin de lIfan, Tome 34, Série B, n°4. A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847-1914
22.
The Gambia
–
The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa that is entirely surrounded by Senegal except for its coastline on the Atlantic Ocean at its western end. It is the smallest country in mainland Africa, the Gambia is situated on either side of the Gambia River, the nations namesake, which flows through the centre of The Gambia and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its area is 10,689 square kilometres with a population of 1,882,450 at the April 2013 census, Banjul is the Gambian capital, and the largest cities are Serekunda and Brikama. Later, on 25 May 1765, The Gambia was made a part of the British Empire when the government formally assumed control, in 1965, The Gambia gained independence under the leadership of Dawda Jawara, who ruled until Yahya Jammeh seized power in a bloodless 1994 coup. Adama Barrow became The Gambias third president in January 2017, after defeating Jammeh in December 2016 elections, Jammeh initially refused to accept the results, which triggered a constitutional crisis and military intervention by the Economic Community of West African States, resulting in his exile. The Gambias economy is dominated by farming, fishing, and especially tourism, in 2008, about a third of the population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. The name Gambia is derived from the Mandinka term Kambra/Kambaa, meaning Gambia river, upon independence as a Commonwealth realm, the country used the name The Gambia. Following the proclamation of a republic in 1970, the name of the country became Republic of The Gambia. The administration of Yahya Jammeh changed the name to Islamic Republic of The Gambia in December 2015. On 29 January 2017 the new President Adama Barrow said the name will go back to Republic of The Gambia. Arab traders provided the first written accounts of the Gambia area in the ninth and tenth centuries, during the tenth century, Muslim merchants and scholars established communities in several West African commercial centres. Both groups established trans-Saharan trade routes, leading to an export trade in slaves, gold and ivory. At the beginning of the 14th century, most of what is today called Gambia was part of the Mali Empire, the Portuguese reached this area by sea in the mid-15th century, and began to dominate overseas trade. In 1588, the claimant to the Portuguese throne, António, Prior of Crato, letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I confirmed the grant. In 1618, King James I of England granted a charter to an English company for trade with the Gambia, between 1651 and 1661, some parts of the Gambia were under the rule of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, and were bought by Prince Jacob Kettler. The British Empire occupied the Gambia when an expedition led by Augustus Keppel landed there following the Capture of Senegal in 1758. The 1783 First Treaty of Versailles gave Great Britain possession of the Gambia River and this was finally ceded to the United Kingdom in 1856. As many as three million slaves may have taken from this general region during the three centuries that the transatlantic slave trade operated
23.
Serer language
–
Serer, sometimes called Serer-Sine Serer proper after its prestige dialect, is a language of the Senegambian branch of Niger–Congo spoken by 1.2 million people in Senegal and 30,000 in the Gambia. It is the language of the Serer people. Serer is one of the Senegambian languages, which are characterized by consonant mutation, the traditional classification of Atlantic is that of Sapir, which found that Serer was closest to Fulani. However, a widely cited misreading of the data by Wilson inadvertently exchanged Serer for Wolof, dialects of Serer are Serer Sine, Segum, Fadyut-Palmerin, Dyegueme, and Niominka. Not all Serer people speak Serer, because the speakers are ethnically Serer, these are commonly thought to be Serer dialects. However, they are not closely related, Serer is significantly closer to Fulani than it is to Cangin, the voiceless implosives are also written ⟨ƥ ƭ ƈ ⟩, these are highly unusual sounds. The following greetings and responses are spoken in most regions of Senegal that have Serer speakers, in Senegalese culture, greetings are very important. Sometimes, people will spend several minutes greeting each other, the ethnolinguistic classification of Seereer in question. In Africa, Challenges of Multilingualism, ds Altmayer, Claus / Wolff, H. Ekkehard, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, consonant mutation and reduplication in Seereer-Siin. Mc Laughlin, Fiona, Voiceless implosives in Seereer-Siin, Journal of the International Phonetic Association,35, 201–214, doi,10. 1017/S0025100305002215 Crétois, Dakar, Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar. Fal, A. Les nominaux en sereer-siin, Parler de Jaxaaw, senghor, L. S. Lharmonie vocalique en sérère. Journal de la Société des Linguistes
24.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
25.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
26.
