1.
Order of Merit
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The Order of Merit is an order of merit recognising distinguished service in the armed forces, science, art, literature, or for the promotion of culture. While all members are awarded the right to use the post-nominal letters OM and a medallion for life, however, Sir Frederic Leighton, President of the Royal Academy, advised against the new order, primarily because of its selection process. From its inception, the order has been open to women, Florence Nightingale being the first woman to receive the honour, several individuals have refused admission into the Order of Merit, such as Rudyard Kipling, A. E. Housman, and George Bernard Shaw. To date, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, remains the youngest person inducted into the Order of Merit, having been admitted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1968. All citizens of the Commonwealth realms are eligible for appointment to the Order of Merit, since 1991, it has been required that the insignia be returned upon the recipients death. However, it has been claimed by Stanley Martin, in his book The Order of Merit 1902–2002, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, that the Order of Merit is the pinnacle of the British honours system. Some orders of precedence are as follows, Martin, Stanley, The Order of Merit, One Hundred Years of Matchless Honour, New York City, I. B
2.
Order of the Star of India
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The article is about the order of chivalry known as Star of India. For other items of the name, please see disambiguation at Star of India. The Most Exalted Order of the Star of India is an order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria in 1861, with the death of the last surviving knight, the Maharaja of Alwar, the order became dormant in 2009. The motto of the order is Heavens light our guide, the Star of India, the emblem of the order, also appeared on the flag of the Viceroy of India and other flags used to represent British India. The last appointments to the orders relating to the British Empire in India were made in the 1948 New Year Honours, the orders have never been formally abolished, and Elizabeth II succeeded her father George VI as Sovereign of the Orders when she ascended the throne in 1952. She remains Sovereign of the Order to this day, however, there are no living members of the order. The last Grand Master of the Order, Admiral of the Fleet The Earl Mountbatten of Burma, was assassinated by the Provisional IRA on 27 August 1979. The last surviving Knight Grand Commander, HH Maharaja Sree Padmanabhadasa Sir Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma GCSI, GCIE, Maharajah of Travancore, the last surviving Knight Commander, HH Maharaja Sir Tej Singh Prabhakar Bahadur KCSI, Maharaja of Alwar, died on 15 February 2009 in New Delhi. The last surviving Companion of the Order, Vice-Admiral Sir Ronald Brockman CSI, the British Sovereign was, and still is, Sovereign of the Order. The next-most senior member was the Grand Master, the position was held, ex officio, when the order was established in 1861, there was only one class of Knights Companions, who bore the postnominals KSI. In 1866, however, it was expanded to three classes, members of the first class were known as Knights Grand Commanders, rather than Knights Grand Cross, so as not to offend the non-Christian Indians appointed to the Order. All those surviving members who had already been made Knights Companions of the Order were retroactively Known as Knights Grand Commanders. Former viceroys and other officials, as well as those who served in the Department of the Secretary of State for India for at least thirty years were eligible for appointment. Rulers of Indian Princely States were also eligible for appointment, like some rulers of princely states, some rulers of particular prestige, for example the Maharajas of the Rana dynasty or the Sultans of Oman, were usually appointed Knights Grand Commanders. Women, save the princely rulers, were ineligible for appointment to the order and they were, unlike the habit of many other orders, admitted as Knights, rather than as Dames or Ladies. The first woman to be admitted to the order was HH Nawab Sikandar Begum Sahiba, Nawab Begum of Bhopal, the orders statutes were specially amended to permit the admission of Queen Mary as a Knight Grand Commander in 1911. Members of the Order wore elaborate costumes on important ceremonial occasions, The mantle, on the left side was a representation of the star. The collar, also only by Knights Grand Commanders, was made of gold
3.
Order of the Bath
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The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
4.
Halesworth
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Halesworth is a small market town and electoral ward, in the northeastern corner of Suffolk, England. The population was measured at 4,726 in the 2011 Census and it is located 15 miles south west of Lowestoft, and stands on a small tributary of the River Blyth,9 miles upstream from Southwold. The town is served by Halesworth railway station on the Ipswich–Lowestoft East Suffolk Line, Halesworth is twinned with both Bouchain in France and Eitorf in Germany. A Roman settlement, Halesworth has a church, St Marys with Victorian additions. Former almshouses used to house the Halesworth & District Museum but this has now moved to Halesworth railway station. The Town Trail walk provides opportunity to discover the history of Halesworth, Halesworth is primarily centred on a pedestrianised, shopping street known as the Thoroughfare. Thoroughfare is an East Anglian term for the street of a town – what would be commonly known elsewhere in the UK as the high street. Each year the Thoroughfare hosts a food, drink and craft fair, termed the Thoroughfair. Halesworth is the home to the New Cut Arts Centre, which hosts the acclaimed annual Halesworth Arts Festival, Halesworth has the largest Millennium Green in the UK with around 44 acres of grazing marsh providing a haven for wildlife close to the town centre. The rivers in this area are home to herons, kingfishers and otters, nearby villages include Cratfield, Wissett, Chediston, Walpole, Blyford, Linstead Parva, Wenhaston, Thorington, Spexhall and Bramfield. The village of Holton is 1-mile away with an open space for walking called Holton Pits. A Halesworth bank used to issue its own banknotes, a 5 guinea banknote, issued by the Suffolk and Halesworth Bank in 1799, has recently been recovered. In the early 16th century the Angel Hotel was built and held a position of importance as the post house, coaching inn, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker the famous botanist and traveller was born in Halesworth in 1817. Hooker House, now a dental surgery, is named after him and his widow declined the proposal of a burial of his body in Westminster Abbey alongside Charles Darwin. In 1862 the only murder was recorded, ebenezer Tye was a policeman who was trying to stop a burglary in Chediston Street. However he was beaten to death and is now buried in Halesworth Cemetery, the murderer, John Ducker, was caught and was the last person to be publicly hanged in Suffolk. In 1862 the Rifle Hall was presented to the town by the family of a captain of the rifle corps. It is so called because it was used as a hall by the rifle corps
5.
Suffolk
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Suffolk is an East Anglian county of historic origin in England. It has borders with Norfolk to the north, Cambridgeshire to the west, the North Sea lies to the east. The county town is Ipswich, other important towns include Lowestoft, Bury St Edmunds, Newmarket and Felixstowe, the county is low-lying with very few hills, and is largely arable land with the wetlands of the Broads in the north. The Suffolk Coast and Heaths are an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, by the fifth century, the Angles had established control of the region. The Angles later became the folk and the south folk. Suffolk and several adjacent areas became the kingdom of East Anglia, Suffolk was originally divided into four separate Quarter Sessions divisions. In 1860, the number of divisions was reduced to two, the eastern division was administered from Ipswich and the western from Bury St Edmunds. Under the Local Government Act 1888, the two divisions were made the administrative counties of East Suffolk and West Suffolk, Ipswich became a county borough. A few Essex parishes were added to Suffolk, Ballingdon-with-Brundon and parts of Haverhill. On 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, East Suffolk, West Suffolk, the county was divided into several local government districts, Babergh, Forest Heath, Ipswich, Mid Suffolk, St. Edmundsbury, Suffolk Coastal, and Waveney. This act also transferred some land near Great Yarmouth to Norfolk, in 2007, the Department for Communities and Local Government referred Ipswich Borough Councils bid to become a new unitary authority to the Boundary Committee. The Boundary Committee consulted local bodies and reported in favour of the proposal and it was not, however, approved by the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government. Beginning in February 2008, the Boundary Committee again reviewed local government in the county, West Suffolk, like nearby East Cambridgeshire, is renowned for archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Bronze Age artefacts have been found in the area between Mildenhall and West Row, in Eriswell and in Lakenheath, other finds include traces of cremations and barrows. The majority of agriculture in Suffolk is either arable or mixed, Farm sizes vary from anything around 80 acres to over 8,000. Soil types vary from clays to light sands. The continuing importance of agriculture in the county is reflected in the Suffolk Show, although latterly somewhat changed in nature, this remains primarily an agricultural show. Below is a chart of regional gross value added of Suffolk at current basic prices published by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling, well-known companies in Suffolk include Greene King and Branston Pickle in Bury St Edmunds
6.
