1.
College of William and Mary
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The College of William & Mary in Virginia is a public research university located in Williamsburg, Virginia, United States. William & Mary educated U. S. Presidents Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, a young George Washington also received his surveyors license through the College. W&M students founded the Phi Beta Kappa academic honor society in 1776, the establishment of graduate programs in law and medicine in 1779 makes it one of the first universities in the United States. In addition to its program, W&M is home to several graduate programs. Named in honor of the reigning monarchs King William III and Queen Mary II, the original plans for the College date back to 1618 but were thwarted by the Indian Massacre of 1622, a change in government, events related to the English Civil War, and Bacons Rebellion. In 1695 before the town of Williamsburg existed, construction began on the College Building, now known as the Sir Christopher Wren Building and it is the oldest college building in America. The College is one of the countrys nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution, the Charter named James Blair as the Colleges first president. William & Mary was founded as an Anglican institution, students were required to be members of the Church of England, and professors were required to declare adherence to the Thirty-Nine Articles. In 1693, the College was given a seat in the House of Burgesses and it was determined the College would be supported by taxes and export duties on furs. The College acquired a 330 acres parcel for the new school,8 miles from Jamestown, in 1694, the new school opened in temporary buildings. Williamsburg was granted a charter as a city in 1722 by the Crown. During this time, the College served as a law center and it educated future U. S. Presidents Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, and John Tyler. The College has been called the Alma Mater of a Nation because of its ties to Americas founding fathers. A 17-year-old George Washington received his surveyors license through the College, William & Mary is famous for its firsts, the first U. S. institution with a Royal Charter, the first Greek-letter society, the first student honor code and the first law school in America. The College became a school in 1906 and became coeducational in 1918. In 1928, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. chose the College Building as the first building to be returned to its 18th-century appearance as part of the iconic Colonial Williamsburg restoration. During the period of the American Revolution, freedom of religion was established in Virginia notably with the 1786 passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, in 1779 the college became the first American university with the establishment of the graduate schools in law and medicine. The College of William and Mary is home to the nations first collegiate secret society, Society, popularly known as the Flat Hat Club, founded November 11,1750
College of William and Mary
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Reverend Dr. James Blair, founder of William & Mary
College of William and Mary
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The College of William & Mary
Coat of Arms
College of William and Mary
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James Monroe, 5th President of US, W&M alumnus
College of William and Mary
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Wren Building, 1859–1862
2.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
Yale University
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Charter creating Collegiate School, which became
Yale College, October 9, 1701
Yale University
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Yale University
Seal
Yale University
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A Front View of Yale-College and the College Chapel, Daniel Bowen, 1786.
Yale University
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First diploma awarded by
Yale College, granted to Nathaniel Chauncey, 1702.
3.
Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation
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It explores selected interactions among a group of individuals both gifted and flawed, interactions that profoundly influenced the early development of the United States. He notes that Ellis borrowed his technique from Lytton Stracheys classic study, Eminent Victorians, only a few facts are known about the most famous encounter of its kind in American history. Burr and Hamilton rowed out to a spot in separate boats. Hamilton was shot in his side and died. Chapter Four, The Farewell dissects the Farewell Address of President George Washington, in 2002, The History Channel produced a three-and-a-half hour documentary covering the various topics of the book
Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation
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Cover art for the hardback edition
4.
Founding Fathers of the United States
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Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of the The Federalist Papers, Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris that would end the American Revolutionary War. Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention, according to the CIA, Washington, Jay and Franklin helped define the powers of the Executive Branch All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States. The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used narrowly, referring specifically to the those who signed the engrossed version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 signed the Constitution, a further subset of Founders includes those who signed the Continental Association or the Articles of Confederation. During much of the 19th century, they were referred to as either the Founders or the Fathers, the First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774 and consisted of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies that became the United States of America. On the list of attendees was George Washington, who would soon be out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Also in attendance was Patrick Henry, and John Adams, who were elected by their respective colonial assemblies, other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New Yorks John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, when the Second Continental Congress came together on May 10,1775, it was, in effect, a reconvening of the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second, notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses, Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, the newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The Americans adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a government which was made up of a one-house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name, the Congress of the Confederation, later, the Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention, the result of the Convention was the United States Constitution. The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th-century American leadership, almost all of them were well-educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs, virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution, at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command
Founding Fathers of the United States
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Declaration of Independence, a painting by
John Trumbull depicting the
Committee of Five presenting their draft of the
Declaration of Independence to the Congress on June 28, 1776. Trumbull's painting appears on the reverse of the
United States two-dollar bill.
Founding Fathers of the United States
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The
Albany Congress of 1754 was a conference attended by seven colonies, which presaged later efforts at cooperation. The
Stamp Act Congress of 1765 included representatives from nine colonies.
Founding Fathers of the United States
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Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States, by
Howard Chandler Christy
Founding Fathers of the United States
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Portrait of
George Washington and his valet slave
William Lee.
5.
American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson
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American Sphinx, The Character of Thomas Jefferson, is a 1996 book written by Joseph Ellis, a professor of history at Mount Holyoke College. It won the 1997 National Book Award for Nonfiction and he follows through to the presidents retirement at Monticello. Central to the book are Jeffersons contradictions and inconsistencies, Ellis covers Jeffersons career as ambassador to France, Secretary of State, planter and president. He did not always speak exactly as he felt, either towards his friends or his enemies, as a consequence, he has left hanging over a part of his public life a vapor of duplicity. The presence of which is felt more than it is seen. Ellis showed how Jefferson shied away from public attention, according to Ellis, Jefferson gave just two public speeches as President of the United States. Thomas Jefferson felt far more comfortable writing, to which the Declaration of Independence attests and he worked extensively behind the scenes with other politicians to accomplish his political programs and create alliances. But what sets Jefferson apart from other US presidents, particularly John Adams, was his uniquely feminine approach to politics, detesting direct confrontation, he was a master dinner table politician. He was known for inviting his competitors to dinner to plant the seeds of his ideas, brent Staples in the New York Times Book Review commented, Joseph J. Elliss American Sphinx is a brief and elegant return to Monticello. Like several of his books, American Sphinx was a bestseller. Ellis suggested in the text that evidence for an affair between Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings was inconclusive, in 1997 Annette Gordon-Reed analyzed the historiography in her book Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, An American Controversy. In part because of Gordon-Reeds book, a team undertook a DNA study to try to settle the issue, the DNA tests conclusively proved that the Carr line and descendant of Eston Hemings were not related. This overturned the more than 150 years contention by the Jefferson family and historians that his nephews, the Carr, were more likely fathers. Ellis, who was interviewed during this broadcast, said that he had revised his opinion due to new evidence, Its not so much a change of heart. Even though the match is only one of the Hemings descendants, Eston Hemings, its inconceivable that Jefferson. I think this is a longstanding relationship, when it began and what the character of the relationship is we probably cant know easily or at all. But it was, without question, an enduring one and he noted, In the wake of the DNA revelations, an already-clear pattern of denial in Jeffersons life is deepened and darkened. After the results of the DNA testing, Ellis published essays coauthored with the geneticist Eric S. Lander in Nature and U. S. News & World Report
American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson
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Cover of unknown paperback edition.
