1.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
2.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
3.
Mendoza Province
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The Province of Mendoza is a province of Argentina, located in the western central part of the country in the Cuyo region. Its capital city is the city of Mendoza. Covering an area of 148.827 km², it is the seventh biggest province of Argentina with 5. 35% of the total area. The population for 2010 is 1,741,610 inhabitants, archeological studies have determined that the first inhabitants in the area date from the Holocene, but there are few remains of those people to know their habits. The earliest sites of human occupation in Mendoza Province, Agua de la Cueva, in the basins of the Atuel River, in 300 BC lived a group of people that lived via hunting and the cultivation of maize, pumpkins and beans. Those valleys saw the rise of the Agrelo culture, ancestor of the Huarpes and they were later influenced greatly by the Inca empire during the 15th century. Oral tradition sets the arrival of the Inca Túpac Yupanqui to Coquimbo in 1470, puelches and other groups received a strong influence of the Mapuches. The first Spanish conquerors came around 1550 from the Viceroyalty of Peru, in 1561 Mendoza was founded by the conquistador Pedro del Castillo. Until the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 and he received important support from Mendoza when he led his Army of the Andes from Plumerillo to the 1817 crossing of the Andes, in his campaign to end Spanish rule in Chile. The Province of Cuyo was ultimately divided in 1820, and Mendoza parted ways with San Luis, the 1861 earthquake nearly destroyed the city of Mendoza, which had to be almost entirely reconstructed. In 1885 railways were built to the province, allowing for transport of the regions wines to the countrys trade hub of Buenos Aires. Following the development of the industry in the province around 1900, Mendoza began to grow quickly, attracting tens of thousands of European immigrants. In 1939 the National University of Cuyo, one of the more important universities of the country, was founded in the province, increasing their presence in the Mendoza Legislature, the Democrats became an obstacle to progressive Governor Ernesto Ueltschi, an ally of president Arturo Frondizis. With majorities in both houses by 1961, they had Gov. Ueltschi removed and Democrat Vice-governor Francisco Gabrielli appointed in his stead, elected governor in his own right in 1963, Gov. These events came to a head in April,1972, however, upon the return to democracy in March 1973, Mendoza voters turned to a left-leaning Peronist, Alberto Martínez Baca. Alarmed by this move from the otherwise pragmatic Martínez Baca, President Perón had him removed in June 1974, fernández and Cobos won in the first round, and Cobos became Vice President of Argentina, he was replaced by pro-Kirchner Justicialist candidate Celso Jaque as governor. The province is represented by three senators in the Argentine Senate, currently María Perceval, Ernesto Sanz and Mónica Troadello, Mendoza is represented by 10 deputies in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies. His faction of the UCR won a significant victory in the 2009 mid-term elections in Mendoza, the geography of the province descends from 6,959 metres at the summit of Aconcagua to the semi-flat lands of the east
4.
Aircraft pilot
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A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
5.
Long Island
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Long Island is an island located just off the northeast coast of the United States and a region within the U. S. state of New York. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, more generally, Long Island may also refer collectively both to the main Island as well as its nearby, surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is the Long Island Sound, across from which lie the states of Connecticut, across the Sound, to the northwest, lies Westchester County on mainland New York. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from the New York City borough of Staten Island and the U. S. state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, to the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands. Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile, Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse. Some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere are located on Long Island, nine bridges and 13 tunnels connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut, the Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24/7. At the time of European contact, the Lenape people inhabited the western end of Long Island, giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor, adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands. Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka, sewan was one of the terms for wampum, and is also translated as loose or scattered, which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, later, the English referred to the land as Nassau Island, after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. It is unclear when the name Nassau Island was discontinued, the very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island, the first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21,1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first and he is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year, Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, and Brookhaven in 1655. While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645 and these included, Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick
6.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
7.
Battle of Gettysburg
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The Battle of Gettysburg was fought July 1–3,1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the war and is often described as the wars turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Meades Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lees attempt to invade the North. After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade. Elements of the two armies collided at Gettysburg on July 1,1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, on the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched an assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devils Den. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culps Hill, all across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines. The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army, Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the battle, the most costly in US history. Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville. Such a move would upset U. S. plans for the campaigning season. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest, in addition, Lees 72, 000-man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North. Thus, on June 3, Lees army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, the Cavalry Division remained under the command of Maj. Gen. J. E. B. The Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven corps, a cavalry corps. The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia
8.
Alberto Braniff
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Alberto Braniff was a pioneering Mexican airplane pilot. He is considered the first aviator in Latin America, Braniff was born in a wealthy and powerful family in Mexico during the Porfiriato. Alberto went to study in Europe, where aviation flourished as he was a young adult and it was while in France that Braniff was able to acquire a French built airplane. Soon after, he shipped back to his country, with his airplane aboard the ship. Mexico during that era was a new country in need of new achievements. After their country lost the Mexican-American War, Mexicans needed to look up to someone or to type of success as a source of national pride. When Braniff returned home with his airplane, many Mexicans began to see him as a symbol of hope, Braniff, who had learned to fly the airplane while still in Europe, took it up upon himself to become that source of pride. Years before Braniff was born, a prominent Mexico City newspaper had predicted that it would be impossible to fly to that city because of its high altitude and thin air. The article was published during an era when aerostat popularity was rising in Europe, the exact year remains unclear, but most historical articles report that Braniff flew his airplane over Mexico City between 1908 and 1910. Apart from being the first pilot to fly an airplane over Mexico City, later on, other luminaries such as Argentinas Jorge Newbery and Perus Jorge Chavez followed Braniff as famous Latin American aviators. Braniff died in Mexico City in 1966 and it remains unclear whether he had any family connection with the Braniff brothers of Texas that created Braniff Airways. Alberto Branif shown in Mexican stamp issued for the 100 anniversary of his first flew in Mexico,1910
9.
