1.
Joseph Dalton Hooker
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Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker OM GCSI CB PRS was one of the greatest British botanists and explorers of the 19th century. He was a founder of botany and Charles Darwins closest friend. For twenty years he served as director of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, succeeding his father, William Jackson Hooker, Hooker was born in Halesworth, Suffolk, England. From age seven, Hooker attended his fathers lectures at Glasgow University, taking an early interest in plant distribution and he was educated at the Glasgow High School and went on to study medicine at Glasgow University, graduating M. D. in 1839. In 1851 he married Frances Harriet Henslow, daughter of Darwins mentor and they had four sons and three daughters, William Henslow Hooker Harriet Anne Hooker married William Turner Thiselton-Dyer Charles Paget Hooker Maria Elizabeth Hooker died aged 6. Brian Harvey Hodgson Hooker Reginald Hawthorn Hooker statistician Grace Ellen Hooker Frances Harriet Henslows contribution to his work included translating French botanical texts which Hooker edited. After his first wifes death in 1874, in 1876 he married Lady Hyacinth Jardine, daughter of William Samuel Symonds and they had two sons, Joseph Symonds Hooker Richard Symonds Hooker. Joseph Hooker died in his sleep at midnight at home, the Camp, Sunningdale in Berkshire, on 10 December 1911 after a short, the Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey offered a grave near Darwins in the nave but also insisted that Hooker be cremated before. His memorial tablet in the church, with a motif of five plants, was designed by Matilds Smith. Hookers first expedition, led by James Clark Ross, consisted of two ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, it was the last major voyage of exploration made entirely under sail, Hooker was the youngest of the 128-man crew. He sailed on the Erebus and was assistant to Robert McCormick, the ships sailed on 30 September 1839. Before journeying to Antarctica they visited Madeira, Tenerife, Santiago and Quail Island in the Cape Verde archipelago, St Paul Rocks, Trinidade east of Brazil, St Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope. Hooker made plant collections at each location and while travelling drew these and specimens of algae, from the Cape they entered the southern ocean. Their first stop was the Crozet Islands where they set down on Possession Island to deliver coffee to sealers and they departed for the Kerguelen Islands where they would spend several days. The expedition spent some time in Hobart, Van Diemens Land, and then moved on to the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island, and onward to Antarctica to locate the South Magnetic Pole. After spending 5 months in the Antarctic they returned to resupply in Hobart, then went on to Sydney, and they left New Zealand to return to Antarctica. They made a landing at Cockburn Island and after leaving the Antarctic, stopped at the Cape, St Helena and Ascension Island. The ships arrived back in England on 4 September 1843, the voyage had been a success for Ross as it was the first to confirm the existence of the southern continent, in 1845, Hooker applied for the Chair of Botany at the University of Edinburgh
Joseph Dalton Hooker
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Hooker in the 1860s
Joseph Dalton Hooker
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Painting of Hooker by
William Kilburn, circa 1852
Joseph Dalton Hooker
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Tibet and
Cholamo Lake from the summit of the
Donkia Pass, looking North West from Hooker's Himalayan Journals. Hooker reached the pass on 7 November 1849.
Joseph Dalton Hooker
–
Engraving of Hooker by
Charles Henry Jeens (1827–1879)
2.
Mathew Brady
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Mathew B. Brady was one of the first American photographers, best known for his scenes of the Civil War. He studied under inventor Samuel F. B, Morse, who pioneered the daguerreotype technique in America. Brady opened his own studio in New York in 1844, and photographed Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams, when the Civil War started, his use of a mobile studio and darkroom enabled vivid battlefield photographs that brought home the reality of war to the public. Thousands of war scenes were captured, as well as portraits of generals, after the war, these pictures went out of fashion, and the government did not purchase the master-copies as he had anticipated. Brady’s fortunes declined sharply, and he died in debt, Brady was born on May 18,1822 in Warren County, New York near Lake George, the youngest of three children of Irish immigrant parents, Andrew and Samantha Julia Brady. He himself originally said that he was born in Ireland, at age 16, Brady moved to Saratoga, New York, where he met portrait painter William Page, and became Pages student. In 1839, the two traveled to Albany, New York, and then to New York City, where Brady continued to study painting with Page, and also with Pages former teacher, Samuel F. B. Morse. Morse had met Louis Jacques Daguerre in France in 1839, at first, Bradys involvement was limited to manufacturing leather cases that held daguerreotypes. But soon he became the center of the New York artistic colony that wished to study photography, Morse opened a studio and offered classes, Brady was one of the first students. In 1849, he opened a studio in Washington, D. C. where he met Juliet Handy, in 1850, Brady produced The Gallery of Illustrious Americans, a portrait collection of prominent contemporary figures. The album, which featured noteworthy images including the elderly Andrew Jackson at the Hermitage, was not financially rewarding but invited increased attention to Brady’s work, in 1856, Brady placed an ad in the New York Herald offering to produce photographs, ambrotypes and daguerreotypes. This inventive ad pioneered, in the USA, the use of typeface and fonts that were distinct from the text of the publication, at first, the effect of the Civil War on Bradys business was a brisk increase in sales of cartes de visite to departing soldiers. However, he was taken with the idea of documenting the war itself. He first applied to an old friend, General Winfield Scott, for permission to travel to the battle sites, Lincoln granted permission in 1861, with the proviso that Brady finance the project himself. His efforts to document the American Civil War on a grand scale by bringing his photographic studio onto the battlefields earned Brady his place in history, despite the dangers, financial risk, and discouragement by his friends, Brady was later quoted as saying I had to go. A spirit in my feet said Go, and I went and his first popular photographs of the conflict were at the First Battle of Bull Run, in which he got so close to the action that he barely avoided capture. While most of the time the battle had ceased before pictures were taken, Brady came under fire at the First Battle of Bull Run, Petersburg. He also employed Alexander Gardner, James Gardner, Timothy H. OSullivan, William Pywell, George N. Barnard, roche, and seventeen other men, each of whom was given a traveling darkroom, to go out and photograph scenes from the Civil War