Colonialism
–
Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory, and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony. The term is used to describe a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous peoples. The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the century when several European powers established colonies in Asia, Africa. At first the countries followed a policy of mercantilism, designed to strengthen the economy at the expense of rivals. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free trade, collins English Dictionary defines colonialism as the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers four definitions, including something characteristic of a colony, in the book, Osterhammel asks, How can colonialism be defined independently from colony. He settles on a definition, Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the people are made. Rejecting cultural compromises with the population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority. Historians often distinguish between two overlapping forms of colonialism, Settler colonialism involves large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political, exploitation colonialism involves fewer colonists and focuses on access to resources for export, typically to the metropole. Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, internal colonialism is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a state. The source of exploitation comes from within the state, as colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, notable examples in Asia include the Anglo-Burmese, Anglo-Indian, Burgher, Eurasian Singaporean, Filipino mestizo, Kristang and Macanese peoples. In the Dutch East Indies the vast majority of Dutch settlers were in fact Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans, the Other, or othering is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics. Othering is the creation from those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the other as an epistemological concept in social theory. For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonizing powers explained an ‘other’ who were there to dominate, civilize, political geographers explain how colonial/ imperial powers othered places they wanted to dominate to legalize their exploitation of the land. During the rise of colonialism and after, post colonialism, the Western powers perspectives of the East as the other, different and this viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/ subordinate dynamic, both being the other towards themselves. The word metropole comes from the Greek metropolis —mother city, the word colony comes from the Latin colonia—a place for agriculture
27.
Lingeer
–
The word Lingeer means queen or princess in Serer and Wolof language. The Lingeer was considered the princess of royal courts. ”Political power in these kingdoms was transmitted vis-à-vis her lineage, not any male lineage. Various Lingeers have been noted for their efforts to colonial conquest. The consequence of this resistance was the relegation of Lingeer to the background of Senegal’s political space upon its colonization. Although the royal title Lingeer was generally given to the mother or sister of the king, and sometimes the first wife of the king, in this case, it meant a woman who could trace royal descent from both her paternal and maternal line. In Wolof and Serer tradition, a woman who could trace royal descent on both her paternal and maternal line automatically became a Lingeer and it is from these Lingeers that a king would seek to marry. The king himself was a member of the Garmi class, historians are careful to not understate her influence in the pre-colonial period, the Lingeer is said to both make and unmake kings. Members of the community needed to charm and persuade a Lingeer if they held hopes of acquiring a political career, in the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum, the Lingeer was considered to hold ultimate power, showing her influence in several realms of a given kingdom. In the religious realm, she held the position of guardian of the fetishes. In the economic realm, like her Wolof counterpart, the Lingeer of Serer societies controlled several villages, the inhabitants of such villages would traditionally cultivate a field of grain for their Lingeer. Many noble families sent forth their daughters to be followers of the Lingeer, however, the Lingeer was accompanied by a female géwél, a professional singer or musician, regionally known as a griot. The géwél sang listeners to sleep at night and awakened them in the morning, the types of songs sung to honor a Lingeer’s sovereignty include, taggate, màdd, woy u lingeer, and buur. The power position that the Lingeer occupied was a bi- and sometimes one, her leadership activities were carried out at the highest tier. In the case of a conflict between a Lingeer and the king, a Lingeer would sometimes create new political alliances, in these instances, the Idaw al-Hajj served as the queen’s religious advisors. While many of the Lingeer are no longer known of, some of these made their way into the historical record for their leadership and, in later cases. According to oral histories, the first known Lingeer is Lingeer Fatim Beye and she was a Serer Princess and Queen of Sine. She was once married to King Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali and she is an early ancestor of all the Joos who went on to rule Waalo, such as her grand-daughter Lingeer Ndoye Demba. Lingeer Ndoye Demba, also of Serer origin, established the Joos Maternal Dynasty in the Wolof kingdom of Waalo as the regions queen, Lingeer Fatoumata Sall was the mother of the possibly mythical monarch Ndiadiane Ndiaye, who was emperor of the Jolof in the 1360s
28.