Sunningdale
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Sunningdale is a large village and civil parish in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. Sunningdale is located close to the present border with Surrey, and is not far from Ascot, Sunninghill and it is situated 24 miles west of Central London and 7 miles northeast of Camberley on the A30 old trunk road. Sunningdale has a station on the Waterloo to Reading line of which its level crossing is the only one found on the entire length of the A30. The present-day civil parish of Sunningdale came into existence in 1894 under the provisions of the Local Government Act 1894 and it was, until 1995, partly in Berkshire and partly in Surrey. The Surrey area of the village, known as Broomhall, was split between the boroughs of Surrey Heath and Runnymede. This original arrangement caused problems and was resolved only after much consultation locally between the two county councils, three borough councils and four parish councils, as a result, Sunningdale is now situated entirely in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead, in the Royal County of Berkshire. The area is popular with professional golfers due to the proximity of Sunningdale Golf Club, charters is a Grade-2 listed art deco mansion, built in 1938 for the industrialist Frank Parkinson by the architects Adie, Button and Partners. It was built on the site of a house built in the late 1860s by William Terrick Hamilton. Parkinson’s guests included Winston Churchill and the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, in 1949, the house was bought by Sir Montague Burton. It later became a headquarters and has since been redeveloped as an apartment complex. Now the Coworth Park Hotel, this is a late 18th-century country house and it was the home of Edward Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby, the early 20th century Secretary of State for War and British Ambassador to France. The Sunningdale Agreement was signed at Sunningdale Park, at the Civil Service Staff College on 9 December 1973, joseph Dalton Hooker lived and died in Sunningdale
7.
Berkshire
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Berkshire is a county in south east England, west of London. It was recognised as the Royal County of Berkshire because of the presence of Windsor Castle by the Queen in 1957, Berkshire is a county of historic origin and is a home county, a ceremonial county and a non-metropolitan county without a county council. Berkshire County Council was the main county governance from 1889 to 1998 except for the separately administered County Borough of Reading, in 1974, significant alterations were made to the countys administrative boundaries although the traditional boundaries of Berkshire were not changed. The towns of Abingdon, Didcot and Wantage were transferred to Oxfordshire, Slough was gained from Buckinghamshire, since 1998, Berkshire has been governed by the six unitary authorities of Bracknell Forest, Reading, Slough, West Berkshire, Windsor and Maidenhead and Wokingham. It borders the counties of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Greater London, Surrey, according to Asser, it takes its name from a large forest of box trees that was called Bearroc. Berkshire has been the scene of notable battles through its history. Alfred the Greats campaign against the Danes included the Battles of Englefield, Ashdown, Newbury was the site of two English Civil War battles, the First Battle of Newbury in 1643 and the Second Battle of Newbury in 1644. The nearby Donnington Castle was reduced to a ruin in the aftermath of the second battle, another Battle of Reading took place on 9 December 1688. It was the only military action in England during the Glorious Revolution. Reading became the new county town in 1867, taking over from Abingdon, boundary alterations in the early part of the 20th century were minor, with Caversham from Oxfordshire becoming part of the Reading county borough, and cessions in the Oxford area. On 1 April 1974 Berkshires boundaries changed under the Local Government Act 1972, Berkshire took over administration of Slough and Eton and part of the former Eton Rural District from Buckinghamshire. 94 Signal Squadron still keep the Uffington White Horse in their insignia, the original Local Government White Paper would have transferred Henley-on-Thames from Oxfordshire to Berkshire, this proposal did not make it into the Bill as introduced. On 1 April 1998 Berkshire County Council was abolished under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, unlike similar reforms elsewhere at the same time, the non-metropolitan county was not abolished. Berkshire divides into two distinct sections with the boundary lying roughly on a north-south line through the centre of Reading. The eastern section of Berkshire lies largely to the south of the River Thames, in two places the county now includes land to the north of the river. Tributaries of the Thames, including the Loddon and Blackwater, increase the amount of low lying land in the area. Beyond the flood plains, the land rises gently to the county boundaries with Surrey, much of this area is still well wooded, especially around Bracknell and Windsor Great Park. In the west of the county and heading upstream, the Thames veers away to the north of the county boundary, leaving the county behind at the Goring Gap
8.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
9.
University of Glasgow
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The University of Glasgow is the fourth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands four ancient universities. Along with the University of Edinburgh, the University was part of the Scottish Enlightenment during the 18th century and it is currently a member of Universitas 21, the international network of research universities, and the Russell Group. Glasgow University served all of students by preparing them for professions, the law, medicine, civil service, teaching. It also trained smaller but growing numbers for careers in science, originally located in the citys High Street, since 1870 the main University campus has been located at Gilmorehill in the West End of the city. Additionally, a number of university buildings are located elsewhere, such as the Veterinary School in Bearsden, and it is the second-oldest university in Scotland after St Andrews and the fourth-oldest in the English-speaking world. The universities of St Andrews, Glasgow and Aberdeen were ecclesiastical foundations, as one of the Ancient Universities of the United Kingdom, Glasgow University is one of only eight institutions to award undergraduate masters degrees in certain disciplines. The University has been without its original Bull since the mid-sixteenth century, in 1560, during the political unrest accompanying the Scottish Reformation, the then chancellor, Archbishop James Beaton, a supporter of the Marian cause, fled to France. He took with him, for safe-keeping, many of the archives and valuables of the Cathedral and the University, including the Mace, although the Mace was sent back in 1590, the archives were not. If they had not been lost by time, they certainly went astray during the French Revolution when the Scots College was under threat. Its records and valuables were moved for safe-keeping out of the city of Paris, the Bull remains the authority by which the University awards degrees. Teaching at the University began in the chapterhouse of Glasgow Cathedral, subsequently moving to nearby Rottenrow, the University was given 13 acres of land belonging to the Black Friars on High Street by Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563. The Lion and Unicorn Staircase was also transferred from the old site and is now attached to the Main Building. To continue this work in his will he founded Andersons College, in 1973, Delphine Parrott became its first woman professor, as Gardiner Professor of Immunology. In October 2014, the university court voted for the University to become the first academic institution in Europe to divest from the fuel industry. The University is currently spread over a number of different campuses, the main one is the Gilmorehill campus, in Hillhead. The University has also established joint departments with the Glasgow School of Art, the Universitys initial accommodation including Glasgow University Library was part of the complex of religious buildings in the precincts of Glasgow Cathedral. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Hamilton Building was replaced with a very grand two-court building with a decorated west front facing the High Street, called the Nova Erectio, over the following centuries, the Universitys size and scope continued to expand. In 1757 it built the Macfarlane Observatory and later Scotlands first public museum and it was a centre of the Scottish Enlightenment and subsequently of the Industrial Revolution, and its expansion in the High Street was constrained
10.
Doctor of Medicine
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The Doctor of Medicine is a terminal medical degree for practitioners of medicine. The meaning of the varies between different countries. In countries that follow the United States system, the M. D. denotes a first professional degree awarded upon initial graduation from medical school. In those countries, the title of the equivalent first professional degree is Bachelor of Medicine, in 1703, the University of Glasgows first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine. North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland, the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York was the first American university to grant the MD degree instead of the MB. Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland and these first few North American medical schools that were established were founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland. A feminine form, Doctress of Medicine or Medicinae Doctrix, has also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s. The MD degree is earned in four years. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year and those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine or DO degree allows similar practice in the United States and Canada to the M. D. degree and Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine are fully licensed physicians. The M. D. degree is awarded only by the 137 Medical Schools in the United States, similarly, M. D. s must attend M. D. rated residency and fellowship programs while D. O. s can attend either type of program. The American M. D. degree is recognized by most countries in the world. While the D. O. degree is getting more widely accepted in countries as fully licensed physicians. In Canada, the MD is the medical degree required to practice medicine. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the medical school in Canada that continues to award the MD. MDCM is from the Latin Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum meaning doctor of medicine, upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting MD-PhD, the National Institutes of Health through its Medical Scientist Training Program funds MD-PhD training programs at many universities
11.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
12.
Copley Medal
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The Copley Medal is a scientific award given by the Royal Society, London, for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science. It alternates between the physical and the biological sciences, the medal was created following a donation of £100 to be used for carrying out experiments by Sir Godfrey Copley, for which the interest on the amount was used for several years. A second donation of £1666 13s, 4d. was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal. The medal in its current format is made of silver gilt, since its inception, it has been awarded to many notable scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize,17 in Physics,21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry. John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, winning in 1734,1736 and 1741, in 1976, Dorothy Hodgkin became the first and as of 2015 the only female recipient
13.