Mathew Brady
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Mathew Brady in 1875
Mathew Brady
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Soldier guarding arsenal
Washington, D.C., 1862.
Mathew Brady
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Mathew Brady's grave at the Congressional Cemetery (notice incorrect death year).
Mathew Brady
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Photograph of
Abraham Lincoln taken by Brady on the day of Lincoln's
Cooper Union speech.
3.
Levin C. Handy
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Levin Corbin Handy was an American photographer who worked during the 19th and early 20th century. Civil War photographer Mathew Brady was Handys uncle by marriage, after a few years of working in Bradys studio, he was a skilled camera operator. Later, Handy became an independent photographer in Washington, D. C, in the 1880s, he formed a partnership with Samuel C. Chester, following that, he and Chester worked as partners with Brady, Handy shot individual portraits, and provided photographic and photoduplication services for United States Federal agencies. Between 1880 and 1896, he documented the construction of the Library of Congresss Thomas Jefferson Building, following his uncles death in 1896, Handy acquired Mathew Bradys remaining files of photographs. When Handy died, he left his and Bradys work to his daughters, Alice H. Cox and Mary H. Evans, in 1954, the Library of Congress purchased approximately 10,000 of these negatives from Handys daughters
Levin C. Handy
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Levin C. Handy
Levin C. Handy
–
Levin Handy photograph of Confederate General
Robert E. Lee
4.
Hadley, Massachusetts
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Hadley is a town in Hampshire County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 5,250 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. The area around Hampshire Mall and Mountain Farms Mall along Route 9 is a shopping destination for the surrounding communities. Hadley was first settled in 1659 and was incorporated in 1661. The former Norwottuck was renamed for Hadleigh, Suffolk, the settlement was led by John Russell. The first settler inside of Hadley was Nathaniel Dickinson, who surveyed the streets of what is now Hadley, Hatfield, at the time, Hadley encompassed a wide radius of land on both sides of the Connecticut River including much of what would become known as the Equivalent Lands. In the following century, these were broken off into precincts and eventually the towns of Hatfield, Amherst, South Hadley, Granby. The early histories of towns are, as a result. Edward Whalley and General William Goffe, two Puritan generals hunted for their role in the execution of Charles I of England, were hidden in the home of the towns minister, John Russell. During King Philips War, an attack by Native Americans was, by some accounts and she was unsuccessfully hanged by rowdy town folk. A description is given in Cotton Mathers Magnalia Christi Americana, the Civil War general Joseph Hooker was a longtime resident of Hadley. Levi Stockbridge, one of the founders of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, was also from Hadley where he was a farmer, Hadleys transformation from an old agricultural order to the new form is the direct result of expansion of the nearby University of Massachusetts Amherst during the 1960s. Much of its former farmland was swallowed in the housing market stimulated by incoming faculty, Route 116 was redirected in an attempt to solve traffic congestion. Today, the Hadley economy is a mixture of agriculture and commercial development, including big-box stores, recently announced development plans included a Wal-Mart Supercenter, a Home Depot and a Lowes, plus more than a dozen other stores. These stores cut through a farm, angering some. Residents recently passed a limit on retail store size at 75,000 square feet, however, many local residents support commercial development, and about 1,000 people signed a petition asking for a new Wal-Mart, saying it would save them money on their groceries. In 2008, Wal-Mart pulled its plans to build the Supercenter after the Conservation Commission ruled that the plan did not comply with wetlands regulations, the developer of the site has filed and lost numerous appeals but continues its legal challenges of the commissions findings. Many residents also opposed rezoning to accommodate a new Lowes store because they said it would be too big, however, the rezoning passed in 2004 and the store was finally built in 2009
Hadley, Massachusetts
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Town Hall and First Congregational Church
Hadley, Massachusetts
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The summit of Mount Norwottuck, 1106 feet (337m), offers a panoramic view of the Pioneer Valley
5.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Massachusetts
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A portion of the north-central
Pioneer Valley in
Sunderland
Massachusetts
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Flag
Massachusetts
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Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the
piping plover
Massachusetts
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The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882). The
Pilgrims were a group of
Puritans who founded
Plymouth in 1620.