Senegambia Confederation
–
The confederation was founded on 1 February 1982 following an agreement between the two countries signed on 12 December 1981. It was intended to promote cooperation between the two countries, but was dissolved by Senegal on 30 September 1989 after the Gambia refused to move closer toward union, as a political unit, Senegambia was created by dueling French and English colonial forces in the region. Competition between the French and the English began in the 16th century when both started to establish trading centers, although there was some overlap in their areas of influence, French trade centered on the Senegal River and in the Cap-Vert region and English trade on the Gambia River. From 1500 to 1758, the two used their naval power to try to remove each other from the region. In 1758, during the Seven Years War based in Europe, the unified region collapsed in 1779. With the British occupied by the American Revolutionary War in North America, the unified region ended officially in 1783 in the aftermath of the British defeat and independence by the United States. The Treaty of Versailles created a balance between France and Britain, Saint Louis, l’île de Gorée, and the Senegal River region were restored to France, and the Gambia was left to the British. Although the areas were ruled by separate, competing powers, they did not determine an official border between the French and British Senegambian colonies until 1889, at the time, France agreed to accept the current border between the two countries and remove its border trading posts. For each country, the lock and key border situation has posed problems for international relations, especially in trade. One of the greatest problems for both countries is the ease with which violence could spread through the region and this fear was realized during the 1981 coup attempt to oust President Dawda Jawara of the Gambia. Specific threats came from Kwame Nkrumahs Ghana, Moussa Traorés Mali, Ahmed Sekou Tourés Guinea, João Bernardo Vieiras Guinea-Bissau, while the Senegalese government speculated about some dangers, in the late 1980s it had border skirmishes with Mauritania. After the coup attempt, the government realized that its forces were not adequate to stop, or prevent. Security of the region was becoming more and more difficult to maintain, the opposing trade policies fueled a large black market around the Senegal–Gambia border, which brought cheaper manufactured goods into Senegal. The black market also attracted an export drain into the Gambia, the Senegalese government began to institute a delayed payment system with its groundnut farms. When farmers sold their harvest to the Senegalese government, they would get a voucher, known as a chit, in the short term, the Senegambia Confederation was a pragmatic union based on a mutual security interest. As noted, the Senegalese government feared national instability caused by uprisings in either the Gambia or the Casamance region and this fear nearly became reality on 30 July 1981 when Gambian leftists attempted a coup détat against President Sir Dawda Jawara. At the request of President Jawara, the Senegalese army entered the Gambia, the attempted coup resulted in both countries leaders promoting the unification ideas which had been developing in the region. Senghor’s belief in Negritude informed the possibility of unification between Senegal and the Gambia, and fostered the belief that unification would happen as an organic process
29.
Jolof Empire
–
The Jolof Empire, also known as the Wolof or Wollof Empire, was a West African state that ruled parts of Senegal from 1350 to 1549. Following the 1549 battle of Danki, its states were fully or de facto independent, in this period. This was largely conquered by the imamate of Futa Jallon in 1875, traditional accounts among the Wolof agree that the founder of the state and later empire was the possibly mythical Ndiadiane Ndiaye. Traditional stories of the ancestry of this leader vary and this gives him an Almoravid lineage, ie a Berber and Islamic background, on his fathers side, and a link on his mothers side to the Takrur aristocracy. James Searing adds that In all versions of the myth, Njaajaan Njaay speaks his first words in Pulaar rather than Wolof, Ndiadiane was born Ahmad Abu Bakr also called Ahmadu Abubakar. The legend of Ndiadiane Ndiaye begins with a dispute over wood near a prominent lake and this almost led to bloodshed among the rulers but was stopped by the mysterious appearance of a stranger from the lake. The stranger divided the wood fairly and disappeared, leaving the people in awe, the people then feigned a second dispute and kidnapped the stranger when he returned. They offered him the kingship of their land and convinced him to do so, when these events were reported to the ruler of the Sine, also a great magician, he is reported to have exclaimed Ndiadiane Ndiaye in his native Serer language in amazement. A close examination of Jolofs societal and political structure reveals that at least some of its institutions may have borrowed directly or developed alongside those of its larger predecessor. Women could not marry upwards, and their children did not inherit the fathers superior status.26 However, women had some influence, the Linger or Queen Mother was head of all women and very influential in state politics. She owned a number of villages which cultivated farms and paid directly to her. There were also other female chiefs whose main task was judging cases involving women, all of these states were tributary to the land-locked state of Jolof. Once appointed, office holders went through elaborate rituals to both familiarize themselves with their new duties and elevate them to a divine status, from then on, they were expected to lead their states to greatness or risk being declared unfavored by the gods and being deposed. It further states that the Sine was never subjugated by Jolof, sylviane Diouf states that Each vassal kingdom—Walo, Takrur, Kayor, Baol, Sine, Salum, Wuli, and Niani—recognized the hegemony of Jolof and paid tribute. After an initially hostile start, peaceful relations were established between the Jolof Empire and the kingdom of Portugal. At this time Jolof was at the height of its power, in the 1480s, Prince Bemoi was ruling the empire in the name of his brother Bur Birao. Tempted by Portuguese trade, he moved the seat of government to the coast to take advantage of the new economic opportunities, other princes, opposed to this policy, deposed and murdered the bur in 1489. Prince Bemoi escaped and sought refuge with the Portuguese, who took him to Lisbon, there he exchanged gifts with King John II and was baptised
30.