Latin Americans
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Latin Americans are the citizens of the Latin American countries and dependencies. Latin American countries are multi-ethnic, home to people of different ethnic, as a result, some Latin Americans dont take their nationality as an ethnicity, but identify themselves with both their nationality and their ancestral origins. Aside from the indigenous Amerindian population, all Latin Americans or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries, Latin America has the largest diasporas of Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Black Africans, Italians, Lithuanians, Lebanese, and Japanese in the world. Besides the second largest German diaspora after the US, and the Argentine, various Black, Asian, and Zambo minorities are also identified in most countries. White Latin Americans are the largest single group, together with the people of part-European ancestry they combine for approximately 80% of the population, or even more. Latin Americans and their descendants can be found almost everywhere in the world, the most important migratory destinations for Latin Americans are found in the United States, Spain, Canada, and Japan. Latin America is the region of the Americas where Romance languages (i. e. those derived from Latin—particularly Spanish and Portuguese, if we consider this definition strictly, we should consider Canada and in particular Quebec as part of Latin America. Latin America, therefore, can be defined as all parts of the Americas that were once part of the French, Spanish, or Portuguese Empires. The population of Latin America comprises a variety of ancestries, ethnic groups, Black, Asian, and Zambo minorities are also identified regularly. White people are the largest single group, accounting for more than a third, the indigenous population of Latin America, the Native Americans, arrived during the Lithic stage. In post-Columbian times they experienced tremendous population decline, particularly in the decades of colonization. They have since recovered in numbers, surpassing sixty million, though with the growth of the other groups meanwhile, they now compose a majority only in Bolivia, in Guatemala, Native American are a large minority that comprises two-fifths of the population. Mexicos 14% is the next largest ratio, and one of the largest Amerindian population in the Americas in absolute numbers, Most of the remaining countries have Native American minorities, in every case making up less than one-tenth of the respective countrys population. In many countries, people of mixed Native American and European ancestry make up the majority of the population, people of Asian descent number several million in Latin America. The first Asians to settle in the region were Filipino, as a result of Spains trade involving Asia, the majority of Asian Latin Americans are of Japanese or Chinese ancestry and reside mainly in Brazil and Peru, there is also a growing Chinese minority in Panama. Ethnic Koreans also number tens of thousands of individuals in Argentina, Peru, with 1.47 million people of Asian descent, has one of the largest Chinese communities in the world, with nearly one million Peruvians being of Chinese ancestry. There is a strong presence in Peru, where a past president. The Martiniquais population includes an African-White-Indian mixed population, and an East Indian population, the Guadeloupean East Indian population is estimated at 14% of the population
10.
Great European immigration wave to Argentina
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The great European immigration wave to Argentina took place in the late 19th and early 20th century. It consisted mostly of Italian and Spanish immigrants, along with other such as Slavs, French, Germans. During this period Argentina saw an increase in population. The European immigrants modified the politics of Argentina by introducing political movements from their countries, such as labor unionism, anarchism. Before the immigration, Argentina was sparsely populated, the Spanish colonization of the Americas favored Mexico and Peru, the southern Spanish regions had no sources of wealth and had lower populations. This population decreased even more in the 19th century, during the Argentine War of Independence, several Argentines from that time period, such as Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and Juan Bautista Alberdi, thought that it was imperative to populate the country. The Constitution of Argentina of 1853 promoted European immigration in its 25th article, as the immigration came from several European countries, there was no single reason that led to the immigrants leaving their home countries. Some of them sought a better lifestyle, but many others escaped from ongoing conflicts within Europe. Spanish immigrants escaped from the Third Carlist War, Argentine migration policy and movements of the European population
11.
Economic history of Argentina
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Argentina possesses definite comparative advantages in agriculture, as the country is endowed with a vast amount of highly fertile land. Between 1860 and 1930, exploitation of the land of the pampas strongly pushed economic growth. During the first three decades of the 20th century, Argentina outgrew Canada and Australia in population, total income, by 1913, Argentina was the worlds 10th wealthiest nation per capita. Beginning in the 1930s, however, the Argentine economy deteriorated notably, the single most important factor in this decline has been political instability since 1930, when a military junta took power, ending seven decades of civilian constitutional government. In macroeconomic terms, Argentina was one of the most stable and conservative countries until the Great Depression, the measures enacted during the last dictatorship also contributed to the huge foreign debt by the late 1980s, which became equivalent to three-fourths of the GNP. However, a recession at the turn of the 21st century culminated in a default. By 2005 the economy had recovered, but a judicial ruling originating from the crisis led to a new default in 2014. It lacked deposits of gold or other metals, nor did it have established native civilizations to subject to the encomienda. The sparse population was accompanied by a difficult numeracy development in the 17th century, Nevertheless, Argentina overtook Peru, which enjoyed an early rapid development in numeracy through the contact with Indios, in the middle of the 18th century. This numeracy development as a measure of early modern development demonstrates the rapid, only two-thirds of its present territory were occupied during the colonial period, as the remaining third consisted of the Patagonian Plateau, which remains sparsely populated to this day. Historians like Milcíades Peña consider this period of the Americas as pre-capitalist. Rodolfo Puiggrós consider it instead a feudalist society, based on work such as the encomienda or the slavery. This trade was limited to Spain, the Spanish Crown enforced a monopsony which limited supplies and enabled Spanish merchants to mark up prices. British and Portuguese merchants broke this monopsony by resorting to contraband trade, the British desire to trade with South America grew during the Industrial Revolution and the loss of their 13 colonies in North America during the American Revolution. To achieve their objectives, Britain initially launched the British invasions of the Río de la Plata to conquer key cities in Spanish America. When they allied to Spain during the Napoleonic Wars, they requested the Spanish authorities to open commerce to Britain in return, the actions of Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros in Buenos Aires reflected similar outcomes emanating from the other Spanish cities of South America. Colonial Brazil, for example, imported as many as 2.5 million Africans in the 18th century. By contrast, an estimated 100,000 African slaves arrived at the port of Buenos Aires in the 17th and 18th centuries, the colonial livestock ranches were established toward the middle of the 18th century
12.