Darwin Medal
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First awarded in 1890, it was created in memory of Charles Darwin and is presented with a £2000 prize. The medal was first awarded to Alfred Russel Wallace, a noted biologist and naturalist who had developed the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
14.
Linnean Society of London
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The Linnean Society of London is a society dedicated to the study of, and the dissemination of information concerning, natural history and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature collections and publishes academic journals and books on plant, the society also awards a number of prestigious medals and prizes for achievement. A product of the 18th century enlightenment, the society is important as the venue for the first public presentation of the Theory of Evolution. The patron of the society is Queen Elizabeth II, the Linnean Society was founded in 1788 by botanist Sir James Edward Smith. The society derives its name from the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus, the father of taxonomy and he was known as Carl von Linné after his ennoblement, hence the spelling Linnean, rather than Linnaean. The society had a number of minor name variations before it gained its Royal Charter on 26 March 1802, in 1802, as a newly incorporated society, it comprised 228 fellows. It is the oldest extant natural history society in the world, throughout its history the society has been a non-political and non-sectarian institution, existing solely for the furtherance of natural history. The society has numbered many prominent scientists amongst its fellows, one such was the botanist Robert Brown, who was president, he named the cell nucleus and discovered Brownian motion. In 1854 Charles Darwin was elected a fellow, he is undoubtedly the most illustrious scientist ever to appear on the rolls of the society. Another famous fellow was biologist Thomas Huxley, who gained the nickname Darwins bulldog for his defence of evolution. At this meeting a joint presentation of papers by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace was made, sponsored by Joseph Hooker, in 1904 the society experienced the novelty of electing women fellows, this followed a number of years of campaigning by the botanist Marian Farquharson. Whilst the societys council was reluctant to admit women, the fellows were much less so, among the first to benefit from this were, Lilian J. Veley, a microbiologist and Annie Lorrain Smith, a lichenologist and mycologist, both formally admitted on 19 January 1905. Also amongst the first women to be elected in 1904 was the paleobotanist, the societys connection with evolution remained strong into the 20th century. Sir Edward Poulton, who was president 1912-1916, was a defender of natural selection and was the first biologist to recognise the importance of frequency-dependent selection. The first female president of the society was Irene Manton, who pioneered the use of electron microscopy. Her work revealed the structure of the flagellum and cilia, which are central to systems of cellular motility. Recent years have seen an increased interest within the society in issues of biodiversity conservation and this was highlighted by the inception in 2015 of an annual award, the John Spedan Lewis Medal, specifically honouring persons making significant and innovative contributions to conservation. Fellowship requires nomination by at least one fellow, and election by a minimum of two thirds of those electors voting, fellows may employ the post-nominal letters FLS
15.
Botany
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Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
16.
Kew Gardens
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Kew Gardens is a botanical garden in southwest London that houses the largest and most diverse botanical and mycological collections in the world. The library contains more than 750,000 volumes, and the collection contains more than 175,000 prints. It is one of Londons top tourist attractions and is a World Heritage Site, Kew Gardens has its own police force, Kew Constabulary, which has been in operation since 1847. Kew, the area in which Kew Gardens are situated, consists mainly of the gardens themselves, Royal residences in the area which would later influence the layout and construction of the gardens began in 1299 when Edward I moved his court to a manor house in neighbouring Richmond. That manor house was abandoned, however, Henry VII built Sheen Palace in 1501. Around the start of the 16th century courtiers attending Richmond Palace settled in Kew, early royal residences at Kew included Mary Tudors house, which was in existence by 1522 when a driveway was built to connect it to the palace at Richmond. Around 1600, the land that would become the gardens was known as Kew Field, the exotic garden at Kew Park, formed by Lord Capel John of Tewkesbury, was enlarged and extended by Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales, the widow of Frederick, Prince of Wales. The origins of Kew Gardens can be traced to the merging of the estates of Richmond. William Chambers built several structures, including the lofty Chinese pagoda built in 1761 which still remains. George III enriched the gardens, aided by William Aiton and Sir Joseph Banks, the old Kew Park, was demolished in 1802. The Dutch House adjoining was purchased by George III in 1781 as a nursery for the royal children and it is a plain brick structure now known as Kew Palace. Some early plants came from the garden established by William Coys at Stubbers in North Ockendon. The collections grew somewhat haphazardly until the appointment of the first collector, Francis Masson, capability Brown, who became Englands most renowned landscape architect, applied for the position of master gardener at Kew, and was rejected. In 1840 the gardens were adopted as a botanical garden, in large part due to the efforts of the Royal Horticultural Society. Under Kews director, William Hooker, the gardens were increased to 30 hectares and the grounds, or arboretum, extended to 109 hectares. The first curator was John Smith, the Palm House was built by architect Decimus Burton and iron-maker Richard Turner between 1844 and 1848, and was the first large-scale structural use of wrought iron. It is considered the worlds most important surviving Victorian glass and iron structure, the structures panes of glass are all hand-blown. The Temperate House, which is twice as large as the Palm House and it is now the largest Victorian glasshouse in existence
17.
William Jackson Hooker
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Sir William Jackson Hooker KH FRS FRSE FLS was an English systematic botanist and organiser, and botanical illustrator. He held the post of Regius Professor of Botany at Glasgow University and he enjoyed the friendship and support of Sir Joseph Banks for his exploring, collecting and organising work. His son, Joseph Dalton Hooker, succeeded him to the Directorship of Kew Gardens and he was educated at Norwich School and afterwards took up as a recreation the study of natural history, especially ornithology and entomology. He subsequently confined his attention to botany, on the recommendation of Sir James Edward Smith, Hooker inherited enough money to be able to travel at his own expense. His first botanical expedition—at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks—was to Iceland, the specimens he collected, along with his notes and drawings, were destroyed by fire on the homeward voyage, an incident in which he nearly lost his life. His good memory, however, aided him to publish an account of the island, settling at Halesworth, Suffolk, he devoted himself to the formation of his herbarium, which became of worldwide renown among botanists. In 1816 the British Jungermanniae, his first scientific work, was published, in 1820 he accepted the regius professorship of botany in the University of Glasgow where he soon became popular as a lecturer, his style was both clear and ready. The following year he brought out the Flora Scotica, in which the method of arrangement of British plants was given with the artificial. He worked with the Glasgow botanist and lithographer Thomas Hopkirk to establish the Royal Botanic Institution of Glasgow and to lay out and develop the Glasgow Botanic Gardens. In 1815, he was made a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, Hooker succeeded in convincing the British government that botanists should be appointed to their expeditions. While his works were in progress his herbarium received large and valuable additions from all parts of the globe, and his position as a botanist was thus vastly improved. He was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order and a Knight Bachelor in 1836, under his direction the gardens expanded from 10 to 75 acres, with an arboretum of 270 acres, many new glass-houses were erected, and a museum of economic botany was established. He was engaged on the Synopsis filicum with John Gilbert Baker when he contracted a throat infection then epidemic at Kew and he died in 1865 and is buried at St. Annes Church, Kew. He was succeeded at Kew Gardens by his son Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, K. Greville British Flora, of which several editions appeared, undertaken with Dr G. A. W. Arnott, &c. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hooker. Allen, Mea The Hookers of Kew 1795–1911, William Jackson Hooker at Find a Grave Correspondence to William Hooker as Director of The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is being made available online through the Directors Correspondence Project
18.
Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
19.