6.
Garden City, New York
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Garden City is a village in the town of Hempstead in central Nassau County, New York, in the United States. It was founded by multi-millionaire Alexander Turney Stewart in 1869, and is on Long Island, the village is mostly in the Town of Hempstead with a small portion in the Town of North Hempstead. As of the 2010 census, the population of the village was 22,371. The Garden City name is applied to several other unincorporated, nearby jurisdictions, in the region, hamlets such as Garden City South, Garden City Park and East Garden City are next to the incorporated village of Garden City, but are not themselves part of it. Roosevelt Field, the center built on the former airfield from which Charles Lindbergh took off on his landmark 1927 transatlantic flight, is in East Garden City. Adelphi Universitys main campus is in Garden City, in 1869, the Irish-born millionaire Alexander Turney Stewart bought a portion of the lightly populated Hempstead Plains. In doing this I am prepared and would be willing to expend several millions of dollars, parenthetically, the name Garden City pre-dates that of the Garden City Movement which was established some years later near the end of the nineteenth century. The central attraction of the new community was the Garden City Hotel, designed by the firm of McKim. Access to Garden City was provided by the Central Railroad of Long Island, the railroads Hempstead Branch opened in 1873. Stewarts wife, Cornelia, founded the St. Pauls School for boys and this elaborate memorial was completed in 1885. Mrs. Stewart died the following year, in 2008, the Cathedral of the Incarnation underwent a multimillion-dollar renovation and rehabilitation project, which was completed in 2012. Voters selected Mineola to be the county seat for the new county of Nassau in November 1898, winning out over Hicksville and Hempstead. The Garden City Company donated four acres of land for the county buildings just south of the Mineola train station and the present-day village of Mineola, in the town of Hempstead. The land and the buildings have a Mineola postal address, but are within the village of Garden City. The early village did well due to its proximity to Hempstead, in time, thanks both to the railroad and automobiles, Garden City’s population increased. In 1910, Doubleday, Page, and Co. one of the most worlds important publishers, moved its operations to Garden City, which include its own train station. The Doubleday company purchased much of the land on the west site of Franklin Avenue, in 1916, company co-founder and Garden City resident Walter Hines Page was named Ambassador to Great Britain. In 1915, the village of Garden City merged with the village of Garden City Estates to its west and it became an incorporated village in 1919
Garden City, New York
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Welcome sign
Garden City, New York
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County
7.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
New York (state)
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British general
John Burgoyne surrenders at
Saratoga in 1777.
New York (state)
–
Flag
New York (state)
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1800 map of New York from
Low's Encyclopaedia
New York (state)
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The
Erie Canal at
Lockport, New York in 1839
8.
Spring Grove Cemetery
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Spring Grove Cemetery and Arboretum is a nonprofit garden cemetery and arboretum located at 4521 Spring Grove Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio. It is the second largest cemetery in the United States and is recognized as a US National Historic Landmark, the cemetery dates from 1844, when members of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society formed a cemetery association. They took their inspiration from contemporary rural cemeteries such as Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, the numerous springs and groves suggested the name Spring Grove. On December 1,1844 Salmon P. Chase and others prepared the Articles of Incorporation, the cemetery was designed by Howard Daniels and formally chartered on January 21,1845. The first burial place on September 1,1845. In 1855, Adolph Strauch, a landscape architect, was hired to beautify the grounds. His sense and layout of the cemetery, made of lakes, trees. On March 29,2007, the cemetery was designated a National Historic Landmark, the Spring Grove Cemetery Chapel is listed separately on the National Register of Historic Places. Spring Grove encompasses 733 acres of which 400 acres are landscaped and maintained. Its grounds include 12 ponds, many tombstones and memorials. See also Category, Burials at Spring Grove Cemetery, jacob Ammen, Civil War general Nicholas Longworth Anderson, Civil War colonel Joshua Hall Bates, Civil War general Charles Elwood Brown, Civil War Brevet Brigadier General and U. S. Representative George K. Brady, United States Army officer, the headstone and another next to it for future use by Walkers twin sister, Kara, were removed after the family had been given copyright permission to use them. In February 2014, the cemetery and Walkers family reached an agreement, list of botanical gardens and arboretums in the United States Spring Grove Cemetery and Arboretum Forty Civil War generals buried in Spring Grove Cemetery Spring Grove Entrance
Spring Grove Cemetery
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Spring Grove Cemetery
Spring Grove Cemetery
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Weeping statue at Spring Grove Cemetery
Spring Grove Cemetery
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Grave of
Salmon P. Chase at Spring Grove Cemetery
9.