Argentine tango
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Argentine tango is a musical genre of simple quadruple metre and binary musical form, and the social dance that accompanies it. Its lyrics and music are marked by nostalgia, expressed through melodic instruments including the bandoneon, originating at the ending of the 19th century in the suburbs of Buenos Aires, and Montevideo, Uruguay, it quickly grew in popularity and spread internationally. Among its leading figures are the singer and songwriter Carlos Gardel and composers/performers Francisco Canaro, Juan DArienzo, Carlos Di Sarli, Osvaldo Pugliese, the origins of tango are unclear because historical documentation from that era hardly exists. However, in recent years a few tango aficionados have undertaken a thorough research of that history, Argentine tango music is much more varied than ballroom tango music. A large amount of music has been composed by a variety of different orchestras over the last century. The four representative schools of the Argentine tango music are Di Sarli, dArienzo, Troilo and Pugliese and they are dance orchestras, playing music for dancing. When the spirit of the music is characterized by counterpoint marking and it has a clear, repetitive pulse or beat, a strong tango-rhythm which is based on the 2x4,2 strong beats on 4. Ástor Piazzolla stretched the classical harmony and counterpoint and moved the tango from the floor to the concert stage. His compositions tell us something of our life and dancing it relates much to modern dance. Tango nuevo dance is associated with alternative music, see nuevo tango. Even though the present forms developed in Argentina and Uruguay, they were exposed to influences re-imported from Europe. There are records of 18th and early 19th century tango styles in Cuba and Spain, consequently, there is a good deal of confusion and overlap between the styles as they are now danced - and fusions continue to evolve. Tango dance is essentially walking with a partner and the music, dancing appropriately to the emotion and speed of a tango is extremely important to dancing tango. A good dancer is one who transmits a feeling of the music to the partner, also, dancers generally keep their feet close to the floor as they walk, the ankles and knees brushing as one leg passes the other. One of the few constants across all Argentine tango dance styles is that the follower will usually be led to alternate feet, another is that the follower rarely has his or her weight on both feet at the same time. In many modern variations of Argentine Tango, particularly in Europe, teachers of Tango may establish a basic step in order to help students to learn and pick up the feel of the dance. Argentine tango is danced counterclockwise around the outside of the floor and dance traffic often segregates into a number of lanes. In general, the middle of the floor is where one finds either beginners who lack floor navigation skills or people who are performing showy figures or patterns that take up more floor space
13.
Vaslav Nijinsky
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Vaslav Nijinsky was a Russian ballet dancer and choreographer of Polish descent, cited as the greatest male dancer of the early 20th century. He was celebrated for his virtuosity and for the depth and intensity of his characterizations and he could dance en pointe, a rare skill among male dancers at the time and was admired for his seemingly gravity-defying leaps. Nijinsky was introduced to dance by his parents, who were senior dancers with the travelling Setov opera company and his older brother Stanislav Fomitch and younger sister Bronislava Nijinska also became dancers. At age nine Nijinsky was accepted at the Imperial Ballet School in St. Petersburg, in 1907 he graduated and became a member of the Imperial Ballet, starting at the rank of coryphée instead of in the corps de ballet, already taking starring roles. His sister Bronia also became a dancer and choreographer, working closely with him for much of his career, in 1909 he joined the Ballets Russes, a new ballet company started by Sergei Diaghilev. The impresario took the Russian Ballets to Paris, where high-quality productions such as those of the Imperial Ballet were not known, Nijinsky became the companys star male dancer, causing an enormous stir amongst audiences whenever he performed. In ordinary life he appeared unremarkable and was withdrawn in conversation, in 1912 Nijinsky began choreographing original ballets, including Laprès-midi dun faune to music by Claude Debussy, Jeux, and Till Eulenspiegel. At the premiere of Le Sacre du Printemps in Paris, with music by Igor Stravinsky, faune caused controversy because of its sexually suggestive final scene. Nijinsky originally conceived Jeux as an interaction among three males, although Diaghilev insisted it be danced by one male and two females. In 1913 Nijinsky married Hungarian Romola de Pulszky while on tour with the company in South America and she had stalked the company and Nijinsky since 1912. The marriage caused a break with Diaghilev, who soon dismissed Nijinsky from the company, the couple had two daughters together, Kyra and Tamara Nijinska. With no alternative available, Nijinsky tried to form his own company. He was interned in Budapest, Hungary during World War I and he was finally permitted to leave after intervention by Diaghilev and international leaders, he was allowed to go to New York for an American tour. Calls for his release had been made by Alfonso XIII of Spain, Nijinsky became increasingly mentally unstable with the stresses of having to manage tours himself and deprived of opportunities to dance, which had always been his total obsession. After a tour of South America in 1917, and due to travel difficulties imposed by the war and his mental condition deteriorated, he was diagnosed with schizophrenia in 1919 and committed to an asylum for the first time. For the next 30 years, he was in and out of institutions, Vaslav Nijinsky was born in 1889 or 1890 in Kiev, Russian Empire, as Wacław Niżyński, to ethnic Polish parents, touring dancers Tomasz Niżyński and Eleonora Bereda. He identified himself as Polish although he grew up in the interior of Russia with his parents, Eleanora, along with her two brothers and two sisters, was orphaned while still a child. She started to earn a living as an extra in Warsaws Grand Theatre Ballet, in 1868 her talent was spotted and she moved to Kiev as a solo dancer
14.
Buenos Aires Underground
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The Buenos Aires Underground, locally known as Subte, is a mass transit metro system that serves the area of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Currently, the underground networks six lines—A, B, C, D, E, the network is complemented by the 7.4 km long Premetro line, and the 26 km long Urquiza suburban line, with 17 more stations in total. As of 2015, the underground also has 4 closed stations, over a million passengers use the network, which also provides connections with the citys extensive commuter rail and bus rapid transport networks. The network expanded rapidly during the decades of the 20th century, by 1944 its main routes were completed. The pace of expansion fell sharply after the Second World War, in the late 1990s expansion resumed at a quicker pace, and four new lines were planned for the network. Despite this, the expansion has been largely exceeded by the transportation needs of the city and is said to be overcrowded. The entire network was nationalised in 1939, remaining in state hands, the Subte opened in 1913, becoming the 13th underground system in the world, as well as the first in Latin America, the Southern Hemisphere and the Hispanophone, followed by the Madrid Metro in 1919. The network was built and operated by three separate private companies and later nationalised in 1939. In 1952 it was absorbed by a state administration, in 1963 it became the property of a newly founded company. All the Underground lines, along with the Urquiza Line and Premetro were offered as 20-year concessions to interested private parties, by 1995, Metrovías took over the Subte under a $395 million plan. In this context, the first proposals for the building of a system were made, along with requests for government grants, first, in 1886. However, the Ministry of Interior denied the city administration the power to license building in the subsoil and for this reason. The first Underground line was opened on 1 December 1913 and was built by the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company and that line was made up of one of the existing sections of Line A, linking the stations of Plaza de Mayo and Plaza Miserere. 170,000 passengers took part in the lines first trip, on 1 April 1914 the line was to expand to Río de Janeiro station and on 1 July was extended to Primera Junta Station. In 1912 the Lacroze Hermanos company won a concession to build another Underground line, the company was a competitor to the Anglo-Argentine company, operating tramways in Buenos Aires as well as the Buenos Aires Central Railway, which later became part of the Urquiza Line. Construction began in 1927 and this line became Line B when it was inaugurated on 17 October 1930, during 17–18 December 380,000 passengers travelled on the lines then 32 cars. By this point, the AATC had only built 48 metres of what is today Line C, in 1933 a third company, the Hispano-Argentina Company of Public Works and Finances began construction of the other Underground lines. Line Cs first section, Constitución railway station-Diagonal Norte, was inaugurated on 9 November 1934 by Agustín P. Justo, then President of Argentina
15.