George Bentham
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George Bentham CMG FRS was an English botanist, characterised by Duane Isely as the premier systematic botanist of the nineteenth century. Bentham was born in Stoke, Plymouth, on 22 September 1800 and his father, Sir Samuel Bentham, a naval architect, was the only brother of Jeremy Bentham to survive into adulthood. George Bentham had neither a school nor a college education, and he also had a remarkable linguistic aptitude. By the age of seven he could speak French, German and Russian and they eventually settled in the neighbourhood of Montpellier where Sir Samuel purchased a large estate. George Bentham became attracted to botanical studies by applying to them his uncles logical methods, while studying at Angoulême he came across a copy of A. P. de Candolles Flore française, and he became interested in the analytical tables for identifying plants. He immediately proceeded to test their use on the first plant he saw, the result was successful and he continued to apply it to every plant he came across. A visit to London in 1823 brought him contact with the brilliant circle of English botanists. In 1826, at the invitation of his uncle, he agreed to act as his secretary, at the same time entering Lincolns Inn. He was called in due time and in 1832 held his first and last brief, however, his interest in botany never flagged and he was secretary of the Horticultural Society of London from 1829 to 1840. In 1832, Jeremy Bentham died, leaving his property to his nephew, having inherited his fathers estate the previous year, he was now in a position of modest independence, and able to pursue wholeheartedly his favourite studies. For a time these were divided between botany, jurisprudence and logic, in addition to editing his fathers professional papers, Bentham married Sarah Jones, daughter of Sir Harford Jones Brydges, on 11 April 1833, they did not have children. Bentham died at his London home of 30 years,25 Wilton Place, on 10 September 1884 and he was laid to rest in Brompton Cemetery. Benthams life spanned the Darwinian revolution and, moreover, his young colleague Joseph Dalton Hooker was Darwins closest friend, Bentham was until then an unquestioning adherent of the dogma of the constancy of species. We can no more set up a typical species than a typical individual, Bentham was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1859 and elected a Fellow in 1862. He served as president of the Linnean Society of London from 1861 to 1874 and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1866. He was appointed CMG in 1878 and his foreign awards included the Clarke Medal of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1879. It is interesting to notice that in it Bentham adopted the principle from which he never deviated and this was followed by articles on various legal subjects, on codification, in which he disagreed with his uncle, on the laws affecting larceny and on the law of real property. But the most remarkable production of this period was the Outline of a new system of logic, in this the principle of the quantification of the predicate was first explicitly stated
20.
William Turner Thiselton-Dyer
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Sir William Turner Thiselton-Dyer KCMG CIE FRS FLS was a leading British botanist, and the third director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Thiselton-Dyer was born in Westminster, London and he was a son of William George Thiselton-Dyer, physician and Catherine Jane, née Firminger, botanist. Initially studying mathematics at Christ Church, Oxford, he graduated in science in 1867. He became Professor of Natural History at the Royal Agricultural College in Cirencester, in 1872, he became professor at the Royal Horticultural Society in London, being recommended by Joseph Dalton Hooker. Then in 1875, Thiselton-Dyer was appointed Assistant Director at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, under Hooker, Thiselton-Dyer spent considerable time working for the benefit of the British colonies. He introduced rubber plantations to Sri Lanka and Malaya, and introduced cacao from Trinidad to plantations in Sri Lanka. In 1877, he was charge of an international research laboratory, established at Kew with private funding. Thiselton-Dyer also designed a new garden, after a bequest to Kew in 1881 of a large collection of Alpine plants. Thiselton-Dyer was elected FRS in 1880 and his proposers included Charles Darwin and George Bentham, but not Joseph Dalton Hooker, whose daughter Dyer had already married. From 1885 to 1905, after the retirement of Hooker, he was director of the Royal Botanic Gardens and his principal works are an English edition of Sachs Text-Book of Botany, editions of the Flora Capensis and of the Flora of Tropical Africa, and Index Kewensis. With his former school-friend Henry Trimen he published The Flora of Middlesex and he married Harriet Anne Hooker, daughter of Joseph Dalton Hooker, in 1877, they had one son and one daughter. She lived at Kew from birth until old age, surviving her husband and dying in 1946 aged 91, Thiselton-Dyer was appointed KCMG in 1899, and awarded the Clarke Medal by the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1892. He died at The Ferns, Witcombe, a village near Gloucester, William Turner Thiselton-Dyer at Royal Botanic gardens, Kew Archival material relating to William Turner Thiselton-Dyer. Correspondence to William Thiselton-Dyer as Director of The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is being made available online through the Directors Correspondence Project
21.
Explorer
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Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources. Exploration occurs in all animal species, including humans. In human history, its most dramatic rise was during the Age of Discovery when European explorers sailed and charted much of the rest of the world for a variety of reasons. Since then, major explorations after the Age of Discovery have occurred for reasons mostly aimed at information discovery, in scientific research, exploration is one of three purposes of empirical research. The term is used metaphorically. For example, an individual may speak of exploring the Internet, sexuality, the Phoenicians traded throughout the Mediterranean Sea and Asia Minor though many of their routes are still unknown today. The presence of tin in some Phoenician artifacts suggests that they may have traveled to Britain, according to Virgils Aeneid and other ancient sources, the legendary Queen Dido was a Phoenician from Tyre who sailed to North Africa and founded the city of Carthage. Hanno the Navigator, a Carthaginean navigator explored the Western Coast of Africa, the Greek explorer from Marseille, Pytheas was the first to circumnavigate Great Britain, explore Germany, and reach Thule. Africa Exploration The Romans organized expeditions to cross the Sahara desert with five different routes, through the western Sahara, toward the Niger river, through the Tibesti mountains, toward Lake Chad and actual Nigeria through the Nile river, toward actual Uganda. Though the western coast of Africa, toward the Canary Islands, through the Red Sea, toward actual Somalia and perhaps Tanzania. All these expeditions were supported by legionaries and had mainly a commercial purpose, only the one done by emperor Nero seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of Ethiopia or Nubia, in 62 AD two legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river. One of the reasons of the explorations was to get gold using the camel to transport it. The explorations near the African western and eastern coasts were supported by Roman ships, Romans organized several explorations also in Northern Europe, and as far as Asia up to China. 30 BC-640 AD With the acquisition of Ptolemaic Egypt, The Romans begin trading with India, the Empire now has a direct connection to the Spice trade Egypt had established beginning in 118 BC.100 AD-166 AD Romano-Chinese relations begin. Ptolemy writes of the Golden Chersonese and the port of Kattigara, now identified as Óc Eo in northern Vietnam, then part of Jiaozhou. The Chinese historical texts describe Roman embassies, from a land they called Daqin, 2nd century Roman traders reach Siam, Cambodia, Sumatra, and Java. 161 An embassy from Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius or his successor Marcus Aurelius reaches Chinese Emperor Huan of Han at Luoyang, when Zhang returned to China in 125 BC, he reported on his visits to Dayuan, Kangju, and Daxia. Zhang described Dayuan and Daxia as agricultural and urban countries like China, from about 800 Ad to 1040 AD, the Vikings explored Europe and much of the Western Northern Hemisphere via rivers and oceans
22.
Charles Darwin's
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
23.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
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Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. An internationally important botanical research and education institution, it employs 750 staff and its chief executive is the current Director, Richard Deverell. Its board of trustees is chaired by Marcus Agius, a chairman of Barclays PLC. The Seed Bank is also the site of research projects. Seed stored at the bank fulfils two functions, it provides an ex situ conservation resource and also facilitates research around the globe by acting as a repository for seed scientists, Kew jointly with the Forestry Commission, founded Bedgebury Pinetum in Kent, specialising in growing conifers. The organisation has an average of 1 million paying visitors per year, the 326 acre site has 40 historically important buildings and collections of over 40,000 species of plants. Kew Gardens became a United Nations World Heritage Site on 3 July 2003, Kew is governed by a Board of Trustees which comprises a chairman and 11 members. Ten members and the chairman are appointed by the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and her Majesty the Queen appoints her own trustee on the recommendation of the Secretary of State. The Director of Science is University of Oxford Professor Kathy Willis and her deputy is Professor Monique Simmonds. Professor Mark Chase is Senior Research Professor, the IPNI includes information from the Index Kewensis, a project which began in the 19th century to provide an Index to the Names and Authorities of all known flowering plants and their countries. Kew also cooperates with the Missouri Botanical Garden in a project called The Plant List. The Plant List is an Internet encyclopedia project which was launched in 2010 to compile a comprehensive list of botanical nomenclature, the Plant List has 1,040,426 scientific plant names of species rank of which 298,900 are accepted species names. In addition, the list has 620 plant families and 16,167 plant genera
24.
William Edward Kilburn
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William Edward Kilburn was an English photographer, noted for his pictures of the British Royal family. Kilburn photographed the large Chartist rally at Kennington Common in 1848, kilburns photograph of the Kennington Chartist rally was rediscovered in the British Royal Collection in the 1980s after being thought lost. Kilburns photographs of the event were appreciated by Prince Albert who appointed Kilburn Photographist to Her Majesty, Kilburn made the first daguerreotype portraits of Queen Victoria and her family in April 1847. Kilburns studio was at 234 Regent Street, from where he produced his daguerreotypes
25.