6.
Pulitzer Prize for History
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The Pulitzer Prize for History, administered by Columbia University, is one of the seven American Pulitzer Prizes that are annually awarded for Letters, Drama, and Music. It has been presented since 1917 for a book about the history of the United States. Thus it is one of the original Pulitzers, for the program was inaugurated in 1917 with seven prizes, the Pulitzer Prize program has also recognized some historical work with its Biography prize, from 1917, and its General Non-Fiction prize, from 1952. Finalists have been announced from 1980, ordinarily two others beside the winner, in its first 97 years to 2013, the History Pulitzer was awarded 95 times. Two prizes were given in 1989, none in 1919,1984, four people have won two each, Margaret Leech, Bernard Bailyn, Paul Horgan and Alan Taylor. 1980, Been in the Storm So Long by Leon F. Litwack The Plains Across by John B. Unruh The Urban Crucible by Gary B, media related to Pulitzer Prize for History winners at Wikimedia Commons
Pulitzer Prize for History
7.
Theta Delta Chi
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Theta Delta Chi is a social fraternity that was founded in 1847 at Union College. While nicknames differ from institution to institution, the most common nicknames for the fraternity are Theta Delt, Thete, TDX, Theta Delta Chi brothers refer to their local organization as Charges rather than using the common fraternity nomenclature of chapter. In 1849, Green and Akin along with Francis Martindale, organized the Beta Charge at Ballston Law School, however, two years later the school itself moved and the new Charge was disbanded and the members put on Alphas rolls. Few of these remained active for long, although several were later revived, kappa at Tufts, founded in 1856, presently enjoys the honor of being the oldest active Charge in continuous existence. Only after 1870 did Theta Delta Chi begin to acquire its present configuration, westward expansion had traditionally been opposed by a large segment of the Fraternity, which worried that supervision and solidarity would suffer if Theta Delta Chi were to stray far from the East. Further Midwest expansion included Illinois and Iowa State, berkeley, Stanford, the University of Washington and UCLA brought Theta Delta Chi in strength to the Pacific coast. Expansion in the East during the 1870s, 1880s and 1890s brought Charges to Cornell, Boston University, Wabash, CCNY, Columbia, Lehigh, Amherst, Yale, MIT, Williams, and George Washington. Pennsylvania was the last Eastern Charge to become active before World War I, although 1904 and 1910 saw the reactivation of the Southern Charges, Epsilon, Theta Delta Chi became an International Fraternity with charterings at McGill and Toronto. The Great Depression and the Second World War saw a number of Charges go inactive, at its Centennial Convention in 1947, Theta Delta Chi stood at 28 Charges, a number that would begin to increase only in the 1950s. The institutions of the Fraternity slowly took shape during the late nineteenth, in 1867 anti-fraternity sentiment at Union led to the disbanding of the Alpha. The Grand Lodge, originally three and now five officers remains the governing body of the Fraternity to this day. The 1881 Convention required that the President of the Grand Lodge visit every Charge once a year, in 1869, the first issue of The Shield was produced, qualifying it as the oldest fraternity magazine. Although it lapsed after one issue, The Shield was revived in 1884 and has published continually since then. The office currently operates from 214 Lewis Wharf in Boston, Massachusetts, the financial health of Theta Delta Chi was ensured through the establishment of two entities, the Founders Corporation in 1910 and the Educational Foundation in 1944. Any Theta Delt may join the Corporation on payment of $250 and it also receives bequests and holds and invests all funds for the benefit of the Fraternity. The Educational Foundation, a 501 public charity, receives bequests and owns the property occupied by the CFO and it funds the educational activities of the Fraternity. The Fort Lauderdale, FL and Greensboro, NC Charges marked a significant re-entry into the South, with the start of the new millennium, Theta Delta Chi has worked to revive several of its defunct Charges, while installing Charges on new campuses. The Chi Charge, founded in 1867, and active for most of the time then was re-chartered in the summer of 2002 at the 155th Annual Convention
Theta Delta Chi
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Theta Delta Chi
8.
Mount Holyoke College
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Mount Holyoke College is a liberal arts college for women in South Hadley, Massachusetts, United States. It was the first member of the Seven Sisters colleges, Mount Holyoke is part of the Pioneer Valleys Five College Consortium, along with Amherst College, Smith College, Hampshire College, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst. The school was founded in 1837 by Mary Lyon as Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, Mary Lyon had previously founded Wheaton Female Seminary in Norton, Massachusetts, in 1834. Mount Holyoke received its charter in 1888 as Mount Holyoke Seminary and College. Mount Holyokes chapter of Phi Beta Kappa was established in 1905, Mount Holyokes buildings were designed between 1896 and 1960. It has a Donald Ross-designed 18-hole golf course, The Orchards, U. S. News & World Report lists Mount Holyoke as the 35th best liberal arts college in the United States in its 2016 rankings. In 2011–2012, Mount Holyoke was one of the top producers of Fulbright Scholars. Mount Holyokes founder, Mary Lyon, is considered by scholars to have been an innovator in the area of womens education. Her establishment of Mount Holyoke Female Seminary was part of a movement to create institutions of higher education for young women during the first half of the 19th century. Lyons contemporaries include Sarah Pierce, Catharine Beecher, Zilpah P. Grant Banister, prior to founding Mount Holyoke, Lyon contributed to the development of both Hartford Female Seminary and Ipswich Female Seminary. She was also involved in the creation of Wheaton Female Seminary in 1834, Mount Holyoke Female Seminary was originally chartered as a teaching seminary in 1836 and opened its doors to students on 8 November 1837. Both Vassar College and Wellesley College were patterned after Mount Holyoke, from its founding in 1837, Mount Holyoke Female Seminary had no religious affiliation. However, students were required to attend services, chapel talks, prayer meetings. Twice a day teachers and students spent time in private devotions, every dorm room had two large lighted closets to give roommates privacy during their devotions. Mount Holyoke Female Seminary was the school to Andover Seminary. Mount Holyoke Female Seminary received its charter in 1888, becoming Mount Holyoke Seminary. In 1893 it became Mount Holyoke College, Mount Holyokes chapter of Phi Beta Kappa was established in 1905. It has been a school to Womens Christian College in Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Mount Holyoke College
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Mary Lyon ivory miniature
Mount Holyoke College
Mount Holyoke College
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Mount Holyoke in 1887
Mount Holyoke College
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The
Pioneer Valley and
Connecticut River
9.