Guglielmo Marconi
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He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy. Marconi was an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 and he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists. In 1929, the King of Italy ennobled Marconi as a Marchese, Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi and his Irish/Scots wife Annie Jameson. Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his elder brother Alfonso were brought up by his mother in the English town of Bedford, Marconi received further education in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero and, later, in Livorno. Marconi did not do well in school, according to Robert McHenry and he was baptized as a Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church, being married into it. Marconi was confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a member of the Church before his marriage to Maria Christina in 1927. During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity, the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. There was a deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community. Righis article renewed Marconis interest in developing a wireless telegraphy based on radio waves. In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, soon after he was able to make a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench. One night in December 1894, Guglielmo woke his mother and invited her into his secret workshop and showed her the experiment that he had created. The next day, he showed his work to his father. In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experimentation outdoors, with these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles and over hills. The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, by this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Marconis experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system, Marconi wrote to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of the honorable Pietro Lacava, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding. He never received a response to his letter which was dismissed by the Minister who wrote to the Longara on the document. In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about these extraordinary discoveries. In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal the results until after they had obtained the copyrights
16.
Estancia
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Estancia is also a verse form in Spanish poetry. An estancia or estância is a Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese term describing private landholdings, in some areas, they were large rural complexes with similarities to what in the United States is called a ranch. They are large farms which are spread over areas, often 10,000 ha. Estancias in the southern South American grasslands, the pampas, have historically been used to raise livestock. In the early Caribbean territories and Mexico, holders of encomiendas acquired land in the area where they had access to Indian labor and they needed on-site Hispanic supervisors or labor bosses called estancieros. In Mexico, multiple estancias owned by the individual could be termed a hacienda. The term estancia is used in ways in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Chile. The equivalent in other Spanish American countries would be hacienda, during the first centuries of Spanish colonial rule, the Spanish introduced cattle into the colonies for livestock. In the peripheral areas of northern Mexico and the part of South America. In the 19th century stationary ranching ventures started to form in the pampas, with permanent buildings and they were called estancias, the term indicating the stationary, permanent character. The estancias ranch worker on horseback in Argentina, the gaucho, has similar status in national folklore, a small number of estancias in Argentina and Uruguay, as well as in Paraguay or Chile, particularly those with historic architecture, have been converted into guest ranches called paradores. Many California missions in North America had separate farms and ranchos associated with them and these were known as California mission estancias, which were different than the California ranchos, based on land grants to individuals. Finca Los Alamos estancia in Argentina Station, in Australia Estancias of the Pampas, Argentina and Uruguay Images of Modern Estancia Life In Uruguay
17.
Florida Street
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Florida Street is an elegant shopping street in Downtown Buenos Aires, Argentina. A pedestrian street since 1971, some stretches have been pedestrianized since 1913, the pedestrian section as such starts at the intersection of Perú Street and Avenida de Mayo, a block north of the Plaza de Mayo, Perú Street crosses Rivadavia Avenue, and becomes Florida Street. Florida Street runs northwards for approximately one kilometer to Plaza San Martín and it intersects Buenos Airess other pedestrian street, Lavalle, at the heart of the former cinema district. Florida is one of the leading tourist attractions. Florida Street bustles with shoppers, vendors, and office workers alike because of its proximity to the financial district, by evening, the pace relaxes as street performers flock to the area, including tango singers and dancers, living statues, and comedy acts. Its variety of stores, shopping arcades, and restaurants is of great interest to foreign tourists. The beginnings of Florida Street date back to the founding of Buenos Aires in 1580 and its first official name was San José, enacted by Governor Miguel de Salcedo in 1734. In the late eighteenth and early centuries, the street was known popularly as Calle del Correo in reference to the post office located on what later became Perú Street. It was also known as Empedrado. Improved with boulders brought from Montevideo beginning in 1789, it became the first paved street in the city, the street was first named Florida in 1821. The name was designated in honor of the battle fought in 1814 in Upper Peru against the royalists during the Argentine War of Independence, Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas renamed the street Perú in 1837, and in 1857, the name was returned to the present one. The Argentine National Anthem was first performed in 1813 at the Florida Street home of Mariquita Sánchez de Thompson, Argentine elites began to leave the central and southern wards of the city mainly due to epidemics, especially the 1871 yellow fever outbreak. They decided to move to ground in the city and chose the area known as Retiro. Numerous private mansions were built along Florida Street in the 1880s and 1890s. The Civic Youth Union, was organized in 1889 at the intersection with the Avenida Córdoba and this organization would foment the Revolution of the Park in 1890, and from its ranks the Radical Civic Union would be established in 1891. A tram was installed along Florida Street in the 1890s, vehicular traffic was barred during business hours in 1911 by request of the growing number of shop owners along Florida, and in 1913 the tram was dismantled to pedestrianize a section of the street. The 1914 inaugural of the Gath & Chaves department store coincided with the inaugural of Harrods Buenos Aires, the overseas branch of Harrods. The merger of Gath & Chaves and Harrods in 1922 created two of the most ornate institutions of their kind in the Americas
18.
Olivos, Buenos Aires
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Olivos is an Argentine city in Vicente López Partido in the Province of Buenos Aires and a suburb within the Greater Buenos Aires metro area. Olivos is the site of the residence of the President of Argentina. The city is bordered on the east by the shores of the Río de la Plata, a 1905 edict subdivided San Isidro Partido in two, creating the modern Partido de Vicente López and designating Olivos as the seat. The opening of National Route 9 in the mid-1930s, west of the city, the complementing structures for the compound were built in variations on Baroque architecture. The residence hosted the Olivos Pact, an agreement signed on 14 November 1993 between then-President Carlos Menem and former President Raúl Alfonsín. The pact secured support for reforms allowing for the re-election of the President well as for the popular election of the Mayor of Buenos Aires. The city was witness to the Kheyvis nightclub fire, the deadliest such tragedy in Argentina up to that point. Olivos was selected as a stop along the Tren de la Costa tourist railway upon the opening in 1994. Municipal information, Municipal Affairs Federal Institute, Municipal Affairs Secretariat, Ministry of Interior, Argentina
19.
Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
20.
Drexel University
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Drexel University is a private research university with three campuses in Philadelphia. It was founded in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel, a noted financier, founded as Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, it was renamed Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, before assuming the name Drexel University in 1970. As of 2015, more than 26,000 students are enrolled in over 70 undergraduate programs and more than 100 masters, doctoral, Drexel University was founded in 1891 as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry, by Philadelphia financier and philanthropist Anthony J. Drexel. The original mission of the institution was to provide opportunities in the practical arts. The institution became known as the Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, the central aspect of Drexel Universitys focus on career preparation, in the form of its cooperative education program, was introduced in 1919. The program became integral to the unique educational experience. Participating students alternate periods of classroom-based study with periods of full-time, practical work experience related to their academic major, Papadakis oversaw Drexels largest expansion in its history, with a 471 percent increase in its endowment and a 102 percent increase in student enrollment. His leadership also guided the university toward improved performance in collegiate rankings, a selective approach to admissions. It was during this period of expansion that Drexel acquired and assumed management of the former MCP Hahnemann University, in 2006, the university established the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, and in 2011 the School of Law achieved full accreditation by the American Bar Association. Dr. Constantine Papadakis died of pneumonia in April 2009 while still employed as the universitys president and his successor, John Anderson Fry, was formerly the president of Franklin & Marshall College and served as the Executive Vice President of the University of Pennsylvania. Under Frys leadership, Drexel has continued its expansion, including the July 2011 acquisition of The Academy of Natural Sciences, the College of Arts and Sciences was formed in 1990 when Drexel merged the two existing College of Sciences and College of Humanities together. The College of Media Arts and design fosters the study, exploration and management of the arts, media, design, the performing and visual. The college offers sixteen undergraduate programs, and 6 graduate programs, in art and design fields that range from graphic design and dance to fashion design. The Bennett S. LeBow College of Business history dates to the founding in 1891 of the Drexel Institute, that later became Drexel University, the LeBow College of Business has been ranked as the 38th best private business school in the nation. Its online MBA program is ranked 14th in the world by the Financial Times, the part-time MBA program ranks 1st in academic quality in the 2015 edition of Business Insiders rankings. Undergraduate and graduate programs are ranked 19th in the country by the Princeton Review. Economics programs at the LeBow College of Business are housed within the School of Economics, in addition to the undergraduate program in economics, the school is home to a recently launched M. S. in Economics program as well as a PhD program in economics. Faculty members in the School of Economics have been published in the American Economic Review, Rand Journal of Economics, the school has been ranked among the best in the world for its extensive research into matters of international trade
21.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
22.
Thomas Edison
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Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as Americas greatest inventor. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison was an inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France. Edisons inventions contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications and these included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his career as a telegraph operator. Edison developed a system of generation and distribution to homes, businesses. His first power station was on Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott. His father, the son of a Loyalist refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in southwestern Ontario, in a known as Shewsbury, later Vienna. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837 and his father, Samuel Sr. had earlier fought in the War of 1812 as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr. s struggle found him on the losing side, once across the border, he found his way to Milan, Ohio. His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey and his mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R. G, parkers School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age, the cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, Edisons family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined. Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit and he briefly worked as a telegraph operator in 1863 for the Grand Trunk Railway at Stratford, Ontario railway at age 16. He was held responsible for a near collision and he also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job. Edison obtained the right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald
23.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
24.
Argentine Navy
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The Navy of the Argentine Republic or Argentine Navy is the navy of Argentina. It is one of the three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic, together with the Army and the Air Force, each ship of the Argentine Navy is designated with the prefix ARA before its name. The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17, anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 in the Battle of Montevideo over the Spanish fleet during the war of Independence. The Argentine Navy was created in the aftermath of the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the navy was first created to support Manuel Belgrano in the Paraguay campaign, but it was sunk by ships from Montevideo, and did not take part in that conflict. Renewed conflicts with Montevideo led to the creation of a second fleet, as Buenos Aires had little maritime history, most men in the navy were from other nations, such as the Irish-born admiral William Brown, who directed the operation. As the cost of maintaining a navy was too high, most of the Argentine naval forces were composed of privateers, Brown led the Argentine navy in further naval conflicts at the War with Brazil and the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. In the 1870s the Argentine Navy began modernizing itself, the most powerful ships at this time included the Italian-built Garibaldi and her sister ships, General Belgrano, Pueyrredón, and San Martín, each at over 6,000 tons. Three older ironclads, Almirante Brown, Independencia, and Libertad dated from the 1880s, the navys ships were built primarily in Italy, Britain, France, and Spain and were operated by over 600 officers and 7760 seamen. These were supported by a battalion of marines and an artillery battery, Argentina remained neutral in both world wars. In 1940, Argentinas navy was ranked the eighth most powerful in the world, a ten-year building programme costing $60 million had produced a force of 14,500 sailors and over a thousand officers. A naval air force was also in operation, in the postwar period, Naval Aviation and Marine Corps units were put under direct Navy command. With Brazil, Argentina is one of two South American countries to have operated two aircraft carriers, the ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo, the Navy also took part in all military coups through the 20th century. During the last dictatorship, Navy personnel were involved in the Dirty War of the late 1970s in which thousands of people were kidnapped, tortured and killed by the forces of the Military Junta, the Naval Mechanics School, known as ESMA, was a notorious centre for torture. Among their more well-known victims were the Swedish teenager Dagmar Hagelin and French nuns, Alice Domon and this fleet was supported by several ELMA tankers and transports as well as two ice breakers/polar ships. New German MEKO class destroyers, corvettes and Thyssen-Nordseewerke submarines were still under construction at the time, despite leading the invasion of the Falkland Islands, in both strategic and tactical aspects the Argentine fleet played only a small part in the subsequent conflict with the Royal Navy. The ARA San Luis submarine also played a role, nearly sinking the frigate HMS Arrow on 10 May. The submarine ARA Santa Fe, after a resupply mission, was attacked and disabled off South Georgia. She was later scuttled by the British, also, the submarine force greatly reinforced their assets with the introduction of the Thyssen-Nordseewerke class
25.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
26.