Phytogeography
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Phytogeography or botanical geography is the branch of biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution of plant species and their influence on the earths surface. Geobotany, by contrast, focuses on the geographic influence on plants. Phytogeography is part of a general science known as biogeography. Phytogeographers are concerned with patterns and process in plant distribution, most of the major questions and kinds of approaches taken to answer such questions are held in common between phyto- and zoogeographers. Phytogeography in wider sense encompasses four fields, according with the aspect, environment, flora, vegetation and origin, respectively, plant ecology, plant geography. Historical plant geography Phytogeography is often divided into two branches, ecological phytogeography and historical phytogeography. The basic data elements of phytogeography are occurrence records with operational units such as political units or geographical coordinates. These data are used to construct phytogeographic provinces and elements. The questions and approaches in phytogeography are largely shared with zoogeography, the term phytogeography itself suggests a broad meaning. How the term is applied by practicing scientists is apparent in the way periodicals use the term. The American Journal of Botany, a primary research journal, frequently publishes a section titled Systematics, Phytogeography. Biodiversity patterns are not heavily covered, one of the subjects earliest proponents was Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt, who is often referred to as the father of phytogeography. Von Humboldt advocated an approach to phytogeography that has characterized modern plant geography. Gross patterns of the distribution of plants became apparent early on in the study of plant geography, for example, Alfred Russel Wallace, co-discoverer of the principle of natural selection, discussed the Latitudinal gradients in species diversity, a pattern observed in other organisms as well. Much research effort in plant geography has since then devoted to understanding this pattern. In 1890, the United States Congress passed an act that appropriated funds to send expeditions to discover the geographic distributions of plants in the United States. The first of these was The Death Valley Expedition, including Frederick Vernon Coville, Frederick Funston, Clinton Hart Merriam, research in plant geography has also been directed to understanding the patterns of adaptation of species to the environment. This is done chiefly by describing geographical patterns of trait/environment relationships and these patterns termed ecogeographical rules when applied to plants represent another area of phytogeography
26.
James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
27.
High School of Glasgow
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The High School of Glasgow is an independent, co-educational day school in Glasgow, Scotland. It remained part of the Church as the grammar school until coming under local authority control in 1872, and closed in 1976. The School maintains a relationship with the Cathedral, where it holds an annual Service of Commemoration and it counts two British Prime Ministers, two Lords President and the founder of the University of Aberdeen among its alumni. It is a school, meaning prospective pupils must sit an entrance test to gain admission. The Rector of the school is John ONeill, the original school was founded as the Choir School of Glasgow Cathedral in around 1124, and later became known as Glasgow Grammar School. It was housed in Greyfriars Wynd until 1782, when it moved to new accommodation in George Street. The name was changed in 1834 to The High School of Glasgow, in 1878, the school moved into the former premises of the Glasgow Academy on Elmbank Street, when the latter moved to its new home in Kelvinbridge in the West End of the city. The Glasgow High School for Girls was founded in 1894 and housed variously in Garnethill, in 1976, the regional council closed the Boys High School, while the Girls High School began admitting boys and was renamed as Cleveden Secondary School. The new, purpose-built Senior School is in Old Anniesland, owned by the Glasgow High School Club, there have been multiple extensions to these buildings, including the two-storey science block. The Junior School occupies the site of the former Drewsteignton School, the Headmistress of the Junior School is Heather Fuller Pupils at the School are divided into the following Houses, Bannerman, for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. The School operates a competition, and pupils may earn points for their house through excellence in areas such as sports, music. The current holder of the house championship is Bannerman House. The Junior School Houses take their names from British lifeboats, Broughtyferry, Campbelltown, Lizard, the Glasgow High School Club is the former pupil club of the High School and its predecessor schools, the High School for Boys, the Girls High School and Drewsteignton School. The Club is a company, run by a committee and a President. The President is Ronnie Gourley, and the Past President is Alisair Wood, the Honorary President is The Lord Macfarlane of Bearsden, and the Rector of the School, John ONeil, is an ex officio member. The Club owns Old Anniesland, the site on which the School now stands, the Club runs all the facilities at Old Anniesland, including the Jimmie Ireland Stand but excluding the school. Use of the Clubs facilities is restricted to members, the Club runs a number of sports teams, although the former Glasgow High Kelvinside rugby club merged in 1997 with rivals Glasgow Academicals FC to form Glasgow Hawks. The friendly rivalry with the Glasgow Accies, based at neighbouring New Anniesland, inspired the name of the Anniesland Trophy, an annual golf competition between the Clubs
28.
James Clark Ross
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Ross was born in London, the nephew of Sir John Ross, under whom he entered the navy in 1812, accompanying him on Sir Johns first Arctic voyage in search of a Northwest Passage in 1818. Between 1819 and 1827, Ross took part in four Arctic expeditions under Sir William Parry and it was during this trip that they located the position of the North Magnetic Pole on 1 June 1831 on the Boothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada. It was on this trip, too, that Ross charted the Beaufort Islands, in 1834, Ross was promoted to Captain. In December 1835, he offered his services to the Admiralty to resupply 11 whaling ships which had trapped in Baffin Bay. They accepted his offer, and he set sail in HMS Cove in January 1836, the crossing was difficult, and by the time he had reached the last known position of the whalers in June, all but one had managed to return home. Ross found no trace of this last vessel, the William Torr and he returned to Hull in September 1836 with all his crew in good health. From 1835–39, except for his voyage with the Cove, he conducted a survey of Great Britain with Edward Sabine. Between 1839 and 1843, Ross commanded an Antarctic expedition comprising the vessels HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, Francis Crozier was second-in-command of the expedition and commanded HMS Terror. Support for the expedition had been arranged by Francis Beaufort, hydrographer of the Navy, on the expedition was Joseph Dalton Hooker, who had been invited along as assistant surgeon. In 1841, James Ross discovered the Ross Sea, Victoria Land, and the volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, which were named for the expeditions vessels. They sailed for 250 nautical miles along the edge of the low, Ross reported that Admiralty Sound appeared to Ross to have been blocked by glaciers at its southern end. He was awarded the Gold Medal of the Société de Géographie in 1843, elected to the Royal Society in 1848, in 1848, Ross was sent on one of three expeditions to find Sir John Franklin. In the spring he and Francis McClintock explored the west coast of the island by sledge and he recognized Peel Sound but thought it too ice-choked for Franklin to have used it. The next summer he tried to reach Wellington Channel but was blocked by ice and he was married to Lady Ann Ross. He died at Aylesbury in 1862, five years after his wife, a blue plaque marks Rosss home in Eliot Place, Blackheath, London. His closest friend was Crozier, with whom he sailed many times, Crozier is known to have become leader of the Franklin Expedition after the death of Sir John Franklin, but he disappeared thereafter along with the other members of the expedition. He also lived in the ancient country house of the Abbots of St. Albans, later known as The Abbey and he is buried with his wife in the local churchyard of St. James the Great, Aston Abbotts. In the gardens of the Abbey there is a lake with two islands, named after the ships Terror and Erebus
29.