Waalo
–
The Kingdom of Waalo or Walo was a kingdom on the lower Senegal River in West Africa, in what are now Senegal and Mauritania. It included parts of the proper and areas north and south. To the north were Moorish emirates, to the south was the kingdom of Cayor, Waalo had a complicated political and social system, which has a continuing influence on Wolof culture in Senegal today, especially its highly formalized and rigid caste system. The kingdom was indirectly hereditary, ruled by three families, the Logar, the Tedyek and the Joos, all from different ethnic backgrounds. The Joos were of Serer origin and this Serer matriclan was established in Waalo by Lingeer Ndoye Demba of Sine. Her grandmother Lingeer Fatim Beye is the matriarch and early ancestor of this dynasty and these matrilinial families engaged in constant dynastic struggles to become Brak or king of Waalo, as well as warring with Waalos neighbors. The royal title Lingeer means queen or royal princess, used by the Serer, the semi-legendary figure NDiadiane Ndiaye, was from this kingdom. The mysterious figure went on to rule the kingdom of Jolof, under NDdiadian, Jolof made Waalo a vassal. Waalo was subject to constant raids for slaves not only from the Moors, the Brak ruled with a kind of legislature, the Seb Ak Baor, over a complicated hierarchy of officials and dignitaries. Women had high positions and figure promininently in the political and military history, Waalo had lucrative treaties with the French, who had established their base at the island of Saint-Louis near the mouth of the river. Waalo was paid fees for every boatload of gum arabic or slaves that was shipped on the river, vassals of Waalo, like Beetyo split off. Waalo was conquered in 1855 by the French, in a campaign of Governor Louis Faidherbe and this was the first major inland conquest by the French, by which they eventually obtained all of Mauritania, Senegal and French Sudan. In all, Waalo had 52 kings since its founding, Waalo had its own traditional African religion. The ruling class was slow to accept Islam, which had spread in the valley, Waalo fell to France in 1855. Ndete Yalla, dernière reine du Walo, extrait du portrait de cette reine sénégalaise du 19e siècle que nous dresse Sylvia Serbin dans son ouvrage « Reines d’Afrique et héroïnes de la diaspora noire » Par Sylvia Serbin. NDIOURBEL, Première capital du Waalo in Sites et Monuments historiques du Senegal, Center of Resources for the Emergence of Social Participation, Le Royaume du Waalo Le Sénégal avant la Conquête François Maspéro
31.
Cayor
–
The Kingdom of Cayor was the largest and most powerful kingdom that split off from the Empire of Jolof, in what is now Senegal. Cayor was located in north and central Senegal, southeast of Waalo, west of the kingdom of Jolof and north of Baol, in 1549, the king, or Damel, Detie Fu Ndiogu, became independent from Jolof. After the French conquered Waalo, governor Louis Faidherbe annexed Cayor in 1868 and it was defeated and annexed again in 1879 and ceased to be a sovereign state. The kingdom was extinguished in its entirety October 6,1886, in addition to Cayor, the Damels also ruled over the Lebou area at Cap-Vert, and they became the Teignes of the neighboring kingdom of Baol. A great hero in Senegal history, for his defiance and battles against the French, was Lat Dyor Diop He was defeated at the battle of Dekheule and he converted to Islam around 1861. The 30th and last Damel of Cayor was Samba Laobe Fall, killed at Tivaouane, Jolof Empire History of Senegal Ise Bige
32.
Inheritance
–
Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, rights, and obligations upon the death of an individual. The rules of inheritance differ between societies and have changed over time, a person does not become an heir before the death of the deceased, since the exact identity of the persons entitled to inherit is determined only then. There is a concept of joint inheritance, pending renunciation by all but one. In modern law, the inheritance and heir refer exclusively to succession to property by descent from a deceased dying intestate. Some ancient societies and most modern states employ egalitarian inheritance, without discrimination based on gender and/or birth order, the Quran also presented efforts to fix the laws of inheritance, and thus forming a complete legal system. This development was in contrast to societies where rules of inheritance varied considerably. Furthermore, the Quran introduced additional heirs that were not entitled inheritance in pre-Islamic times, mentioning nine relatives specifically of which six were female, in addition to the above changes, the Quran imposed restrictions on testamentary powers of a Muslim in disposing his or her property. In their will, a Muslim can only give out a maximum of one third of their property, the Quran contains only three verses that give specific details of inheritance and shares, in addition to few other verses dealing with testamentary. But this information was used as a point by Muslim jurists who expounded the laws of inheritance even further using Hadith. Nowadays, inheritance is considered a part of Sharia law and its application for Muslims is mandatory, though many peoples. The father —that is, the owner of the land— bequeaths only to his male descendants, if there were no living sons and no descendants of any previously living sons, daughters could inherit. In Numbers 27, 1-4, the daughters of Zelophehad of the tribe of Manasseh come to Moses and ask for their fathers inheritance, as they have no brothers. The order of inheritance is set out in Numbers 27, 7-11, a mans sons inherit first, daughters if no sons, brothers if he has no children, and so on. So a further rule is laid down, if a daughter inherits land, the tractate Baba Bathra, written during late Antiquity in Babylon, deals extensively with issues of property ownership and inheritance according to Jewish Law. The first, often abbreviated to Mishneh Torah, was written by Maimonides and was important in Jewish tradition. All these sources agree that the son is entitled to a double portion of his fathers estate. This means that, for example, if a father left five sons, if he left nine sons, the firstborn receives a fifth and each of the other eight receive a tenth. If the eldest surviving son is not the son, he is not entitled to the double portion
33.