Otto Krause
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Otto Krause was an Argentine engineer and educator. Krause was born in the Buenos Aires Province town of Chivilcoy to Leopoldina and Carl August Krause, tending his farm with implements he brought from Germany, Carl Krause instilled an interest in machinery to his five children, though the family eventually relocated to Buenos Aires in 1870. Otto subsequently finished his school studies at the prestigious Buenos Aires National College. He enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires School of Exact Sciences in 1874 and he returned to civilian life in 1878 and obtained a degree in civil engineering, earning a post in the Buenos Aires Teachers School. Returning to Buenos Aires in 1882, Krause held technical positions at the 11th of September Station and he continued to teach the discipline, and in 1887 was commissioned to select material in Europe for the new rail line and facilities to serve the recently founded city of La Plata. He continued to teach at his alma mater, as well, Krause helped plan irrigation works for the Río Negro valley in semi-arid Patagonia before retiring in 1911. Todo Argentina - Biografias - Ingeniero Otto Krause
27.
St. Louis
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
28.
Alberto Santos-Dumont
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Alberto Santos-Dumont was a Brazilian aviation pioneer, one of the very few people to have contributed significantly to the development of both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air aircraft. The heir of a family of coffee producers, Santos-Dumont dedicated himself to aeronautical study and experimentation in Paris. His conviction that aviation would usher in an era of peace and prosperity led him to freely publish his designs. Santos-Dumont is a hero in Brazil, where it is popularly held that he preceded the Wright brothers in demonstrating a practical airplane. Countless roads, plazas, schools, monuments, and airports in Brazil are dedicated to him and he was a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1931 until his suicide in 1932. Santos-Dumont was born on 20 July 1873 in Cabangu in the Brazilian town of Palmira in the state of Minas Gerais in southeast Brazil and he was youngest of the seven children born to Henrique Dumont, an engineer of French descent, and Francisca de Paula Santos. Santos-Dumonts father managed a plantation on land owned by his wifes family. His extensive use of labor-saving inventions earned him a fortune, Santos-Dumont was fascinated by machinery, and while still a child he learned to drive the plantations steam tractors and locomotives. He also read a great deal of the works of Jules Verne and he wrote in his autobiography that the dream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil from the plantation. In 1891 Santos-Dumonts father was paralyzed by a fall from a horse. He sold the plantation and went to Europe with his wife, in Paris, Santos-Dumont contacted a balloonist with the intention of making an ascent. The price quoted was 1,200 francs for a flight, plus payment for any damage caused. This was a sum of money, and Santos-Dumont decided not to make the flight. If it is bad the money will be lost, If it is good I shall want to repeat it and I shall not have the means. After this he bought a Peugeot automobile, which he took him when he returned to Brazil with his parents at the end of the year. In 1892 the family returned to Europe, but Henriques felt too ill to continue on to Paris from Lisbon and his fathers health deteriorated and he decided to return to Brazil, where he died on 30 August 1892. For the next four years Alberto lived in Paris, studying physics, chemistry, mechanics, and electricity with the help of a private tutor, during this period he sold his Peugeot, replacing it with a more powerful and faster De Dion motor-tricycle. In 1896 he returned to Brazil for a period, but began to miss Paris
29.
Palermo, Buenos Aires
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Palermo is a neighborhood, or barrio of the Argentine capital, Buenos Aires. With a total area of 17.4 km2, Palermo is the largest neighborhood in Buenos Aires, as of 1991 it had a population of 256,927 inhabitants. It is the only barrio within the division of Comuna 14. The name of the district is derived from the still-existing Franciscan abbey of Saint Benedict of Palermo, Saint Benedict the Moor lived from 1526 to 1589 and is a complementary patron saint of Palermo, the capital city of Sicily. Juan Manuel de Rosas built a residence there which was confiscated after his fall in 1852. The most upmarket part of Palermo, Palermo Chico, is on Palermos north-eastern edge, across Figueroa Alcorta Avenue, once a quarter full of splendid mansions set in broad private parks, many have unfortunately since been demolished by developers. The area nevertheless remains one of the wealthiest in the city, home to luxury condominium and apartment developments, MALBA, is located next door between Barrio Parque and the Paseo Alcorta shopping centre. Alto Palermo is downtown Palermo, the shopping area and transport hub around Santa Fe Avenue. Centered on Las Heras Park and the Alto Palermo Shopping Center, Palermo Norte is located along Libertador Avenue to the northwest of Palermo Chico, and the site of landmarks such as the Argentine Automobile Club and the National Museum of Decorative Arts. Villa Freud, based around Plaza Güemes, is an area known for its high concentration of psychoanalysts and psychiatrists. The King Fahd Islamic Cultural Center was built in the 1990s just east of the Polo fields, the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers headquarters and other military installations, such as the Central Military Hospital and the Military Geographic Institute, are located to the south. La Imprenta, west of Las Cañitas, borders the Belgrano ward, one of its best-known landmarks is the Parish of San Benito Abad and the neighboring Solar de la Abadía shopping gallery. Palermo Viejo is, as its name implies, the oldest part and it runs from Santa Fe Avenue south to Córdoba Avenue, and from Avenida Dorrego east to Coronel Díaz Street. The neighborhood is centred on Plaza Palermo Viejo, and reflects an older Spanish Colonial Revival style in architecture, the new headquarters of the National Research Council, opened in 2011 in the refurbished former GIOL winery, is a notable recent example of this trend. Such well-known figures as Jorge Luis Borges and Che Guevara once lived in this ward, borgess poem Fundacion mitica de Buenos Aires names a typical square adjacent to his childhood home, a popular tourist landmark. Palermo Soho is an area of Palermo Viejo around Plaza Serrano on Serrano near Palermos south-western edge. It is a fashionable area for fashion, design, restaurants, bars. The atmosphere in many cafés and restaurants strives to be alternative, the traditional low houses have been adapted into boutiques and bars, creating a bohemian feel
30.
Campo Argentino de Polo
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The Campo Argentino del Polo, popularly known as the Cathedral of Polo, is a multi-purpose stadium in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is currently used mostly for polo, pato and field hockey matches, the stadium, opened in 1918, holds up to 30,000 people and is located in Palermo on Libertador Avenue, close to Las Cañitas. Though inaugurated in 1918, the field is also the most complete, modern, the Campo de Polo was one of the venues for the 1950 Olympic Games, and the Americas Polo Cup has taken place there on numerous occasions. In this classic match, the best team from Argentina plays against the best one from the United States, in recent times, the stadium has been used for concerts and other public events
31.