University of Massachusetts at Amherst
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The University of Massachusetts Amherst is a public research and land-grant university in Amherst, Massachusetts, United States, and the flagship of the University of Massachusetts system. The university offers degrees, masters degrees, and doctoral degrees in 111 undergraduate,75 masters and 47 doctoral programs in nine schools. The main campus is situated north of downtown Amherst, in a 2009 article for MSN. com, Amherst was ranked first in Best College Towns in the United States. In 2012, U. S. News and World Report ranked Amherst among the Top 10 Great College Towns in America and it is also a member of the Five College Consortium. The University of Massachusetts Amherst is categorized as a Research University with Highest research activity by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, in fiscal year 2014, UMass Amherst had research expenditures exceeding $200 million. UMass Amherst sports teams are called the Minutemen and Minutewomen, the colors being maroon, black, and white, all teams participate in NCAA Division I. The university is a member of the Atlantic 10 Conference, while playing ice hockey in Hockey East, accordingly, the university was initially named the Massachusetts Agricultural College, popularly referred to as Mass Aggie or M. A. C. In 1867, the college had yet to admit any students, had been through two Presidents, and still had not completed any college buildings, in that year, William S. Clark was appointed President of the college and Professor of Botany. He quickly appointed a faculty, completed the plan. Clark became the first functioning President and arguably the founding father of the college. The original buildings consisted of Old South College, North College, the Chemistry Laboratory, also known as College Hall, the Boarding House, the Botanic Museum, although enrollment was slow during the 1870s, the fledgling college built momentum under the leadership of President Henry Hill Goodell. In the 1880s, Goodell implemented a plan, adding the College Drill Hall in 1883, the Old Chapel Library in 1885. The Campus Pond, now the focus of the University Campus, was created in 1893 by damming a small brook. The early 20th century saw expansion in terms of enrollment. The first female student was admitted in 1875 on a part-time basis, in 1903, Draper Hall was constructed for the dual purpose of a dining hall and female housing. The first female students graduated with the class of 1905, the first dedicated female dormitory, the Abigail Adams House was built in 1920. By the start of the 20th century, the college was thriving, the Education curriculum was established in 1907. In recognition of the enrollment and broader curriculum, the college was renamed Massachusetts State College in 1931
University of Massachusetts at Amherst
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Massachusetts Agricultural College as it appeared in 1879, with students and faculty standing in front of Old South College, North College, and the college's first chapel.
University of Massachusetts at Amherst
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Seal of the University of Massachusetts
University of Massachusetts at Amherst
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Old Chapel constructed in 1884 at the campus
University of Massachusetts at Amherst
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Welcome sign at the university
10.
Amherst, Massachusetts
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Amherst is a town in Hampshire County, Massachusetts, United States in the Connecticut River valley. As of the 2010 census, the population was 37,819, the town is home to Amherst College, Hampshire College, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst, three of the Five Colleges. The name of the town is pronounced without the h, giving rise to the saying, only the h is silent. The communities of Amherst Center, North Amherst, and South Amherst are census-designated places, Amherst is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. Lying 18 miles northeast of the city of Springfield, Amherst is considered the northernmost town in the Hartford-Springfield Knowledge Corridor Metropolitan Region, Amherst celebrated its 250th anniversary in 2009. The Amherst 250th Anniversary Celebration Committee was established to oversee the creation and implementation of activities throughout 2009. The first permanent English settlements arrived in 1727 and it gained precinct status in 1734 and eventually township in 1759. When it incorporated, the governor assigned the town the name Amherst after Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst. Many colonial governors at the time scattered his name amidst the influx of new town applications, Amherst was a hero of the French and Indian War who, according to popular legend, singlehandedly won Canada for the British and banished France from North America. Popular belief has it that he supported the American side in the Revolutionary war, nonetheless, his previous service in the French and Indian War meant he remained popular in New England. For this reason, there have been occasional ad hoc movements to rename the town, suggested new names have included Emily, after Emily Dickinson. According to the United States Census Bureau, Amherst has an area of 27.8 square miles. The town is bordered by Hadley to the west, Sunderland and Leverett to the north, Shutesbury, Pelham, and Belchertown to the east, and Granby and South Hadley to the south. The highest point in the town is on the shoulder of Mount Norwottuck. The town is equidistant from both the northern and southern state lines. For interactive mapping provided by the Town of Amherst, see External Links on this page, Amhersts ZIP code of 01002 is the second-lowest number in the continental United States after Agawam. Amherst has a continental climate that under the Köppen system marginally falls into the warm-summer category. It is interchangeable with the hot-summer subtype dfa with July means hovering around 71.4 °F, winters are cold and snowy, albeit daytime temperatures often remain above freezing
Amherst, Massachusetts
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Amherst Center. Shops along the west side of South Pleasant Street, February 2005.
Amherst, Massachusetts
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Flag
Amherst, Massachusetts
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UMass, looking southeast
Amherst, Massachusetts
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Town Hall
11.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Massachusetts
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A portion of the north-central
Pioneer Valley in
Sunderland
Massachusetts
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Flag
Massachusetts
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Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the
piping plover
Massachusetts
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The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882). The
Pilgrims were a group of
Puritans who founded
Plymouth in 1620.
12.