Antarctic
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The Antarctic is a polar region, specifically the region around the Earths South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises in the sense the continent of Antarctica. The region covers some 20% of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5. 5% is the area of the Antarctic continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administrated under the Antarctic Treaty System, in a biogeographic sense, the Antarctic ecozone is one of eight ecozones of the Earths land surface. Most of the Antarctic region is situated south of 60°S latitude parallel, there are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, the first human born in the Antarctic was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000 tourists annually, the definitive results of the conference was presented at the Antarctic Treaty states meeting in Uruguay in May 2010. The Antarctic hosts the worlds largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km2, the South Georgia, because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are based on territorial claims or the time zone of a stations owner country or supply base. Antarctic Circle History of Antarctica Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, smithsonian at the Poles, Contributions to International Polar Year Science
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South Magnetic Pole
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The South Magnetic Pole is the wandering point on the Earths Southern Hemisphere where the geomagnetic field lines are directed vertically upwards. It should not be confused with the South Geomagnetic Pole described later, for historical reasons, the end of a freely hanging magnet that points north is itself called the north pole of the magnet, and the other end, pointing south, is called the magnets south pole. Because opposite poles attract, the Earths South Magnetic Pole is physically actually a magnetic north pole, the South Magnetic Pole is constantly shifting due to changes in the Earths magnetic field. As of 2005 it was calculated to lie at 64°31′48″S 137°51′36″E, placing it off the coast of Antarctica, in 2015 it lay at 64. 28°S136. 59°E / -64.28,136.59. That point lies outside the Antarctic Circle, due to polar drift, the pole is moving northwest by about 10 to 15 kilometers per year. Its current distance from the actual Geographic South Pole is approximately 2860 km, the nearest permanent science station is Dumont dUrville Station. Wilkes Land contains a large gravitational mass concentration, early unsuccessful attempts to reach the magnetic south pole included those of French explorer Dumont dUrville, American Charles Wilkes and Briton James Clark Ross. On 16 January 1909 three men from Sir Ernest Shackletons Nimrod Expedition claimed to have found the South Magnetic Pole, however, there is now some doubt as to whether their location was correct. The approximate position of the pole on 16 January 1909 was 72. 25°S155. 15°E / -72.25,155.15. The South Magnetic Pole has also estimated by fits to global sets of data such as the World Magnetic Model. For earlier years back to about 1600, the model GUFM1 is used, based on a compilation of data from ship logs, the Earths geomagnetic field can be approximated by a tilted dipole placed at the center of the Earth. The South Geomagnetic Pole is the point where the axis of this best-fitting tilted dipole intersects the Earths surface in the southern hemisphere. As of 2005 it was calculated to be located at 79. 74°S108. 22°E / -79.74,108.22, because the field is not an exact dipole, the South Geomagnetic Pole does not coincide with the South Magnetic Pole. Furthermore, the South Geomagnetic Pole is wandering for the reason its northern magnetic counterpart wanders. North Magnetic Pole Polar alignment Australian Antarctic Division
31.
HMS Erebus (1826)
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HMS Erebus was a Hecla-class bomb vessel designed by Sir Henry Peake and constructed by the Royal Navy in Pembroke dockyard, Wales in 1826. The vessel was named after the region in Hades of Greek mythology called Erebus. The 372-ton ship was armed with two mortars – one 13 in and one 10 in – and 10 guns, the ship took part in the Ross expedition of 1839 to 1843. She was abandoned during the Franklin Expedition and her wreck was discovered in September 2014 after a long search. In January 1841, the crew of both ships landed on Victoria Land, and proceeded to name areas of the landscape after British politicians, scientists, Mount Erebus, on Ross Island, was named after one ship and Mount Terror after the other. They then discovered the Ross Ice Shelf, which they were unable to penetrate, the following season,1842, Ross continued to survey the Great Ice Barrier, as it was called, continuing to follow it eastward. Both ships returned to the Falkland Islands before returning to the Antarctic in the 1842–1843 season and they conducted studies in magnetism, and returned with oceanographic data and collections of botanical and ornithological specimens. The plants were described in the resulting The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H. M, discovery Ships Erebus and Terror in the years 1839–1843, under the Command of Captain Sir James Clark Ross. Birds collected on the first expedition were described and illustrated by George Robert Gray, the future renowned botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, then aged 23, was assistant-surgeon to Robert McCormick. For their next voyage, to the Arctic under Sir John Franklin and that of Erebus was rated at 25 horsepower and could propel the ship at 4 knots. The ships carried 12 days supply of coal, the ships had iron plating added to their hulls. Sir John Franklin sailed in Erebus, in command of the expedition. The ships were last seen entering Baffin Bay in August 1845, the disappearance of the Franklin expedition set off a massive search effort in the Arctic. The broad circumstances of the expeditions fate were first revealed when Hudsons Bay Company doctor John Rae collected artifacts, later expeditions up to 1866 confirmed these reports. Subsequent expeditions until the late 1980s, including autopsies of crew members, a British transport ship, Renovation, spotted two ships on a large ice floe off the coast of Newfoundland in April 1851. The identities of the ships were not confirmed and it was suggested over the years that these might have been Erebus and Terror, though it is now certain they could not have been, and were most likely abandoned whaling ships. Recovery of the bell was announced on 6 November 2014. On 4 March 2015 a winter diving expedition on Erebus, consisting of Parks Canada, on 12 September 2016 it was announced that the wreck of HMS Terror had been found submerged in Terror Bay, off the south-west coast of King William Island
32.
Richard Clement Moody
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His Excellency, Major-General Richard Clement Moody FICE FRGS RIBA was a British Imperialist, Colonial Governor, and Royal Engineer. He was the founder of British Columbia as Colony of British Columbia, Moody is considered to be the founding father of British Columbia. He selected the site for and founded the new capital of British Columbia, New Westminster and he also designed the first Coat of arms of British Columbia. Port Moody in British Columbia, and Moody Park and Moody square in New Westminster, are named after him and he was also the first British Governor of the Falkland Islands, whose settlements he planned and built whose and infrastructure he established. He selected the site for and founded Port Stanley, the capital of the Falkland Islands, Moody Point in Antarctica is also named after him. During the Crimean War, Moody was Commanding Executive Officer of Malta and he has been described as a visionary in a plain land and ‘a man who could conceive of Edinburgh Castle in terms of a musical score. He served as Professor of Fortifications at Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, Commanding Royal Engineer of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and he also introduced tussock grass into Great Britain from Falkland, for which he received the gold medal of the Royal Agricultural Society. He was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers on 23 April 1839 and he was also a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, a Member of the Royal Agricultural Society an Honorary Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects. His paternal grandmother was Barbara Blamire, a member of the Blamire family of Cumberland and cousin of William Blamire MP and the poet Susanna Blamire. He displayed the ability in mathematics, music, architectural draughtsmanship from an early age. In 1841 he became Lieutenant-Governor of the Falkland-Islands, this position was renamed Governor of the Falkland Islands in 1843 and he was Executive Officer at Malta during the Crimean War. He was the Commander of the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for British Columbia, and he also became a Colonel of the British Army in 1858 and a Major-General of the Army in 1866. Mary Hawkss maternal uncles included Admiral Benedictus Marwood Kelly and industrialist Edward Fenwick Boyd, after their marriage, Richard and Mary Moody embarked on The Grand Tour of Europe, visiting France, Switzerland, and Germany. Richard Clement Moody named the 400-foot hill in Port Coquitlam, British Columbia, Mary Hill after his wife, however, Mary Moody disliked the nascent colony of British Columbia, and described living there as roughing it in the bush relative to living in England. Moody and Mary Hawks had 13 children, Josephine Zeffie Mary, a fabric embroiderer based at Fisherton de la Mere, Wiltshire. Married Arthur Newall, son of Robert Stirling Newall, in 1883, had 2 sons, Robert Stanley FSA, an Office of Woods archaeologist who made landmark excavations at Stonehenge with William Hawley, and Basil. Colonel Richard Stanley Hawks Moody CB, Military Knight of Windsor, married Mary Latimer,1881, and had four children. His eldest daughter, Mary Latimer, married James Fitzgerald Martin and his youngest daughter, Barbara Bindon, married James William Webb-Jones
33.
John Stevens Henslow
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John Stevens Henslow was a British priest, botanist and geologist. He is best remembered as friend and mentor to his pupil Charles Darwin, Henslow was born at Rochester, Kent, the son of a solicitor John Prentis Henslow, who was the son of John Henslow. Henslow was educated at St. Johns College, Cambridge where he graduated as 16th wrangler in 1818 and he also studied chemistry under Professor James Cumming and mineralogy under Edward Daniel Clarke. The idea and initial impetus for the society originated from Sedgwick, meanwhile, Henslow had studied mineralogy with considerable zeal, so that on the death of Clarke he was in 1822 appointed professor of mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. Two years later he took holy orders, as a teacher both in the classroom and in the field he was eminently successful. He was a correspondent of John James Audubon who in 1829 named Henslows sparrow after him and he followed the understanding of the time that species were fixed as created but could vary within limits, and hoped to analyse these limits of variation. His A Catalogue of British Plants was first published in October 1829, earlier that year, Charles Darwin joined the course and along with other students helped to collect plants of Cambridgeshire. In 1830 Henslow experimented on varying the conditions of garden grown wild plants to various forms of the plant. In 1835 Henslow published Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany as a textbook based on this lecture course. In the summer of 1831 Henslow was offered a place as naturalist to sail aboard the survey ship HMS Beagle on a voyage to survey South America. Seeing a perfect opportunity for his protégé, Henslow wrote to the ship’s captain Robert Fitzroy telling him that Darwin was the man to join the expedition team. During the voyage, Darwin corresponded with Henslow, and collected plants with him in mind, Henslows teaching continued to influence Darwins work on evolution. Besides Darwin, other students of Henslow included Berkeley, Babington, Leonard Jenyns, Lowe. Henslow founded the Cambridge University Botanic Garden in 1831, during his time at Cambridge he extended the Botanic Garden and remodelled the 40-acre site between Bateman Street and Brooklands Avenue, making it world-renowned. In 1833 Henslow was appointed vicar of Cholsey-cum-Moulsford in Berkshire and he continued to live in Cambridge, only visiting the parish during vacations, he appointed a curate to conduct services and parish business during term-time. However, his appointment in 1837 to the remunerative Crown living at Hitcham and this time, in 1839, he moved to the parish, and as rector of Hitcham he lived at the rectory. He worked there, endearing himself to all who knew him and his energies were devoted to the improvement of his parishioners, but his influence was felt far and wide. Botany at Cambridge suffered, attendance at lectures fell, and we have records of complaints made within the university, Henslow did not resign his chair, and continued to give lectures, set and mark exams, and take part in university affairs
34.
Harriet Anne Thiselton-Dyer
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Lady Harriet Anne Thiselton-Dyer was a British botanical illustrator. In 1877 she married the botanist William Turner Thiselton-Dyer, with whom she had a son, Thiselton-Dyer belonged to a generation of English women who developed their interest in botany into professional careers. She studied with the botanical illustrator Walter Hood Fitch, who was the lead artist for Curtiss Botanical Magazine. After Fitch resigned from the magazine in 1877 following a dispute with her father—for whom Fitch had been preparing illustrations for several books—Thiselton-Dyer stepped in. She rendered almost 100 illustrations for publication during the period 1878–1880, in 1996, some of these copies were published to accompany an article on Rodrigues that appeared, fittingly enough, in Curtiss Botanical Magazine. Thiselton-Dyer was also known as an accomplished gardener, in 1905 the Thiselton-Dyers moved to the Cotswolds. When her husband died in 1928, Harriet moved to Devonshire, Dictionary of British and Irish Botantists and Horticulturalists Including Plant Collectors, Flower Painters and Garden Designers. Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey, and Joy Dorothy Harvey, the Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science, L-Z
35.
Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet
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Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet of Applegarth FRS FRSE FLS FSA was a Scottish naturalist. He is known for his editing of a series of natural history books. Jardine was born on 23 February 1800 at 28 North Hanover Street in Edinburgh and he was educated in both York and Edinburgh then studied Medicine at Edinburgh University. In his early years, aged only 25, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh his proposer being Sir David Brewster and he was a co-founder of the Berwickshire Naturalists Club, and contributed to the founding of the Ray Society. He was keenly addicted to field-sports, and a master equally of the rod, while ornithology was his main passion, he also studied ichthyology, botany and geology, writing a work on burrows and traces, the Ichnology of Annandale, his ancestral estate. His private natural museum and library are said to have been the finest in Britain. The series was divided into four sections, Ornithology, Mammalia, Entomology. James Duncan wrote the insect volumes, the artists responsible for the illustrations included Edward Lear. The work was published in Edinburgh by W. H. Lizars, the frontispiece is a portrait of Pierre André Latreille. Jardine described of a number of species, alone or in conjunction with his friend Prideaux John Selby. He died on 21 November 1874 in Sandown, Isle of Wight and he was married to Jane Home Lizars, and through her was brother-in-law to John Lizars FRSE and William Home Lizars. Jardines daughter, Catherine Dorcas Maule Jardine, married Hugh Edwin Strickland, the Olympic rower Sir Matthew Pinsent is a direct descendant of Jardine. 1826, Sir W. Jardine and P. J. Selby with the co-operation of J. E. Bicheno, Illustrations of ornithology, publ. 1833, Monkeys, by William Jardine, with a memoir of Comte de Buffon Humming Birds Part II, by William Jardine,1834, The Natural History of the Felinae, by William Jardine, with a memoir of Georges Cuvier. 1834, The Natural History of Gallinaceous birds, by William Jardine,1835, The Natural History of Fishes of the Perch family, by William Jardine, with a memoir of Sir Joseph Banks. 1835, British Butterflies, by James Duncan, with a memoir of Abraham Gottlob Werner,1836, The Natural History of Parrots, by Prideaux John Selby, with plates by Edward Lear and a memoir of Thomas Bewick. 1836, Mammalia, Pachydermes, Vol. V. by William Jardine,1836, Entomology, British Moths, Sphinxes, &c. Vol. IV. by James Duncan, with a Memoir of Madam Maria Sibylla Merian 1837, Mammalia, On the Ordinary Cetacea or Whales, Vol. VI, by William Jardine, with a Memoir of Bernard Germain de Lacépède
36.
Westminster Abbey
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It is one of the United Kingdoms most notable religious buildings and the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English and, later, British monarchs. Between 1540 and 1556, the abbey had the status of a cathedral, since 1560, however, the building is no longer an abbey nor a cathedral, having instead the status of a Church of England Royal Peculiar—a church responsible directly to the sovereign. The building itself is the abbey church. According to a tradition first reported by Sulcard in about 1080, a church was founded at the site in the 7th century, at the time of Mellitus, construction of the present church began in 1245, on the orders of King Henry III. Since the coronation of William the Conqueror in 1066, all coronations of English and British monarchs have held in Westminster Abbey. There have been at least 16 royal weddings at the abbey since 1100, two were of reigning monarchs, although, before 1919, there had been none for some 500 years. The first reports of the abbey are based on a tradition claiming that a young fisherman called Aldrich on the River Thames saw a vision of Saint Peter near the site. This seems to be quoted to justify the gifts of salmon from Thames fishermen that the abbey received in later years, in the present was, the Fishmongers Company still gives a salmon every year. The proven origins are that in the 960s or early 970s, Saint Dunstan, assisted by King Edgar, between 1042 and 1052, King Edward the Confessor began rebuilding St Peters Abbey to provide himself with a royal burial church. It was the first church in England built in the Romanesque style, the building was completed around 1090 and was consecrated on 28 December 1065, only a week before Edwards death on 5 January 1066. A week later, he was buried in the church, and, nine years later and his successor, Harold II, was probably crowned in the abbey, although the first documented coronation is that of William the Conqueror later the same year. The only extant depiction of Edwards abbey, together with the adjacent Palace of Westminster, is in the Bayeux Tapestry, construction of the present church was begun in 1245 by Henry III who selected the site for his burial. The abbot and monks, in proximity to the royal Palace of Westminster, the abbot often was employed on royal service and in due course took his place in the House of Lords as of right. The abbey built shops and dwellings on the west side, encroaching upon the sanctuary, the abbey became the coronation site of Norman kings. The Confessors shrine subsequently played a part in his canonisation. The work continued between 1245 and 1517 and was finished by the architect Henry Yevele in the reign of Richard II. Henry III also commissioned the unique Cosmati pavement in front of the High Altar, Henry VII added a Perpendicular style chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1503. Much of the came from Caen, in France, the Isle of Portland
37.