Aero Club Argentino
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The Aero Club Argentino was founded in 1908 by Jorge Newbery, Aaron de Anchorena, Arturo Luisoni, Horacio Anasagasti, Alberto Mascias, Antonio de Marchi, and Carlos Himshe. Initially the club was dedicated to promoting the spirit of aviation sponsoring early experiences with aerostat balloons, forman, Paul, José Manuel Sánchez Ron. National Military Establishments and the Advancement of Science and Technology, studies in 20th century history, dordrecht / Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers
32.
Ernesto Tornquist
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Ernesto Carlos Tornquist is considered to be one of the most important entrepreneurs in Argentina at the end of the 19th century. The diversified business empire he created played a key role in helping to link Argentina with the trading and financial systems of the first world. Amongst many other achievements, he founded the Tornquist Bank, the Plaza Hotel in Buenos Aires, the father was consul of the city of Bremen in Montevideo, Uruguay, and was an importer and property investor in Buenos Aires. His mother, Rosa Camusso Alsina, a Catholic, was born in Buenos Aires in 1805, Tornquist started his schooling at Escuela Evangélica Alemana and in 1856 was sent to study in Germany in the city of Krefeld for two years. On his return to Argentina he took up a job working for a directed by his brother-in-law which exported wool and leather. In 1872 he married his niece, Rosa Altgelt Tornquist in Buenos Aires, with the help of Belgium capital the company diversified its activities to include investment in the sugar, meat-salting and cold-storage industries. The company also invested in railways and acquired land in the provinces of Santa Fe and Entre Rios, in the 1880s he set up a large sugar refinery, Refineria Argentina, in Rosario. Other initiatives included founding the Bieckert brewery, the Seeber margarine manufacturer, on 17 April 1883 he founded Tornquist, the main city of Tornquist Partido, in the south of Buenos Aires Province. From the beginning the town was organized as a colony for German. After the economic crisis of 1890 he took charge of organizing the recovery of the company Sansinena and its cold-storage plant La Negra in Riachuelo and set up the plant Cuartreros in Bahía Blanca. He represented the German armaments group Krupp in Buenos Aires where he organised a strong lobby for the armaments industry, whilst on the other hand he helped to resolve a conflict with Brazil. In 1903 he built the estancia, Sierra de la Ventana, in Tornquist, the grounds were designed by the French immigrant landscape architect, Carlos Thays. In 1909 he built the Plaza Hotel, designed by the German architect Alfredo Zucker, in Florida street and he died in 1908 in Buenos Aires and since 1980 his remains are buried in the local church in the town of Tornquist. Ernesto Tornquist, por Fernando M. Madero, en Gustavo Ferrari y Ezequiel Gallo, La Argentina del Ochenta al Centenario, Buenos Aires, Sudamericana,1980, scandizzo, Delfor Reinaldo, El gringo Pellegrini, Ed. El ancho camino se bifurca La descendencia de Adam Altgelt y Laura Tornquist a 150 años de su casamiento - Edición Privada 2003 - Volumen en la Biblioteca Ernesto Tornquist del Banco Central de RA. Alberto - Don Ernesto Tornquist y Los Pactos con Chile -Diario La Nacion,20 de junio de 1908, Y García Belsunce, César A. - Historia política de la Argentina contemporánea 1880-1983 - Alianza Universidad -1992. Yuyú Guzmáúún, Un castillo gótico alemán en medio del pasaje serrano, La pugna Tornquist-Zeballos, Historia General de las Relaciones Exteriores de Argentina, CEMA,2000 Ernesto Tornquist, Making a Fortune on the Pampas, Harvard Business Publishing, May 1,2007
33.
Belgrano, Buenos Aires
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Belgrano is a leafy, northern barrio or neighborhood of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. The barrio of Palermo is to the southeast, Nuñez is to the northwest, Coghlan, Villa Urquiza, Villa Ortúzar, Belgrano was named after Manuel Belgrano, a politician and military leader who created the national flag of Argentina. In 1820, at Belgranos death, Buenos Aires legislature introduced a law to name the town to be founded after him. It was in Belgrano that the law declaring Buenos Aires as Argentinas federal capital was issued, in 1887, the federal district was enlarged by the annexation of the towns of Belgrano and Flores. Belgranodeutsch or Belgrano-Deutsch is a mixture of German and Spanish spoken in Buenos Aires, Belgrano is an upper-middle-class neighborhood that can be roughly divided into Belgrano R, Belgrano C, central Belgrano, and Lower Belgrano. The heart of the pulses with life on its main thoroughfare, Avenida Cabildo, which runs Northwest to Southeast. Avenida Cabildo carries heavy traffic, and features corner cafés, grocery stores, movie theaters, specialty shops, clothing boutiques, bookstores. Pedestrians are especially numerous on weekend afternoons as Porteños from various areas of the city come to shop, most of the neighborhoods densest housing is located in the vicinity of Cabildo. High-rise luxury apartment buildings are clustered on the streets surrounding the Universidad de Belgrano. West of Crámer avenue, Belgrano R is chiefly residential and lower-density in nature, characterized by calm streets lined with large, most buildings in this section are detached single-family homes that follow Anglo-Saxon architectural styles, some residences have sizable backyards with swimming pools. This section is favored by wealthy Argentines and expatriate businesspeople, Belgrano C is also home to Buenos Airess small Chinatown. The district is crowded with restaurants and specialty grocery stores catering to Asian-Argentines, Belgranos sidewalks are often busy with dogwalkers. Even though city ordinances forbid more than ten dogs to a person, Belgrano is served by the Buenos Aires metro line D, many bus lines, and two commuter rail lines. Approximately 1.5 km to the west of Belgrano lies Avenida General Paz, beyond this avenue lie the suburbs of Vicente Lopez, Florida and Olivos. International schools include, Belgrano Day School, several blocks north of the Belgrano University, Barrancas de Belgrano spans several city blocks and is overlooked by highrise upper-middle class apartment buildings. On Manuel Belgrano square, a local fair is held regularly. It features a small bust of Manuel Belgrano on its middle spot, in the edge of the plaza lies the Inmaculada Concepción church, called La Redonda by locals because of its circular plan. Many weddings are celebrated in church in the afternoon hours
34.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
35.
Alfredo Palacios
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Alfredo Lorenzo Palacios was an Argentine socialist politician. Palacios was born in Buenos Aires, and studied law at Universidad de Buenos Aires, after graduation he became a lawyer, Palacios helped create many laws including the Palacios Law against sexual exploitation, and others regulating child and women labor, working hours and Sunday rest. Palacios was elected Senator in 1932, serving until the Senate was dissolved in 1943, in 1960, Palacios was elected again as Senator, and as Deputy in 1963. Works by or about Alfredo Palacios at Internet Archive
36.