Serer religion
–
The Serer religion, or a ƭat Roog, is the original religious beliefs, practices and teachings of the Serer people of Senegal in western Africa. The Serer people believe in a supreme deity called Roog. In the Cangin languages, Roog is referred to as Koox, Kopé Tiatie Cac, Kokh Kox, the Serer people are found throughout the Senegambia region. The Serer people believe in a deity called Roog and sometimes referred to as Roog Sene. Serer tradition deals with various dimensions of life, death, space and time, ancestral spirit communications, Roog is the creator deity and is neither the devil nor a genie, but the lord of the creature. However, Roog is always in watch of its children and always available to them, in Serer, Roog Sene is the lifeblood to which the incorruptible and sanctified soul returns to eternal peace after they depart the living world. Roog Sene sees, knows and hears everything, but does not interfere in the affairs of the living world. Instead, lesser gods and goddesses act as Roogs assistants in the physical world and those who live their lives contrary to the teachings will be rightfully in the afterlife. For the ordinary Serers, they addressed their prayers to the pangool as they are the intermediaries between the world and the divine. An orthodox Serer must remain faithful to the spirits as the soul is sanctified as a result of the ancestors intercession between the living world and the divine. The pangool have both a historical significance as well as a religious one, without them, the lamane exploits would not have been possible. In the religious sense, these ancient lamanes created shrines to these pangool, thereby becoming the priests, as such, they became the intermediaries among the land, the people and the pangool. Whenever any member of the lamanic lineage dies, the whole Serer community celebrates in honour of the lives they had lived on earth in accordance with the teachings of the Serer religion. Serer prayers are addressed to the pangool who act as intercessors between the world and the divine. In addressing their prayers to the pangool, the Serers chant ancient songs and offer such as bull, sheep, goat. There is no heaven or hell in the Serer religion, the immortality of the soul and reincarnation is a strongly held belief in Serer religion. The pangool are canonised as saints, and will be called upon and venerated. Acceptance by the ancestors who have departed and the ability to intercede with the divine is as close to heaven after one passes over
34.
Herd
–
A herd is a social grouping of certain animals of the same species, either wild or domestic. The form of animal behavior associated with this is referred to as herding. The term herd is generally applied to mammals, and most particularly to the grazing ungulates that classically display this behaviour, a group of quail is often referred to as a covey. Large groups of carnivores are usually called packs, and in nature a herd is classically subject to predation from pack hunters. Special collective nouns may be used for particular taxa but for discussions of behavioural ecology. The word herd, as a noun, can refer to one who controls. Examples of herds in this sense include shepherds, goatherds, cowherds, when an association of animals is described as a herd, the implication is that the group tends to act together, but that this does not occur as a result of planning or coordination. A herd can be contrasted with a group where individuals have distinct roles. The question of why animals group together is one of the most fundamental in sociobiology and behavioural ecology. There is clearly a tradeoff involved, since on the one hand a predator may hesitate to attack a group of animals. In the case of predators, it is unclear whether the term herd is appropriate. A herd is by definition relatively unstructured, however, there may be one or a few animals which tend to be imitated by the rest of the members of the herd more than others. An animal taking this role is called an animal, since its behaviour will predict that of the herd as a whole. It cannot be assumed, however, that the animal is deliberately taking a leadership role. Control animals are not necessarily, or even usually, those that are dominant in conflict situations. Group size is an important characteristic of the environment of gregarious species. Domestic animal herds are assembled by humans for practicality in raising them and their behaviour may be quite different from that of wild herds of the same or related species, since both their composition and their history are likely to be very different. The term herd is also applied metaphorically to human beings in social psychology, however both the term and concepts that underlie its use are controversial
35.