Sally Hemings
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Sarah Sally Hemings was an enslaved woman of mixed race owned by President Thomas Jefferson. Most historians believe she was the mother of six children fathered by him, of four survived to adulthood. It is believed by most historians that Jefferson began a relationship with Hemings in France or soon after their return to Monticello. Hemings was a slave in Jeffersons house until his death, the historical question of whether Jefferson was the father of Hemings children is known as the Jefferson–Hemings controversy. A small number of historians disagree, Hemings children lived in Jeffersons house as slaves and were trained as artisans. Jefferson freed all of Hemings surviving children, Beverly, Harriet, Madison and they were seven-eighths European in ancestry, and three of the four entered white society as adults. Descendants of those three identified as white, Hemings was given her time, lived her last nine years freely with her two younger sons in Charlottesville, Virginia, and saw a grandchild born in the house her sons owned. Sally Hemings was born about 1773 to Betty Hemings, a biracial slave and her father was their master John Wayles. Her mother Betty was the daughter of Susanna, an enslaved African, and John Hemings, Susanna and Betty Hemings were first held by Francis Eppes IV, where Susanna was referred to as Susanna Epps. John Hemings tried to buy them from Eppes, but the refused to give them up. The mother and daughter were inherited by Franciss daughter, Martha Eppes and his parents were Edward Wayles and Ellen Ashburner-Wayles, both of Lancaster, England. After Marthas death, Wayles married and was widowed twice more and they were half-siblings to his daughters by his wives, his first child, Martha Wayles, married the young planter Thomas Jefferson. The biracial children of Betty Hemings by Wayles were three-quarters European in ancestry and very fair-skinned, since 1662 in Virginia slave law, children born to enslaved mothers were considered slaves under the principle of partus sequitur ventrem. Elizabeth and her children, including Sally Hemings, and all their children, were slaves, although the fathers were the white masters. After Wayles died in 1773, his daughter Martha and Jefferson inherited the Hemings family among a total of 135 slaves from his estate, the youngest Wayles-Hemings child was Sally, an infant that year and about 25 years younger than Martha. Betty Hemings other children and their descendants, also mixed race, in 1784, the widower Thomas Jefferson was appointed the American envoy to France, he took his oldest daughter Martha with him to Paris, as well as some of his personal slaves. Among them was Sallys older brother James Hemings, who trained as a chef in French cuisine. Jefferson left his two daughters in the care of friends in the US
Sally Hemings
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An incomplete family tree or pedigree showing Sally Hemings' parents and grandparents. Squares denote men and circles denote women. Bold strokes indicate slaves.
Sally Hemings
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Thomas Jefferson, The third President of The United States, c.1791
13.
Thomas Jefferson Foundation
–
The Foundations initial focus was on architectural preservation, with the goal of restoring Monticello as close to its original appearance as possible. It has since grown to other historic and cultural pursuits. It also publishes and provides a center for scholarship on Jefferson, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation was launched in 1923 as the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation. It named Stuart G. Gibboney as its first president on April 28,1923, shortly after the Foundations inauguration earlier that month in New York City. To foster and preserve the ideals of American liberty and the form of government, and to keep alive the name and memory of Thomas Jefferson, as the apostle of human freedom. ”Monticello had a contract purchase price of $500,000. This initial payment was a landmark for the Foundation, as the transaction allowed it to assume the title to Monticello. The Foundation also sought to raise $500,000 for an endowment fund, the Washington Post noted that the Foundations successful payment has set to rest any misgivings that may have existed that the foundations plan would end without result. The Foundation was officially launched at the University of Virginia, which Jefferson founded, during 1924 the Foundation opened Monticello to the general public and began repair and maintenance work on the property, which had fallen into disrepair. That same year architectural historian Fiske Kimball was named as the Chairman of the Restoration Committee, in the following year the National Education Committee was formed to promote restoration of Monticello and to spread Jeffersonian ideals. A year later this recognition went to Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd, the Foundation paid off its first mortgage in 1928. Although it experienced financial hardship during the Great Depression, the Foundation was officially debt free by 1940, in 1960 it moved its headquarters from New York to Monticello, where it has remained. During January 2000 the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation changed its name to the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, efforts to restore Monticello began shortly after the Foundations purchase, and in 1924 work began on the main houses supporting stone walls. The terraces and roof were repaired and the house was repainted. The Foundation also began restoring Monticellos gardens and invited the Garden Club of America to give advice, the GCA would later assist with funding for the restoration of the Kitchen Road, which leads from the main house to Mulberry Row. In 1927 Monticellos Great Clock was repaired and during the year the Foundation restored the slave quarters under the south terrace. In the following years the Foundation restored more of the plantation as closely to its state as possible. It has bought land that formerly belonged or pertained to Jefferson, including the Shadwell plantation where the President was born, one of his original farms, Tufton. The Foundation now owns roughly 2,500 acres of Jefferson’s original 5, 000-acre estate at Monticello, of which it has put 1,060 acres under permanent preservation easements
Thomas Jefferson Foundation
–
Monticello
Thomas Jefferson Foundation
–
Monticello and its reflection
Thomas Jefferson Foundation
–
Some of the gardens on the property
Thomas Jefferson Foundation
–
In a time before refrigeration, Jefferson had the pond stocked with fish, to be available on demand.
14.
Y-DNA
–
The Y chromosome is one of two sex chromosomes in mammals, including humans, and many other animals. The other is the X chromosome, Y is the sex-determining chromosome in many species, since it is the presence or absence of Y that determines the male or female sex of offspring produced in sexual reproduction. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains the gene SRY, which triggers testis development, the DNA in the human Y chromosome is composed of about 59 million base pairs. The Y chromosome is passed only from father to son, with a 30% difference between humans and chimpanzees, the Y chromosome is one of the fastest-evolving parts of the human genome. To date, over 200 Y-linked genes have been identified, all Y-linked genes are expressed and hemizygous except in the cases of aneuploidy such as XYY syndrome or XXYY syndrome. The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by Nettie Stevens at Bryn Mawr College in 1905 during a study of the mealworm Tenebrio molitor, edmund Beecher Wilson independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the Y chromosome was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by Hermann Henking, Stevens named the chromosome Y simply to follow on from Henkings X alphabetically. The idea that the Y chromosome was named after its similarity in appearance to the letter Y is mistaken, all chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a well-defined shape during mitosis. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes and it is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during mitosis, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape. Most mammals have one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Males have one Y chromosome and one X chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes, in mammals, the Y chromosome contains a gene, SRY, which triggers embryonic development as a male. The Y chromosomes of humans and other mammals also contain other genes needed for normal sperm production, for example, the platypus relies on an XY sex-determination system based on five pairs of chromosomes. Among humans, some men have two Xs and a Y, or one X and two Ys, and some women have three Xs or a single X instead of a double X, there are other exceptions in which SRY is damaged, or copied to the X. For related phenomena, see Androgen insensitivity syndrome and Intersex, many ectothermic vertebrates have no sex chromosomes. If they have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically, for some of them, especially reptiles, sex depends on the incubation temperature, others are hermaphroditic. The chromosome with this became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired through the process of translocation, until recently, the X and Y chromosomes were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago. The older estimate was based on reports that the platypus X chromosomes contained these sequences
Y-DNA
–
Human Y chromosome (after
G-banding).
15.
The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
–
As the nations first hour-long nightly news broadcast, the program is known for its in-depth coverage of issues and current events. Throughout their tenure, Ifill and Woodruff were the first and only all-female anchor team of a nightly news program on broadcast television. The PBS NewsHour originates from WETAs studios in Arlington County, Virginia with additional facilities in San Francisco and it is a collaboration between WNET, WETA-TV, and fellow PBS member television stations KQED in San Francisco, KETC in St. Louis and WTTW in Chicago. The NewsHour Weekend is produced at the Tisch WNET studios on Lincoln Center, in 1973, Robert MacNeil and Jim Lehrer teamed up to cover the United States Senate Watergate hearings for PBS. The two earned an Emmy Award for their unprecedented gavel-to-gavel coverage, less than 1½ months later on December 1,1975, the program was renamed The MacNeil/Lehrer Report and began to air on PBS stations nationwide. Most editions employed a two-anchor, two-city format, with MacNeil based in New York City, Liberty Media bought a 67% controlling equity stake in MacNeil/Lehrer Productions in 1994, but MacNeil and Lehrer retained editorial control. Robert MacNeil retired from the program on October 20,1995, accordingly, the program was renamed The NewsHour With Jim Lehrer three days later on October 23. The NewsHour won a Peabody Award in 2003 for the feature report Jobless Recovery, on May 17,2006, the program underwent its first major change in presentation in years, adopting a new graphics package and a reorchestrated version of the shows theme music. The program also introduced a new set and upconverted its existing graphics package to HD, on May 11,2009, PBS announced that the program would be revamped on December 7 of that year under a revised title as the PBS NewsHour. The overhaul was described by Jim Lehrer as the first phase in his move toward retirement. Lehrer formally ended his tenure as an anchor of the program in June 2011. He continued to anchor on Fridays afterward, when he usually leads the political analysis segment with Mark Shields. On August 6,2013, Gwen Ifill and Judy Woodruff were named as co-anchors, the two shared anchor duties on the Monday through Thursday editions, with Woodruff solo anchoring on Fridays due to Ifills duties as host of the political discussion program Washington Week. Plans for an edition of PBS NewsHour had been considered as early as March 2013. MacNeil/Lehrer Productions announced in a letter to the shows staffers on October 8,2013, the transfer was approved by the WETA board of trustees on June 17,2014, and took effect on July 1. At that time, production of the program was taken over by NewsHour Productions, LLC, WETA also acquired MacNeil/Lehrer Productions archives, documentaries, and projects, though not the companys name. PBS NewsHour Weekend was not affected by the transfer and continues to be produced by WNET. The program is notable for being shown on public television, as such, there are no interruptions during the program to run advertisements
The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
–
The final title sequence as The NewsHour With Jim Lehrer, used from May 17, 2006, to December 6, 2009.
The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
–
PBS NewsHour logo used since December 7, 2009.
The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
–
Judy Woodruff interviewing US Secretary of Defense
Chuck Hagel in September 2013.
The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
–
Behind the scenes at The Newshour, during a Gen.
Peter Pace interview.
16.
His Excellency: George Washington
–
His Excellency, George Washington is a 2004 biography of the first President of the United States, General George Washington. It was written by Joseph Ellis, a professor of History at Mount Holyoke College, who specializes in the founding fathers, according to Ellis, Washington was always searching for a means to control his inner passions and his destiny. He fumed under the control that the British held over him during the Colonial America period, in particular, he was frustrated by the lack of respect offered for his military achievements to granting land claim rights in the west. As a general, he bemoaned the lack of control the fledgling Continental Congress had over the colonies which composed it, as a man forced to make his own destiny, he made the theme of control central to his life. He asserted such control in his decisions at his beloved plantation and this Washington is all the greater because he is a real human being with both passions and principles. He also wrote, Joseph J. Ellis. has been a one-man historical machine and his Excellency, George Washington, collected reviews and quotes, Powells Books
His Excellency: George Washington
–
His Excellency: George Washington
17.
Boston Globe
–
The Boston Globe is an American daily newspaper based in Boston, Massachusetts. Founded in 1872 by Charles H. Taylor, it was held until 1973. The company was acquired in 1993 by The New York Times Company, in 2011, a BostonGlobe. com subscription site was launched. In 2013, the newspaper and websites were purchased by John W. Henry, the Boston Globe has been awarded 26 Pulitzer Prizes since 1966, and its chief print rival is the Boston Herald. The Boston Globe was founded in 1872 by six Boston businessmen, including Charles H. Taylor and Eben Jordan, the first issue was published on March 4,1872, and cost four cents. Originally a morning daily, it began a Sunday edition in 1877, in 1878, The Boston Globe started an afternoon edition called The Boston Evening Globe, which ceased publication in 1979. By the 1890s, The Boston Globe had become a stronghold, in 1964, Tom Winship succeeded his father, Larry Winship, as editor. The younger Winship transformed The Globe from a local paper into a regional paper of national distinction. He served as editor until 1984, during which time the paper won a dozen Pulitzer Prizes, the Boston Globe was a private company until 1973 when it went public under the name Affiliated Publications. It continued to be managed by the descendants of Charles H. Taylor, in 1993, The New York Times Company purchased Affiliated Publications for US$1.1 billion, making The Boston Globe a wholly owned subsidiary of The New York Times parent. The Jordan and Taylor families received substantial New York Times Company stock, Boston. com, the online edition of The Boston Globe, was launched on the World Wide Web in 1995. Consistently ranked among the top ten websites in America, it has won numerous national awards. Under the helm of editor Martin Baron and then Brian McGrory, the Boston Globe is credited with allowing Peter Gammons to start his Notes section on baseball, which has become a mainstay in all major newspapers nationwide. In 2004, Gammons was selected as the 56th recipient of the J. G. Taylor Spink Award for outstanding baseball writing, given by the BBWAA, and was honored at the Baseball Hall of Fame on July 31,2005. In 2007, Charlie Savage, whose reports on President Bushs use of signing statements made national news, the Boston Globe has consistently been ranked in the forefront of American journalism. The Boston Globe hosts 28 blogs covering a variety of topics including Boston sports, local politics, on April 2,2009, The New York Times Company threatened to close the paper if its unions did not agree to $20,000,000 of cost savings. Some of the cost savings include reducing union employees pay by 5%, ending pension contributions, the Boston Globe eliminated the equivalent of fifty full-time jobs, among buy-outs and layoffs, it swept out most of the part-time employees in the editorial sections. The papers other three major unions had agreed to concessions on May 3,2009, after The New York Times Company threatened to give the government 60-days notice that it intended to close the paper
Boston Globe
–
The April 18, 2011 front page of The Boston Globe
Boston Globe
–
The Boston Globe
Boston Globe
–
Boston Globe headquarters in September 2009
18.
Vietnam War
–
It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
Vietnam War
–
Clockwise, from top left: U.S. combat operations in
Ia Drang, ARVN Rangers defending
Saigon during the 1968
Tet Offensive, two
Douglas A-4C Skyhawks en route for airstrikes against North Vietnam after the
Gulf of Tonkin incident, ARVN recapture
Quảng Trị during the 1972
Easter Offensive, civilians fleeing the
1972 Battle of Quảng Trị, burial of 300 victims of the 1968
Huế Massacre.
Vietnam War
–
A Japanese naval officer surrenders his sword to a British Lieutenant in Saigon on 13 September 1945.
Vietnam War
–
The
Geneva Conference, 1954
Vietnam War
–
U.S. President
Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State
John Foster Dulles greet President
Ngô Đình Diệm of
South Vietnam in Washington, 8 May 1957.
19.
West Point
–
It sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River,50 miles north of New York City. It is one of the four U. S. military service academies, the entire central campus is a national landmark and home to scores of historic sites, buildings, and monuments. The majority of the campuss Norman-style buildings are constructed from gray, the campus is a popular tourist destination complete with a large visitor center and the oldest museum in the United States Army. Candidates for admission must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a member of Congress or Delegate/Resident Commissioner in the case of Washington, puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands. Other nomination sources include the President and Vice President of the United States, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets or collectively as the United States Corps of Cadets. Tuition for cadets is fully funded by the Army in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,300 cadets enter the Academy each July, with about 1,000 cadets graduating. Cadets are required to adhere to the Cadet Honor Code, which states that a cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, the academy bases a cadets leadership experience as a development of all three pillars of performance, academics, physical, and military. Most graduates are commissioned as lieutenants in the Army. Foreign cadets are commissioned into the armies of their home countries, since 1959, cadets have also been eligible to cross-commission, or request a commission in one of the other armed services, provided that they meet that services eligibility standards. Every year, a small number of cadets do this. The academys traditions have influenced other institutions because of its age and it was the first American college to have an accredited civil-engineering program and the first to have class rings, and its technical curriculum was a model for later engineering schools. West Points student body has a rank structure and lexicon. All cadets reside on campus and dine together en masse on weekdays for breakfast, the academy fields fifteen mens and nine womens National Collegiate Athletic Association sports teams. Cadets compete in one sport every fall, winter, and spring season at the intramural, club and its football team was a national power in the early and mid-20th century, winning three national championships. The Continental Army first occupied West Point, New York, on 27 January 1778, between 1778 and 1780, the Polish engineer and military hero Tadeusz Kościuszko oversaw the construction of the garrison defenses. While the fortifications at West Point were known as Fort Arnold during the war, as commander, Benedict Arnold committed his act of treason, after Arnold betrayed the patriot cause, the Army changed the name of the fortifications at West Point, New York, to Fort Clinton. With the peace after the American Revolutionary War, various ordnance, Cadets underwent training in artillery and engineering studies at the garrison since 1794. In 1801, shortly after his inauguration as president, Thomas Jefferson directed that plans be set in motion to establish at West Point the United States Military Academy and he selected Jonathan Williams to serve as its first superintendent
West Point
–
West Point fortifications 1780
West Point
–
United States Military Academy at West Point
West Point
–
West Point, from Phillipstown. engraving by W. J. Bennett showing the original buildings of the United States Military Academy
West Point
–
Thayer monument
20.
Financial endowment
–
A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
Financial endowment
–
Basic investment types
21.
Los Angeles Times
–
The Los Angeles Times, commonly referred to as the Times or LA Times, is a paid daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California, since 1881. It was the largest metropolitan newspaper in circulation in the United States in 2008, the Times is owned by tronc. The Times was first published on December 4,1881, as the Los Angeles Daily Times under the direction of Nathan Cole Jr. and it was first printed at the Mirror printing plant, owned by Jesse Yarnell and T. J. Unable to pay the bill, Cole and Gardiner turned the paper over to the Mirror Company. Mathes had joined the firm, and it was at his insistence that the Times continued publication, in July 1882, Harrison Gray Otis moved from Santa Barbara to become the papers editor. Otis made the Times a financial success, in an era where newspapers were driven by party politics, the Times was directed at Republican readers. As was typical of newspapers of the time, the Times would sit on stories for several days, historian Kevin Starr wrote that Otis was a businessman capable of manipulating the entire apparatus of politics and public opinion for his own enrichment. Otiss editorial policy was based on civic boosterism, extolling the virtues of Los Angeles, the efforts of the Times to fight local unions led to the October 1,1910 bombing of its headquarters, killing twenty-one people. Two union leaders, James and Joseph McNamara, were charged, the American Federation of Labor hired noted trial attorney Clarence Darrow to represent the brothers, who eventually pleaded guilty. Upon Otiss death in 1917, his son-in-law, Harry Chandler, Harry Chandler was succeeded in 1944 by his son, Norman Chandler, who ran the paper during the rapid growth of post-war Los Angeles. Family members are buried at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery near Paramount Studios, the site also includes a memorial to the Times Building bombing victims. The fourth generation of family publishers, Otis Chandler, held that position from 1960 to 1980, Otis Chandler sought legitimacy and recognition for his familys paper, often forgotten in the power centers of the Northeastern United States due to its geographic and cultural distance. He sought to remake the paper in the model of the nations most respected newspapers, notably The New York Times, believing that the newsroom was the heartbeat of the business, Otis Chandler increased the size and pay of the reporting staff and expanded its national and international reporting. In 1962, the paper joined with the Washington Post to form the Los Angeles Times-Washington Post News Service to syndicate articles from both papers for news organizations. During the 1960s, the paper won four Pulitzer Prizes, more than its previous nine decades combined, eventually the coupon-clipping branches realized that they could make more money investing in something other than newspapers. Under their pressure the companies went public, or split apart, thats the pattern followed over more than a century by the Los Angeles Times under the Chandler family. The papers early history and subsequent transformation was chronicled in an unauthorized history Thinking Big and it has also been the whole or partial subject of nearly thirty dissertations in communications or social science in the past four decades. In 2000, the Tribune Company acquired the Times, placing the paper in co-ownership with then-WB -affiliated KTLA, which Tribune acquired in 1985
Los Angeles Times
–
Front page from October 21, 2008
Los Angeles Times
–
Chandler and Otis 1917
Los Angeles Times
–
Rubble of the L.A. Times building after the
1910 bombing
Los Angeles Times
–
Times
Newspaper vending machine featuring news of the
1984 Summer Olympics
22.
Washington Post
–
The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for the District of Columbia, Maryland, the newspaper is published as a broadsheet, with photographs printed both in color and in black and white. The newspaper has won 47 Pulitzer Prizes and this includes six separate Pulitzers awarded in 2008, the second-highest number ever awarded to a single newspaper in one year, second only to The New York Times seven awards in 2002. Post journalists have also received 18 Nieman Fellowships and 368 White House News Photographers Association awards, in years since, its investigations have led to increased review of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 2013, its owners, the Graham family, sold the newspaper to billionaire entrepreneur. The newspaper is owned by Nash Holdings LLC, a holding company Bezos created for the acquisition, the Washington Post is generally regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers, along with The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. The Post has distinguished itself through its reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress. It is one of the two daily broadsheets published in Washington D. C. the other being its smaller rival The Washington Times, unlike The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post does not print an edition for distribution away from the East Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of its National Weekly Edition, the majority of its newsprint readership is in District of Columbia and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The Sunday Style section differs slightly from the weekday Style section, it is in a tabloid format, and it houses the reader-written humor contest The Style Invitational. Additional weekly sections appear on weekdays, Health & Science on Tuesday, Food on Wednesday, Local Living on Thursday, the latter two are in a tabloid format. In November 2009, it announced the closure of its U. S. regional bureaus—Chicago, Los Angeles and New York—as part of a focus on. political stories. The newspaper has bureaus in Maryland and Virginia. While its circulation has been slipping, it has one of the highest market-penetration rates of any metropolitan news daily, for many decades, the Post had its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos Nash Holdings in 2013, Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street for US$159 million in November 2013. The Washington Post continued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW, in May 2014, The Washington Post leased the west tower of One Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D. C
Washington Post
–
Front page for May 21, 2015
Washington Post
–
The Washington Post
Washington Post
–
The headquarters of The Washington Post in
Washington, DC.
Washington Post
–
Washington Post building in 1948
23.
New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
New York Times
–
Cover of The New York Times (November 15, 2012), with the headline story reporting on
Operation Pillar of Defense.
New York Times
–
The Times Square Building, The New York Times ' publishing headquarters, 1913–2007
New York Times
–
The New York Times newsroom, 1942
New York Times
–
A speech in the newsroom after announcement of
Pulitzer Prize winners, 2009
24.
PBS
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The Public Broadcasting Service is an American non-profit public broadcaster and television program distributor headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is funded by member dues, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, government agencies, corporations, foundations. All proposed funding is subjected to a set of standards to ensure the program is free of influence from the funding source, since the mid 2000s, Roper polls commissioned by PBS have consistently placed the service as the most-trusted national institution in the United States. This arbitrary distinction is a frequent source of viewer confusion and it also operates National Datacast, a subsidiary which offers datacasting services via member stations, and provides additional revenue for PBS and its member stations. Founded by Hartford N. Gunn Jr, in 1973, it merged with Educational Television Stations. Each station is charged with the responsibility of programming content for their individual market or state that supplements content provided by PBS. By contrast, PBS member stations pay fees for the acquired and distributed by the national organization. Under this relationship, PBS member stations have greater latitude in local scheduling than their commercial broadcasting counterparts, scheduling of PBS-distributed series may vary greatly depending on the market. This can be a source of tension as stations seek to preserve their localism, however, PBS has a policy of common carriage, which requires most stations to clear the national prime time programs on a common programming schedule to market them nationally more effectively. Management at former Los Angeles member KCET cited unresolvable financial and programming disputes among its reasons for leaving PBS after over 40 years in January 2011. Most PBS stations timeshift some distributed programs, once PBS accepts a program offered for distribution, PBS, rather than the originating member station, retains exclusive rebroadcasting rights during an agreed period. Suppliers retain the right to sell the program in non-broadcast media such as DVDs, books, in 1991, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting resumed production for most PBS shows that debuted prior to 1977, with the exceptions of Washington Week in Review and Wall Street Week. In 1994, The Chronicle of Philanthropy released the results of the largest study on the popularity and credibility of charitable, the strategy began that fall, with the intent to expand the in-program breaks to the remainder of the schedule if successful. In 2011, PBS released apps for iOS and Android to allow viewing of videos on mobile devices. An update in 2015 added Chromecast support, PBS initially struggled to compete with online media such as YouTube for market share. In a 2012 speech to 850 top executives from PBS stations, in the speech, later described as a “seminal moment” for public television, he laid out his vision for a new style of PBS digital video production. Station leadership rallied around his vision and Seiken formed PBS Digital Studios, which began producing educational but edgy videos, something Seiken called “PBS-quality with a YouTube sensibility. ”The studio’s first hit, in 2012, PBS began organizing much of its prime time programming around a genre-based schedule. PBS broadcasts childrens programming as part of the morning and afternoon schedule
PBS
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PBS
25.
C-SPAN
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C-SPAN, an acronym for Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service. C-SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government, as well as public affairs programming. Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited, thereby providing viewers with unfiltered information about politics, non-political coverage includes historical programming, programs dedicated to non-fiction books, and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy. The network operates independently, and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming, Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions. Lamb shared his idea with several executives, who helped him launch the network. Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $25,000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C-SPAN signal. C-SPAN was launched on March 19,1979, in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives, upon its debut, only 3.5 million homes were wired for C-SPAN, and the network had just three employees. The second C-SPAN channel, C-SPAN2, followed on June 2,1986 when the U. S. Senate permitted itself to be televised, C-SPAN Radio began operations on October 9,1997, covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming. The station broadcasts on WCSP in Washington, D. C. is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c-span. org and it was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006. Lamb semi-retired in March 2012, coinciding with the channels 33rd anniversary, on January 12,2017, the online feed for C-SPAN1 was interrupted and replaced by a feed from the Russian television network RT for approximately 10 minutes. C-SPAN announced that they were troubleshooting the incident and were operating under the assumption that it was an internal routing issue, C-SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three-hour retrospective, featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network. Five years later, the series American Presidents, Life Portraits, in 2004, C-SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary, by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes, C-SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C-SPAN3 was in eight million homes. Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C-SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service. For example, one essay contest winner wrote about how C-SPANs non-fiction book programming serves as a resource in his mission to record non-fiction audio books for people who are blind. The network also had an essay contest, the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C-SPANs Capitol Hill studios. C-SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings, with a history of requests to government officials for greater access, in December 2009, Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate, requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C-SPAN. Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C-SPAN and may be viewed on the C-SPAN website, in November 2010, Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House. In particular, C-SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government-controlled cameras in the House chamber, in February 2011, Boehner denied the request
C-SPAN
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Sen.
Robert Byrd (right), C-SPAN's founder
Brian Lamb (left) and Paul FitzPatrick flip the switch for C-SPAN2 on June 2, 1986. FitzPatrick was C-SPAN president at the time.
C-SPAN
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C-SPAN broadcasts the beginning of the
112th Congress on January 5, 2011.
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Home page of the C-SPAN Video Library
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Founder Brian Lamb in 2012 flanked by co-CEOs Rob Kennedy and Susan Swain.
26.
Pulitzer Prize
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The Pulitzer Prize /ˈpʊlᵻtsər/ is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine and online journalism, literature, and musical composition in the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher, Prizes are awarded yearly in twenty-one categories. In twenty of the categories, each receives a certificate. The winner in the service category of the journalism competition is awarded a gold medal. The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media, entries must fit in at least one of the specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can also only be entered in a maximum of two categories, regardless of their properties, each year,102 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 20 separate juries for the 21 award categories, one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards. For each award category, a jury makes three nominations, the board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75% majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award, the board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work, however, the jurors in letters, music, and drama receive a $2,000 honorarium for the year, and each chair receives $2,500. Anyone whose work has been submitted is called an entrant, the jury selects a group of nominated finalists and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists who were submitted, but not nominated as finalists. For example, Bill Dedman of msnbc, Dedman wrote, To call that submission a Pulitzer nomination is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters Thats My Boy in the Academy Awards. Many readers realize that the Oscars dont work that way—the studios dont pick the nominees and its just a way of slipping Academy Awards into a bio. The Pulitzers also dont work that way, but fewer people know that, newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch a journalism school and establish the Prize. It allocated $250,000 to the prize and scholarships and he specified four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships. After his death, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4,1917, many people have won more than one Pulitzer Prize. Nelson Harding is the person to have won a Prize in two consecutive years, the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1927 and 1928. Four prizes Robert Frost, Poetry Eugene ONeill, Drama Robert E, in rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs, infrequently, Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction
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Pulitzer Prize
27.
Rick Atkinson
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Lawrence Rush Rick Atkinson IV is an American author who has won Pulitzer Prizes in history and journalism. After working as a reporter, editor, and foreign correspondent for The Washington Post. His six books include narrative accounts of four different American wars and his Liberation Trilogy, a history of the American role in the liberation of Europe in World War II, concluded with the publication of The Guns at Last Light in May 2013. In 2010, he received the $100,000 Pritzker Military Library Literature Award for Lifetime Achievement in Military Writing, Atkinson was born in Munich to Margaret and Larry Atkinson, who was a U. S. Army officer. He grew up on military posts around the world, including stints in Salzburg, Georgia, Idaho, Pennsylvania, California, Hawaii, Kansas, and Virginia. Turning down an appointment to West Point, he instead attended East Carolina University on a full scholarship and he received a master of arts degree in English language and literature from the University of Chicago in 1975. C. In November 1983, Atkinson was hired as a reporter on the staff of the Washington Post. He subsequently wrote about issues, the 1984 presidential election–he covered Rep. Geraldine Ferraro. In 1985, he became deputy editor, overseeing coverage of defense, diplomacy. In 1991, he was the lead writer during the Persian Gulf War. Two years later he joined the staff as bureau chief in Berlin, covering not only Germany and NATO. Atkinson left the world in 1999 to write about World War II. Ford Award for Distinguished Reporting on National Defense and he held the Omar N. Bradley Chair of Strategic Leadership at the United States Army War College and Dickinson College in 2004–2005, and remains an adjunct faculty member at the war college. Atkinsons first book, written while on leave from the Post, was The Long Gray Line, a 1989 review in Time magazine called it brilliant history, and Business Week reviewer Dave Griffiths called it the best book out of Vietnam to date. Author James Salter, reviewing the book for The Washington Post Book World, wrote, Enormously rich in detail and written with a novelists brilliance, in 1993, Atkinson wrote Crusade, The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War. In a review, The Wall Street Journal wrote, No one could have been prepared to write a book on Desert Storm. While with the 101st Airborne Division south of Baghdad in April 2003, as a result of his time with Gen. Atkinson was the lead essayist in Where Valor Rests, Arlington National Cemetery, published by the National Geographic Society in 2007. In 2013 Atkinson was working on a trilogy about the American Revolution 1775–1781, helmerich Distinguished Author Award While working in Kansas City, Atkinson met Jane Ann Chestnut of Lawrence, Kansas, then a first-year dental student
Rick Atkinson
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at 2015 National Book Festival
The Quartet: Orchestrating the Second American Revolution , National Archives, May 12, 2015