Aerostat
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An aerostat is a lighter than air craft that gains its lift through the use of a buoyant gas. Aerostats include unpowered balloons and powered airships, a balloon may be free-flying or tethered. Especially with airships, the gasbags are often protected by an outer envelope, aerostats are so named because they use aerostatic lift which is a buoyant force that does not require movement through the surrounding air mass. This contrasts with the heavy aerodynes that primarily use aerodynamic lift which requires the movement of a surface through the surrounding air mass. The term has also used in a narrower sense, to refer to the statically tethered balloon in contrast to the free-flying airship. This article uses the term in its broader sense, in conventional usage, the term aerostat refers to any aircraft that remains aloft primarily using aerostatic buoyancy. Historically, all aerostats were called balloons, powered types capable of horizontal flight were referred to as dirigible balloons or simply dirigibles. These powered aerostats later came to be called airships, with the term reserved for unpowered types. More recently, the US Government Accountability Office has used the term aerostat in a different sense, a balloon is an aerostat which has no means of propulsion and must be either tethered on a long cable or allowed to drift freely with the wind. Although a free balloon travels at the speed of the wind, it is travelling with the wind so to a passenger the air feels calm, to change its altitude above ground it must either adjust the amount of lift or discard ballast weight. Notable uses of free-flying balloons include meteorological balloons and sport balloons, a tethered balloon is held down by one or more mooring lines or tethers. It has sufficient lift to hold the line taut and its altitude is controlled by winching the line in or out, a tethered balloon does feel the wind. A round balloon is unstable and bobs about in strong winds, both kite balloons and non-rigid airships are sometimes called blimps. Notable uses of tethered balloons include observation balloons and barrage balloons, an airship is a powered, free-flying aerostat that can be steered. Airships divide into rigid, semi-rigid and non-rigid types, with these last often known as Blimps, a rigid airship has an outer framework or skin surrounding the lifting gas bags inside it, The outer envelope keeps its shape even if the gasbags are deflated. The great Zeppelin airships of the century were rigid types. A non-rigid airship or blimp deflates like a balloon as it loses gas, the Goodyear blimps are still a common sight in the USA. A semi-rigid airship has a gas bag like a non-rigid
37.
Uruguay
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Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in the southeastern region of South America. It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east, with the Río de la Plata to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the area of its capital and largest city. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres, Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America, only larger in size than Suriname. Uruguay was inhabited by the Charrúa people for approximately 4000 years before the Portuguese established Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the region, in 1680. Montevideo was founded as a stronghold by the Spanish in the early 18th century. Uruguay won its independence between 1811 and 1828, following a struggle between Spain, Portugal, Argentina and Brazil. It remained subject to influence and intervention throughout the 19th century. Modern Uruguay is a constitutional republic, with a president who serves as both head of state and head of government. Uruguay is ranked first in Latin America in democracy, peace, lack of corruption, e-government, on a per-capita basis, Uruguay contributes more troops to United Nations peace-keeping missions than any other country. It ranks second in the region on economic freedom, income equality, per-capita income, Uruguay is the third-best country on the continent in terms of HDI, GDP growth, innovation and infrastructure. It is regarded as a country by the UN. Uruguay is also the third-best ranked in the world in e-Participation, Uruguay is an important global exporter of combed wool, rice, soybeans, frozen beef, malt and milk. Nearly 95% of Uruguays electricity comes from energy, mostly hydroelectric facilities. The Economist named Uruguay country of the year in 2013, acknowledging the innovative policy of legalizing the production, sale, the name of the namesake river comes from the Spanish pronunciation of the regional Guarani word for it. There are several interpretations, including bird-river, the name could also refer to a river snail called uruguá that was plentiful in the water. The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrúa, the Portuguese discovered the region of present-day Uruguay in 1512. The Spanish arrived in present-day Uruguay in 1516, the indigenous peoples fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited their settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries
38.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
39.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
40.
Eduardo Bradley
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Eduardo Bradley was an Argentine pilot and balloonist who in 1916 made the first balloon crossing of the Andes. He was a figure in the founding of civil aviation in South America. Born in the city of La Plata, Argentina on April 9,1887, Bradley was the son of Tomás Bradley Sutton, veteran of the Paraguayan War and he began his pilots career alongside Jorge Newbery. His brevet was the first issued following the newly created regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organization, shortly after Newberys death in 1914, he set out to honor his late friend by attempting to cross the Andes in an aerostat. Already an experienced balloonist, Bradley had made one hundred ascensions and set records for altitude, flight duration. Preliminary studies had determined the crossing should be eastbound, which was the direction the winds carried at the altitude required and this later required moving to Santiago de Chile to make the necessary arrangements. Eduardo Bradley presented his plans to Aero Club Argentino, which provided two balloons and the necessary gear to produce high volumes of hydrogen. Although the balloons turned out to be usable, the gear was absolutely worthless. The larger of the two balloons, named Eduardo Newbery, was chosen by Bradley for the flight, the second balloon, named Teniente Origone, was used for testing prior to the actual crossing of the Andes. Bradleys first choice for co-pilot was Julio Crespo Vivot, an aviator with whom he had flown while setting the record for altitude. In his stead, Bradley selected Angel María Zuloaga, an army lieutenant. Once in Chile the crew had difficulties with the generation of hydrogen. Bradley decided to resort to gas, produced in Chile and readily available. The odyssey would have been impossible without the cooperation of Chilean authorities, the crossing of the Andes on an aerostat filled with coal gas was finally accomplished on June 24,1916. At an altitude of 8, 100m, the temperature dropped to -30 °C, the adventure lasted three and a half hours from the moment of liftoff in Santiago to the landing in Cerro de la Cepa, Uspallata, Mendoza, Argentina. Bradley and Zuloaga were welcomed in Argentina as national heroes, the years following the crossing of the Andes were dedicated by Bradley to developing the local civil aviation industry to which he devoted the rest of his life. He pioneered NYRBA, a company founded by Ralph O’Neil, in Argentina, on September 4,1929, Bradley, then serving as secretary of the Argentine department of aviation, became the first passenger on a direct flight from Buenos Aires to Miami, flying Pan American. The purpose of his visit to the US was to compete for a time in the Gordon Bennett Cup in ballooning
41.
Andes
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The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow