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio that serves as county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the side of the confluence of the Licking with the Ohio River. With a population of 298,550, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and its metropolitan statistical area is the 28th-largest in the United States and the largest centered in Ohio. The city is part of the larger Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington combined statistical area. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was an American boomtown in the heart of the country, it rivaled the larger cities in size. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was listed among the top 10 U. S and it was by far the largest city in the west. By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnatis growth slowed considerably. Cincinnati is home to two sports teams, the Cincinnati Reds, the oldest franchise in Major League Baseball. The University of Cincinnati, founded in 1819, is one of the 50 largest in the United States, Cincinnati is known for its historic architecture. In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as Paris of America, due mainly to such ambitious projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel. The original surveyor, John Filson, named it Losantiville, in 1790, Arthur St. Ethnic Germans were among the early settlers, migrating from Pennsylvania and the backcountry of Virginia and Tennessee. General David Ziegler succeeded General St. Clair in command at Fort Washington, after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian Wars and removal of Native Americans to the west, he was elected as the mayor of Cincinnati in 1802. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819, exporting pork products and hay, it became a center of pork processing in the region. From 1810 to 1830 its population tripled, from 9,642 to 24,831. Completion of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio further stimulated businesses, the city had a labor shortage until large waves of immigration by Irish and Germans in the late 1840s. The city grew rapidly over the two decades, reaching 115,000 persons by 1850. Construction on the Miami and Erie Canal began on July 21,1825, the first section of the canal was opened for business in 1827. In 1827, the canal connected Cincinnati to nearby Middletown, by 1840, during this period of rapid expansion and prominence, residents of Cincinnati began referring to the city as the Queen City
Cincinnati
–
Downtown Cincinnati from
Devou Park in
Covington, Kentucky
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati in 1812 with a population of 2,000
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati in 1841 with the Miami and Erie Canal in the foreground.
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati in 1862, a lithograph in
Harper's Weekly.
10.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
Ohio
–
The Ohio coast of
Lake Erie.
Ohio
–
Flag
Ohio
–
Columbus Cleveland
Ohio
11.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
12.
Union (American Civil War)
–
The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
Union (American Civil War)
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Charleston Mercury Secession Broadside, 1860 - "The Union" had been a way to refer to the American Republic
Union (American Civil War)
–
Map of the division of the states during the American Civil War. Blue (the U.S. Army's uniform color) indicates the Union states; light blue represents Union states which permitted slavery (
border states). Red represents states in rebellion, also known as the
Confederate states. Unshaded areas were U.S. territories.
Union (American Civil War)
–
The Union had large advantages in men and resources at the start of the war; the ratio grew steadily in favor of the Union. In the chart, "cauc men" means white men.
Union (American Civil War)
–
An anti-Lincoln Copperhead pamphlet from 1864
13.
United States Army
–
The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
United States Army
–
Storming of Redoubt #10 in the
Siege of Yorktown during the
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the
Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
United States Army
–
Emblem of the United States Department of the Army
United States Army
–
General
Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking
Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
United States Army
–
The
Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
14.
California National Guard
–
The California National Guard is a federally funded California military force, part of the National Guard of the United States. It comprises both Army and Air National Guard components and is the largest national guard force in the United States with an authorized strength of 22,900 soldiers. As of January 2012, California National Guardsmen have been deployed overseas 38 thousand times since 2001, of which twenty-nine have been killed in Iraq, the Constitution of the United States specifically charges the National Guard with dual federal and state missions. The National Guard may be called into service in response to a call by the President or Congress. When National Guard troops are called to service, the President serves as Commander-In-Chief. The federal mission assigned to the National Guard is, To provide properly trained and equipped units for prompt mobilization for war, the state mission assigned to the National Guard is, To provide trained and disciplined forces for domestic emergencies or as otherwise provided by state law. Ames, March 22,1967 – June 5,1975 Frank J. Schober, June 6,1975 – December 31,1982 Willard A. Shank, January 3,1983 – February 13,1987 Robert C. Thrasher, February 14,1987 – October 9,1992 Robert W. Barrow, October 10 – December 31,1992 Tandy K. Bozeman, January 1,1993 – April 27,1999 Paul D. Monroe, Jr. April 29,1999 – March 2004 Thomas Eres, March 2004 – June 6,2005 John Alexander, June 7 – August 1,2005 William H. Wade II, September 1,2005 – February 1,2010 Mary J
California National Guard
–
Californian national guardsmen board a UH-60 Blackhawk during training at
Camp Williams, Utah in 2014.