Livestock
–
Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber, and labor. The term is used to refer solely to those raised for food. In recent years, some organizations have also raised livestock to promote the survival of rare breeds, animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods. Originally, livestock were not confined by fences or enclosures, but these practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming and these practices increase yield of the various commercial outputs, but have led to increased concerns about animal welfare and environmental impact. Livestock production continues to play an economic and cultural role in numerous rural communities. Livestock as a word was first used between 1650 and 1660, as a merger between the live and stock. Older English sources, such as the King James Version of the Bible, the word cattle is derived from Old North French catel, which meant all kinds of movable personal property, including livestock, which was differentiated from immovable real estate. In later English, sometimes smaller livestock such as chickens and pigs were referred to as small cattle, today, the modern meaning of cattle, without a modifier, usually refers to domesticated bovines, but sometimes livestock refers only to this subgroup. Legal definition United States federal legislation sometimes more narrowly defines the term to make specified agricultural commodities either eligible or ineligible for a program or activity, for example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting Act of 1999 defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and sheep. Animal-rearing originated during the transition to settled farming communities from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans, over time, the collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild, dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BC in Asia, swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BC in the Middle East and China. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BC, the term livestock is nebulous and may be defined narrowly or broadly. Broadly, livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful and this can mean domestic animals, semidomestic animals, or captive wild animals. Semidomesticated refers to animals which are only lightly domesticated or of disputed status and these populations may also be in the process of domestication. Some people may use the term livestock to refer to only used for red meat. Livestock are used by humans for a variety of purposes, many of which have an economic value, Livestock products include, Meat A useful form of dietary protein and energy, meat is the edible tissue of the animal carcass
36.
Tax
–
A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, or evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent, the legal definition and the economic definition of taxes differ in that economists do not regard many transfers to governments as taxes. For example, some transfers to the sector are comparable to prices. Examples include tuition at public universities and fees for utilities provided by local governments, governments also obtain resources by creating money and coins, through voluntary gifts, by imposing penalties, by borrowing, and by confiscating wealth. In modern taxation systems, governments levy taxes in money, but in-kind and corvée taxation are characteristic of traditional or pre-capitalist states, the method of taxation and the government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly debated in politics and economics. Tax collection is performed by a government agency such as the Canada Revenue Agency, when taxes are not fully paid, the state may impose civil penalties or criminal penalties on the non-paying entity or individual. The levying of taxes aims to raise revenue to fund governing and/or to alter prices in order to affect demand, States and their functional equivalents throughout history have used money provided by taxation to carry out many functions. A governments ability to raise taxes is called its fiscal capacity, when expenditures exceed tax revenue, a government accumulates debt. A portion of taxes may be used to service past debts, governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services. These services can include education systems, pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits, energy, water and waste management systems are also common public utilities. A tax effectively changes relative prices of products and they have therefore sought to identify the kind of tax system that would minimize this distortion. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates, historically, taxes on the poor supported the nobility, modern social-security systems aim to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on those who are still working. A states tax system often reflects its communal values and the values of those in current political power. To create a system of taxation, a state must make choices regarding the distribution of the tax burden—who will pay taxes and how much they will pay—and how the taxes collected will be spent. In democratic nations where the public elects those in charge of establishing or administering the tax system, in countries where the public does not have a significant amount of influence over the system of taxation, that system may reflect more closely the values of those in power. All large businesses incur administrative costs in the process of delivering revenue collected from customers to the suppliers of the goods or services being purchased. Taxation is no different, the resource collected from the public through taxation is always greater than the amount which can be used by the government, the difference is called the compliance cost and includes the labour cost and other expenses incurred in complying with tax laws and rules
37.
Colony
–
In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state, distinct from the home territory of the sovereign. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies, some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. The metropolitan state is the state that rules the colony, in Ancient Greece, the city that founded a colony was known as the metropolis. Mother country is a reference to the state from the point of view of citizens who live in its colony. There is a United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, unlike a puppet state or satellite state, a colony has no independent international representation, and its top-level administration is under direct control of the metropolitan state. The term informal colony is used by historians to refer to a country under the de facto control of another state. The word colony comes from the Latin word colōnia and this in turn derives from the word colōnus, which means colonist but also implies a farmer. Cologne is an example of a settlement preserving this etymology, other, less obvious settlements that began as Roman colonia include cities from Belgrade to York. A tell-tale sign of a settlement once being a Roman Colony is a city centre with a grid pattern. The terminology is taken from architectural analogy, where a column pillar is beneath the head capital, so colonies are not independently self-controlled, but rather are controlled from a separate entity that serves the capital function. Roman colonies first appeared when the Romans conquered neighbouring Italic peoples and these were small farming settlements that appeared when the Romans had subdued an enemy in war. A colony could take many forms, as a trade outpost or a base in enemy territory. Its original definition as a settlement created by migrating from a central region to an outlying one became the modern definition. Kandahar formed as a Greek colony during the Hellenistic era by Alexander the great in 330 BC, alaska, a colony of Russia from the middle 18th century until sold to the United States in 1867. It became the 49th American state in 1959, angola, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Australia was formed as an independent country in 1901 from a federation of six distinct British colonies which were founded between 1788 and 1829, barbados, was a colony of Great Britain important in the Atlantic slave trade. It gained its independence in 1966, brazil, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Canada, colonized first by France as New France, then under British rule, congo, Democratic Republic of the, a colony of Belgium from 1908 to 1960
38.
Guelowar
–
The Guelowar was the maternal dynasty in the Serer pre-colonial kingdoms of Sine and Saloum. They were from the Mandinka ethnic group, the offsprings of Mandinka women and Serer men became the kings of Sine and Saloum. The dynasty lasted from the century to 1969, in which year both kings died. The Guelowar family originated from Kaabu in the 14th century and their oral tradition says that they were descended from Mansa Tiramakan Traore (13th century cousin and general of Mansa Sundiata Keita of Mali. Their oral tradition says that they were the descendants of Mansa Bala Diakha. Others say they are descended from the branch of Princess Tenemba. The Mandinkas who conquered the Kaabu married into the noble Bainuk families, the Mandinka also changed their own name and adopted Bainuk surnames. Kaabu was governed by the noble clans of Sanneh and Manneh, with the noble maternal clans of Ñaanco. However, almost all the kings of Kaabu came from the maternal clan. The Guelowars were extended maternal relatives of the Ñaanco and one of their greatest threat to the throne. Here Gravrand has not noticed that this is actually a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala although the departure of the Guelowar can probably be explained by a war or a conflict of succession, whatever the reason, they left Kaabu c 1335. According to oral tradition they were a mixture of Mandinka, descendants of Mansa Tiramang Trawally of Mali, the Guelowars migrated to the Kingdom of Sine and were granted asylum by The Great Council of Lamanes. Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh - was the first Guelowar king of Sine post Troubang, having served for several years as legal advisor to The Great Council of Lamans and assimilated into Serer culture, he was elected and crowned the first Guelowar king of Sine in. His sisters and nieces were married off to the Serer nobility, the mainstream view has been that Mandinka Guelowars of Kaabu conquered and subjugated the Serer people. Serer oral tradition speaks of no military conquest, but a union based on marriage, a marriage between the noble Guelowar maternal clan and the noble Serer paternal clans, the descendants of the old Serer Lamanic class. Almost all the kings of Sine and Saloum bore Serer surnames not Mandinka, Maysa Walis paternal descendants did not rule in Sine neither did they rule in Saloum. It was the descendants of the ancient Serer Lamanic class who ruled. Serer language, culture, religion and tradition also prevailed in Sine, the Guelowars were incorporated into Serer society and they saw themselves as Serers
39.
Henry Gravrand
–
Father Henry Gravrand was a French Catholic missionary to Africa and an anthropologist who has written extensively on Serer religion and culture. He was one of the pioneers of interfaith dialog and believed that African religion was the first covenant between God and man. Papa Massène Sene argues that his approach lacks scientific rigor and include fundamental linguistic, according to Charles Becker, Gravrand is confusing a description of the 1867 Battle of Kansala. First missionary of the Congregation of Holy Spirit, Gravrand arrived in Senegal on 28 December 1948, in 1955, Gravrand created the Union of farmers of Sine, affiliated to the French Confederation of Christian Workers, which gave the farmers training enabling them to defend their own interests. Gravrand was a specialist on Traditional African religion, in particular the Serer religion, in 1964, Gravrand was one of the founder-members of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. In October 1970, Gravrand was appointed parish priest of MBour, the year 1987 marked the Silver Jubilee of the episcopate of the Archbishop of Dakar. That same year, the apostolate of father Gravrand in Senegal came to an end, Gravrand took his solemn vows in 1990 and was sent to the Monastery of the Holy Saviour in Lebanon. Gravrand died on 11 July 2003 at the Abbey of Latrun,2,1973, pp 237–266 Le Gabou dans les traditions orales du Ngabou, Éthiopiques, no. 28, October 1981 L’héritage spirituel Sereer, valeur traditionnelle dhier, daujourdhui et de demain, Éthiopiques,31, 3e trimestre 1982 La civilisation sereer, vol. ISBN 0-14-044945-0, chapter 67 Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, minh-ha, Drawings from African dwellings, Indiana University Press, Bloomington,1996. JSTOR by Peter Mark À la découverte de la civilisation sereeer avec le R. P. Gravrand
40.
Land law
–
Land law is the form of law that deals with the rights to use, alienate, or exclude others from land. In many jurisdictions, these kinds of property are referred to as real estate or real property, Land use agreements, including renting, are an important intersection of property and contract law. Encumbrance on the rights of one, such as an easement. Mineral rights and water rights are linked, and often interrelated concepts. Squatting, the occupation of land ownership, is a globally ubiquitous phenomenon. Sovereignty, in common law jurisdictions, is referred to as absolute title, radical title. Nearly all of these jurisdictions have a system of registration, to record fee simple interests. Indigenous land rights are recognized by law, as well as the national legal systems of common law. In common law jurisdictions, the rights of indigenous peoples are referred to as aboriginal title. In customary law jurisdictions, customary land is the predominant form of land ownership, Land reform refers to government policies that take and/or redistribute land, such as a land grant. This is not to be confused with access to land, which allows individuals the use of land in an economic sense, instead, land rights address the ownership of land which provides security and increases human capabilities. When a person only has access to land, they are in constant threat of expulsion depending on the choices of the land owner, which limits financial stability. Land rights are a part of Land Laws, as they socially enforce groups of individuals’ rights to own land in concurrence with the land laws of a nation. Land Law addresses the legal mandates set forth by a country in regards to land ownership, landesa takes the stance that although the law may advocate for equal access to land, land rights in certain countries and cultures may hinder a group’s right to actually own land. Laws are important, but they must be backed up by cultural tradition, therefore, laws concerning land ownership and land rights of a country must be in agreement. Globally, there has been a focus on land rights. According to Wickeri and Kalhan, land ownership can be a source of capital, financial security, food, water, shelter. The UN Global Land Tool organisation has found that rural landlessness is a predictor of poverty and hunger, and negatively impacts Empowerment
41.
Ghana Empire
–
The Ghana Empire, properly known as Awkar was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and western Mali. By the time of the Muslim conquest of North Africa in the 7th century the camel had changed the ancient more irregular trade routes into a trade running from Morocco to the Niger river. The Ghana Empire grew rich from this increased trade in gold. It furthermore encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the different trade-routes, when Ghanas ruling dynasty began is uncertain, it as mentioned for the first time in written records by Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 830. In the 11th century the Cordoban scholar Abu Ubayd al-Bakri collected stories from a number of travelers to the region, and gave a detailed description of the kingdom. He claimed that the Ghana could put 200,000 men into the field, more than 40,000 of them archers, as the empire declined it was finally made a vassal to the rising Mali Empire at some point in the 13th century. The origins of Ghana have often been obscured by fights between ethno-historic accounts and interpretations and archaeology, the earliest discussions of its origins are found in the Sudanese chronicles of Mahmud Kati and Abd al-Rahman as-Sadi. In addressing the origin, the Tarikh al-Fettash provides three different opinions, one that they were Black, another that they were Wangara, which are a Soninke group. Al-Kati favored another interpretation in view of the fact that their genealogies linked them to this group and he says that 22 kings ruled before the Hijra and 22 after. While these early views lead to many interpretations of a foreign origin of Wagadu. In addition, the archaeologist and historian Raymond Mauny argues that al-Katis and al-Sadis view of a foreign origin cannot be regarded as reliable, modern scholars, particularly African Muslim scholars, have argued about the extension of the Ghana Empire and tenure of its reign. Islamic religion was very well around the Asian-African-European area. Several such traditions were recorded and published, while there are variants, these traditions called the most ancient polity they knew of Wagadu, or the place of the Wago the term current in the nineteenth century for the local nobility. Upon Dingas death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested the kingship, and Dyabe was victorious, founding the kingdom. While Delafosse produced a theory of an invasion by Judeo-Syrians. Raymond Mauny, synthesizing early archaeology, various traditions, and the Arabic materials in 1961 concluded that trade was vital to the empires foundation. While there has not been much study of either traditions or documents, archaeologists have added considerable nuance to the ultimate play of forces. Archaeological research was slow to enter the picture, the Dar Tichitt site had clearly become a complex civilization by 1600 BCE and had architectural and material culture elements that seemed to match the site at Koumbi-Saleh
._19th_Century._Jung-Jung_From_The_Kingdom_of_Sine_(in_modern_day_Senegal).jpg)