Nave
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The nave /ˈneɪv/ is the central aisle of a basilica church, or the main body of a church between its western wall and its chancel. It is the zone of a church accessible by the laity, the nave extends from the entry — which may have a separate vestibule — to the chancel and may be flanked by lower side-aisles separated from the nave by an arcade. If the aisles are high and of a width comparable to the central nave and it provides the central approach to the high altar. The term nave is from medieval Latin navis, a ship was an early Christian symbol. The term may also have suggested by the keel shape of the vaulting of a church. The earliest churches were built when builders were familiar with the form of the Roman basilica and it had a wide central area, with aisles separated by columns, and with windows near the ceiling. Old St. Peters Basilica in Rome is a church which had this form. It was built in the 4th century on the orders of Roman emperor Constantine I, the nave, the main body of the building, is the section set apart for the laity, while the chancel is reserved for the clergy. In medieval churches the nave was separated from the chancel by the rood screen, medieval naves were divided into bays, the repetition of form giving an effect of great length, and the vertical element of the nave was emphasized. During the Renaissance, in place of dramatic effects there were more balanced proportions, longest nave in Denmark, Aarhus Cathedral,93 metres. Longest nave in England, St Albans Cathedral, St Albans,84 metres, longest nave in Ireland, St Patricks Cathedral, Dublin,91 metres. Longest nave in France, Bourges Cathedral,91 metres, including choir where a crossing would be if there were transepts, longest nave in Germany, Cologne cathedral,58 metres, including two bays between the towers. Longest nave in Italy, St Peters Basilica in Rome,91 metres, longest nave in Spain, Seville,60 metres, in five bays. Longest nave in the United States, Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, New York City, highest vaulted nave, Beauvais Cathedral, France,48 metres high but only one bay of the nave was actually built but choir and transepts were completed to the same height. Highest completed nave, Rome, St. Peters, Italy,46 metres high, abbey, with architectural discussion and groundplans Cathedral architecture Cathedral diagram List of highest church naves
38.
Cremation
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Cremation is the combustion, vaporization and oxidation of cadavers to basic chemical compounds, such as gases, ashes and mineral fragments retaining the appearance of dry bone. Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite as an alternative to the interment of a dead body in a coffin. Cremated remains, which do not constitute a risk, may be buried or interred in memorial sites or cemeteries, or they may be retained by relatives. Cremation is not an alternative to a funeral, but rather an alternative to burial or other forms of disposal, some families prefer to have the deceased present at the funeral with cremation to follow, others prefer that the cremation occur prior to the funeral or memorial service. In many countries, cremation is usually done in a crematorium, some countries, such as India and Nepal, prefer different methods, such as open-air cremation. Cremation dates from at least 20,000 years ago in the record, with the Mungo Lady. Alternative death rituals emphasizing one method of disposal of a body—inhumation, cremation, in the Middle East and Europe, both burial and cremation are evident in the archaeological record in the Neolithic era. Cultural groups had their own preferences and prohibitions, the ancient Egyptians developed an intricate transmigration of soul theology, which prohibited cremation. This was also widely adopted used by Semitic peoples, the Babylonians, according to Herodotus, embalmed their dead. Early Persians practiced cremation, but this became prohibited during the Zoroastrian Period, phoenicians practiced both cremation and burial. From the Cycladic civilisation in 3000 BCE until the Sub-Mycenaean era in 1200–1100 BCE, Cremation appeared around the 12th century BCE, constituting a new practice of burial, probably influenced by Anatolia. Until the Christian era, when inhumation again became the burial practice. Romans practiced both, with cremation generally associated with military honors, in Europe, there are traces of cremation dating to the Early Bronze Age in the Pannonian Plain and along the middle Danube. The custom became dominant throughout Bronze Age Europe with the Urnfield culture, in the Iron Age, inhumation again becomes more common, but cremation persisted in the Villanovan culture and elsewhere. Homers account of Patroclus burial describes cremation with subsequent burial in a tumulus, similar to Urnfield burials, criticism of burial rites is a common form of aspersion by competing religions and cultures, including the association of cremation with fire sacrifice or human sacrifice. Hinduism and Jainism are notable for not only allowing but prescribing cremation, Cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture, considered the formative stage of Vedic civilization. The Rigveda contains a reference to the practice, in RV10.15.14. Cremation remained common, but not universal, in both ancient Greece and ancient Rome, according to Cicero, in Rome, inhumation was considered the more archaic rite, while the most honoured citizens were most typically cremated—especially upper classes and members of imperial families
39.
St Anne's Church, Kew
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St Annes Church, Kew, is a parish church in Kew in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. The building, which dates from 1714, and is Grade II* listed, the raised churchyard, which is on three sides of the church, has two Grade II* listed monuments – the tombs of the artists Johan Zoffany and Thomas Gainsborough. The French Impressionist painter Camille Pissarro, who stayed in 1892 at 10 Kew Green, on Sundays the church usually holds three morning services – a Said Eucharist in traditional language, Morning Prayer and a Sung Eucharist. An Evening Prayer is also held, St Annes Church produces a quarterly newsletter, Collect. In 1770, King George III undertook to pay for the first extension, designed by Joshua Kirby who, the church became a parish church in its own right in 1788. In 1805, a new aisle, designed by Robert Browne, was added. Under King William IV it was extended in 1837 by Sir Jeffry Wyattville. A mausoleum designed by the architect Benjamin Ferrey was added in 1851, further extensions occurred in 1902,1979 and 1988. The interior of the roof was repainted in 2013, to mark the churchs tercentenary in 2014, the baptismal font was replaced. The present parish hall, which is at right angles to the church and its design echoes the materials and forms of the church building. A collection of funerary hatchments honouring deceased royal or noble parishioners is on display in front of the churchs gallery, a hatchment commemorating George IIIs son, Ernest Augustus I of Hanover, was hung in the church in 1821. It is now in the collection of the Museum of Richmond, just outside the church walls, on the south side, is the Kew war memorial, in the form of a large stone cross, commemorating the local people who fell in the First and Second World Wars. Their names are listed not on the memorial, but in the church, the Barn Church, Kew St Lukes Church, Kew Official website St Annes Church, Kew Green. Local History Notes from Richmond Libraries’ Local Studies Collection, London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. The Friends of St Annes Church, Kew Speel, Bob, Kew Church Monuments Blomfield, R J L Smith and Associates. Richmond History, Journal of the Richmond Local History Society, the eccentric Vicar of Kew, the Revd Caleb Colton, 1780–1832. Richmond History, Journal of the Richmond Local History Society, cassidy, G E. Extracts from the Kew Church Archives. Richmond History, Journal of the Richmond Local History Society, the first Organ at St Annes Church, Kew Green
40.
HMS Terror (1813)
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HMS Terror was a bomb vessel constructed for the Royal Navy in 1813. She participated in battles of the War of 1812, including the bombardment of Fort McHenry. On 12 September 2016, the Arctic Research Foundation announced that the wreck of Terror had been found in Nunavuts Terror Bay, off the southwest coast of King William Island. The wreck was discovered 92 km south of the location where the ship was reported abandoned, HMS Terror was a Vesuvius-class bomb ship built over two years at the Davy shipyard in Topsham, Devon, for the Royal Navy. Her deck was 31 m long, and the ship measured 325 tons burthen, the vessel was armed with two mortars and ten cannons, and was launched in June 1813. Terror saw service in the War of 1812 against the United States, under the command of John Sheridan, she took part in the bombardment of Stonington, Connecticut, on 9–12 August 1814. In January 1815, still under Sheridans command, Terror was involved in the Battle of Fort Peter, in the mid-1830s, Terror was refitted as a polar exploration vessel. Her design as a bomb ship meant she had a framework to resist the recoil of her mortars, thus, she could withstand polar sea ice. In 1836, command of Terror was given to Captain George Back for an Arctic expedition to Hudson Bay, the expedition aimed to enter Repulse Bay, where it would send out landing parties to ascertain whether the Boothia Peninsula was an island or a peninsula. Terror was trapped by ice near Southampton Island, and did not reach Repulse Bay, at one point, the ice forced her 12 m up the face of a cliff. She was trapped in the ice for ten months, in the spring of 1837, an encounter with an iceberg further damaged the ship. She nearly sank on her journey across the Atlantic, and was in a sinking condition by the time Back was able to beach the ship on the coast of Ireland. Terror was repaired and assigned in 1839 to a voyage to the Antarctic along with Erebus under the command of James Clark Ross. Francis Crozier was commander of Terror on this expedition, as well as second-in-command to Ross, the dormant volcano Mount Terror on Ross Island was named after the ship by the expedition commander. Before leaving on the Franklin expedition, both Erebus and Terror underwent heavy modifications for the journey and they were both outfitted with steam engines, taken from former London and Greenwich Railway steam locomotives. Rated at 25 hp, each could propel its ship at 4 knots, the pair of ships became the first Royal Navy ships to have steam-powered engines and screw propellers. Twelve days supply of coal was carried, iron plating was added fore and aft on the ships hulls to make them more resistant to pack ice, and their decks were cross-planked to distribute impact forces. Along with Erebus, Terror was stocked with supplies for their expedition, Terrors library had 1,200 books, and the ships berths were heated via ducts that connected them to the stove
"Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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