California National Guard
–
160th Infantry of California National Guard, arriving in Los Angeles, August 17, 1924
California National Guard
–
California National Guard MPs, 1950
California National Guard
–
Master Sgt. James D. Steele with his two-year-old son before deployment, 1950
15.
Major general (United States)
–
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general, a major general typically commands division-sized units of 10,000 to 15,000 soldiers. Major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy. The United States Code explicitly limits the number of general officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty general officers is capped at 231 for the Army,61 for the Marine Corps, some of these slots are reserved or finitely set by statute. This promotion board then generates a list of officers it recommends for promotion to general rank and this list is then sent to the service secretary and the Joint Chiefs of Staff for review before it can be sent to the President, through the Secretary of Defense for consideration. The President nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the Secretary of Defense, the secretary, and if applicable. The President may nominate any eligible officer who is not on the recommended list if it serves in the interest of the nation, the Senate must then confirm the nominee by a majority vote before the officer can be promoted. Once confirmed, the nominee is promoted to rank on assuming a position of office that requires an officer to hold the rank. For positions of office that are reserved by statute, the President nominates an officer for appointment to fill that position, since the grade of major general is permanent, the rank does not expire when the officer vacates a two-star position. Tour length varies depending on the position, by statute, and/or when the officer receives a new assignment or a promotion, in the case of the Air National Guard, they may also serve as The Adjutant General for their state, commonwealth or territory. Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement of general officers, all major generals must retire after five years in grade or 35 years of service, whichever is later, unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise, all officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the Secretary of Defense may defer a general officers retirement until the officers 66th birthday, because there are a finite number of General Officer positions, one officer must retire before another can be promoted. As a result, general officers typically retire well in advance of the age and service limits. The rank of general was abolished in the U. S. Army by the Act of March 16,1802. Major general has been a rank in the U. S. Army ever since, to address this anomaly, Washington was posthumously promoted by Congress to the rank of General of the Armies of the United States in 1976. The position of Major General Commanding the Army was entitled to three stars according to General Order No.6 of March 13,1861
Major general (United States)
–
Lafayette in a uniform of a major general of the Continental Army.
Major general (United States)
–
Army,
Air Force, and
Marine Corps two-star
insignia of the rank of Major General. Style and method of wear may vary between the services.
16.
Colonel (United States)
–
It is equivalent to the naval rank of captain in the other uniformed services. The pay grade for colonel is O-6, the insignia of the rank of colonel, as seen on the right, is worn on the officers left side. The insignia for a colonel is an eagle which is a stylized representation of the eagle dominating the Great Seal of the United States. As on the Great Seal, the eagle has a U. S. shield superimposed on its chest and is holding an olive branch, however, in simplification of the Great Seal image, the insignia lacks the scroll in the eagles mouth and the rosette above its head. On the Great Seal, the branch is always clutched in the eagles right-side talons. The head of the eagle faces towards the branch, rather than the arrows. As a result, the head of the eagle faces towards the viewers left. During World War II the military insignia for the rank of Colonel changed somewhat with the eagle facing the arrows and this was done only during war years. These special war eagles, although rare, can sometimes be found in surplus or memorabilia sales. In the United States Army and United States Air Force, the eagle is worn with the head of the eagle to the wearers right. In the United States Marine Corps, United States Navy, United States Coast Guard and NOAA, the United States rank of colonel is a direct successor to the same rank in the British Army. The first colonels in America were appointed from Colonial militias maintained as reserves to the British Army in the American colonies, upon the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, colonial legislatures would grant commissions to men to raise a regiment and serve as its colonels. Thus, the first American colonels were usually respected men with ties in local communities, such was the origin of the phrase soldier and statesman. With the post-war reduction of the US Army, the rank of colonel disappeared, the first insignia for the rank of colonel consisted of gold epaulettes worn on the blue uniform of the Continental Army. The first recorded use of the insignia was in 1805 as this insignia was made official in uniform regulations by 1810. The rank of colonel was relatively rare in the early 19th century, partly because the U. S. Army was very small, and the rank was usually obtained only after long years of service. During the War of 1812 the Army grew rapidly and many colonels were appointed, a number of other colonels were appointed by brevet - an honorary promotion usually for distinguished service in combat. The American Civil War saw an influx of colonels as the rank was commonly held in both the Confederate army and Union Army by those who commanded a regiment
Colonel (United States)
–
William Few in the uniform of a Continental Army colonel
Colonel (United States)
–
Army,
Air Force, and
Marine Corps insignia of the rank of colonel. Style and method of wear may vary between the services.
Colonel (United States)
–
A colonel of the
Confederate army wearing the
three-star insignia
Colonel (United States)
–
A shoulder strap from an infantry colonel in the Union Army
17.
I Corps (Union Army)
–
I Corps was the designation of three different corps-sized units in the Union Army during the American Civil War. The first two were units of limited life, the third was one of the most distinguished and veteran corps in the entire Union Army. The term First Corps is also used to describe the First Veteran Corps from 1864 to 1866, the I Corps was activated March 13,1862, when President Abraham Lincoln ordered the creation of a four-corps army, then under the command of Major General George B. McClellan. The first commander of corps was Major General Irvin McDowell. One of its divisions, the Pennsylvania Reserves, was sent to join the main army in June. Temporarily attached to the V Corps, it saw action at Gaines Mill. Division commander Brig. Gen. George McCall and future I Corps commander Brig. Gen. John Reynolds were both captured and freed in an exchange that August. It rejoined the Army of the Potomac and crossed the Potomac River into Maryland to fight at South Mountain, John Reynolds was temporarily detached to train militia troops in his home state of Pennsylvania and did not participate in the Maryland Campaign. At Antietam, the I Corps was among the first troops to fight and suffered losses in the battles around the cornfield. Hooker was wounded in the foot during the battle and command of the I Corps devolved on Meade, in October, Reynolds returned and was made commander of the corps. Having fought three battles in six weeks, the I Corps was severely depleted, an influx of new volunteer regiments arrived to replenish its ranks, and by November it was back up to full strength. At Fredericksburg, Meade and John Gibbons divisions fought Stonewall Jacksons corps south of the town while Doubledays division was held in reserve, the I Corps did not see any significant action in the Chancellorsville Campaign. In its last major battle, the Battle of Gettysburg, General Reynolds was killed just as the first troops arrived on the field, and command was inherited by Major General Abner Doubleday. Although putting up a fight, the I Corps was overwhelmed by the Confederate Third Corps. It was forced to retreat through the town of Gettysburg, taking up positions on Cemetery Hill after the 16th Maines brave stand of which only 39 soldiers returned. The next day, the command was given to Major General John Newton and this was a controversial move that deeply offended the more senior Doubleday. Newton led it through the remainder of the battle, including the defense against Picketts Charge, and through the Mine Run Campaign that fall
I Corps (Union Army)
–
I Corps badge (circle)
18.
Army of the Potomac
–
The Army of the Potomac was the principal Union Army in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War. It was created in July 1861 shortly after the First Battle of Bull Run and was disbanded in June 1865 following the surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in April. The Army of the Potomac was created in 1861, but was only the size of a corps. Its nucleus was called the Army of Northeastern Virginia, under Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell, and it was the army fought the wars first major battle. The arrival in Washington, D. C. of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan dramatically changed the makeup of that army, on July 26,1861, the Department of the Shenandoah, commanded by Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. The men under Bankss command became a division in the Army of the Potomac. The army started with four corps, but these were divided during the Peninsula Campaign to produce two more, after the Second Battle of Bull Run, the Army of the Potomac absorbed the units that had served under Maj. Gen. John Pope. It is a popular, but mistaken, belief that John Pope commanded the Army of the Potomac in the summer of 1862 after McClellans unsuccessful Peninsula Campaign, on the contrary, Popes army consisted of different units, and was named the Army of Virginia. The Army of the Potomac underwent many changes during its existence. The army was divided by Ambrose Burnside into three divisions of two corps each with a Reserve composed of two more. Thereafter the individual corps, seven of which remained in Virginia, Hooker also created a Cavalry Corps by combining units that previously had served as smaller formations. In late 1863, two corps were sent West, and—in 1864—the remaining five corps were recombined into three, burnsides IX Corps, which accompanied the army at the start of Ulysses S. Grants Overland Campaign, rejoined the army later. For more detail, see the section Corps below, the Army of the Potomac fought in most of the Eastern Theater campaigns, primarily in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. After the end of the war, it was disbanded on June 28,1865, the Army of the Potomac was also the name given to General P. G. T. Beauregards Confederate army during the early stages of the war. However, the name was changed to the Army of Northern Virginia. In 1869 the Society of the Army of the Potomac was formed as a veterans association and it had its last reunion in 1929. Because of its proximity to the cities of the North, such as Washington. Philadelphia, and New York City, the Army of the Potomac received more media coverage than the other Union field armies
Army of the Potomac
–
Commanders of the Army of the Potomac at Culpeper, Virginia, 1863. From the left:
Gouverneur K. Warren,
William H. French,
George G. Meade,
Henry J. Hunt,
Andrew A. Humphreys,
George Sykes.
Army of the Potomac
–
The Army of the Potomac -- Our Outlying Picket in the Woods, 1862
Army of the Potomac
–
Saint Patrick's Day celebration in the Army of the Potomac, depicting a
steeplechase race among the
Irish Brigade, March 17, 1863, by
Edwin Forbes.
Army of the Potomac
–
Scouts and guides, Army of the Potomac,
Mathew Brady
19.
XX Corps (Union Army)
–
Two corps of the Union Army were called XX Corps during the American Civil War. Though both served in the Union Army of the Cumberland, they were distinct units and should be recognized as such and it was so identified with its commander that it was generally referred to by other soldiers and even officers as McCooks corps. The corps took part in a skirmish with Braggs rearguard at Liberty Gap, Tennessee and it fought its only major battle under this designation at Chickamauga, where it suffered horrendous casualties in the two days of fighting. The corps took heavy casualties, and it, became consolidated into the new IV Corps, mcCook, blamed in large part for the failure at Chickamauga, was relieved of command. Units from XI and XII Corps were combined in each division, the corps fought valiantly throughout the Atlanta Campaign. McPherson was killed in the Battle of Atlanta on July 22, hooker, partially because Howard was junior to him and partially because he blamed Howard for his part in the defeat of the Army of the Potomac, resigned. He was replaced first by Alpheus S. Williams, and then Henry W. Slocum and its troops were the first to enter Atlanta after its surrender on September 1, and later went with Shermans Army of Georgia during his March to the Sea. Williams commanded it from then until the Carolinas Campaign, because fighting at Bentonville had not destroyed Johnstons army, Sherman replaced Williams with the more petulant Joseph A. Mower. It took part in the Grand Review and was disbanded in June 1865
XX Corps (Union Army)
–
Union Army 1st Division Badge, XX Corps
20.
Army of Tennessee
–
The Army of Tennessee was the principal Confederate army operating between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River during the American Civil War. It was formed in late 1862 and fought until the end of the war in 1865 and it should not be confused with the Union Army of the Tennessee, named after the Tennessee River. The army was formed on November 20,1862, when General Braxton Bragg renamed the former Army of Mississippi and was divided into two corps commanded by Leonidas Polk and William J. Hardee, the remaining division was assigned to Hardees corps while Kirby Smith returned to East Tennessee. The armys cavalry was consolidated into a command under Joseph Wheeler. The armys first major engagement under its new name took place against the Army of the Cumberland on December 31 along the Stones River. The attacks started at 6 a. m. against the Union right wing and forced the Union flank back towards the Union supply route to Nashville, Bragg expected Union commander William S. Rosecrans to retreat during the night but Rosecrans decided to remain. No fighting took place on January 1, the next day Bragg assigned one division to seize a ridge on the east side of Stones River, Bragg retreated during the night and halted near the Duck River. When he learned of the dispute, Confederate President Jefferson Davis sent Joseph Johnston to inspect the army, Johnston however refused to take command of the army. In the summer of 1863, Rosecrans began an offensive, generally known as the Tullahoma Campaign, due to the low level of the river, Bragg felt compelled to retreat back to his supply center of Chattanooga, Tennessee, where he established his headquarters. When the Union forces halted following the campaign, Bragg took the opportunity to make several changes in the army. Hardee was transferred to Mississippi in July and replaced by D. H. Hill, the cavalry was reorganized into two corps commanded by Wheeler and Forrest, a two-division Reserve Corps was also organized under the command of W. H. T. Rosecrans launched the Chickamauga Campaign in late August, staging demonstrations near Chattanooga and this convinced Bragg that Rosecrans was crossing the river to the north, however, Union forces were actually crossing to the south of the city. This forced Bragg to fall back into northern Georgia, abandoning the important railroad hub of Chattanooga on September 8, over the course of the next several days, Bragg attempted to launch several attacks on isolated parts of the Union army but each attempt failed. During September 19 at Chickamauga, both sides fed in reinforcements as the day progressed, Polk was ordered to attack at daylight on September 20, with Longstreet attacking immediately afterwards, but Polk didnt launch his attack until midmorning. The left wing failed to dislodge the Union army but Longstreets wing attacked a gap in the Union army which routed the Union right flank. A portion of the Union army rallied on Horseshoe Ridge and held off multiple Confederate attacks until evening, when it followed the rest of Rosecrans army into Chattanooga. Bragg considered an attack on the city too costly. Instead he spread the Confederate army along the Tennessee River, cutting the Union railroad supply line into the city, during the next several weeks, Bragg became embroiled with a dispute with the armys corps commanders
Army of Tennessee
–
Braxton Bragg
Army of Tennessee
–
1864 standardization flag of the army.
Army of Tennessee
–
Joseph Johnston
Army of Tennessee
–
John Bell Hood
21.
Seminole Wars
–
Taken together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive Indian Wars in United States history. The First Seminole War began with General Andrew Jacksons excursions into West Florida, the governments of Britain and Spain both expressed outrage over the invasion. However, Spain was unable to defend its territory, and the Spanish Crown agreed to cede Florida to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. According to the Treaty of Moultrie Creek of 1823, the Seminoles were required to leave northern Florida and were confined to a reservation in the center of the Florida peninsula. The U. S. government enforced the treaty by building a series of forts and trading posts in the territory, mainly along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. The war resulted in most of the Seminole population in Florida being killed in battle, ravaged by starvation and disease, a few hundred Seminoles were allowed to remain in an unofficial reservation in southwest Florida. An estimated 100 Seminoles still refused to leave and retreated deep into the Everglades to live on land that was unwanted by white settlers, raids from the newly- established English Province of Carolina beginning in the mid-1600s began another steep decline in the indigenous population. In the first decade of the 18th century,10,000 –12,000 Indians were taken as slaves according to the governor of La Florida and by 1710, observers noted that north Florida was virtually depopulated. The few remaining natives fled west to Pensacola and beyond or east to the vicinity of St. Augustine. When Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain as part of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, during the mid-1700s, small bands from various Native American tribes from the southeastern United States began moving into the unoccupied lands of Florida. In 1715, the Yamasee moved into Florida as allies of the Spanish, Creek people, at first primarily the Lower Creek but later including Upper Creek, also started moving into Florida from the area of Georgia. The Mikasuki, Hitchiti-speakers, settled around what is now Lake Miccosukee near Tallahassee, another group of Hitchiti speakers, led by Cowkeeper, settled in what is now Alachua County, an area where the Spanish had maintained cattle ranches in the 17th century. One of the best-known ranches was Rancho de la Chua, the region became known as the Alachua Prairie. The Spanish in Saint Augustine began calling the Alachua Creek Cimarrones and this was the probable origin of the term Seminole. This name was applied to the other groups in Florida. Escaped African and African-American slaves who could reach the fort were essentially free, many were from Pensacola, some were free citizens though others had escaped from United States territory. The Spanish offered the freedom and land in Florida, they recruited former slaves as militia to help defend Pensacola. Other escaped slaves joined various Seminole bands as free members of the tribe, while most of the former slaves at Fort Mose went to Cuba with the Spanish when they left Florida in 1763, others lived with or near various bands of Indians
Seminole Wars
–
A U.S. Marine boat expedition searching the
Everglades during the Second Seminole War.
Seminole Wars
–
Andrew Jackson led an invasion of Florida during the
First Seminole War.
Seminole Wars
–
Portrait of
Edmund Pendleton Gaines
Seminole Wars
–
The trial of
Robert Ambrister and Arbuthnot during the First Seminole War.
22.
Mexican-American War
–
It followed in the wake of the 1845 U. S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory in spite of its de facto secession in the 1836 Texas Revolution. After its independence in 1821 and brief experiment with monarchy, Mexico became a republic in 1824 and it was characterized by considerable instability, leaving it ill-prepared for conflict when war broke out in 1846. In 1845, Texas agreed to an offer of annexation by the U. S. Congress, and became the 28th state on December 29 that year. In 1845, James K. Polk, the newly-elected U. S. president, when that offer was rejected, American forces commanded by Major General Zachary Taylor were moved into the disputed territory. They were then attacked by Mexican forces, who killed 12 U. S. soldiers and these same Mexican troops later laid siege to an American fort along the Rio Grande. This led to the war and the loss of much of Mexicos northern territory. The U. S. army, under the command of Major General Winfield Scott, captured the capital, Mexico City, marching from the port of Veracruz. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war and specified its major consequence, the U. S. agreed to pay $15 million compensation for the physical damage of the war. In addition, the United States assumed $3.25 million of debt owed by the Mexican government to U. S. citizens, Mexico acknowledged the loss of Texas and thereafter cited the Rio Grande as its national border with the United States. The territorial expansion of the United States toward the Pacific coast had been the goal of US President James K. Polk, at first, the war was highly controversial in the United States, with the Whig Party, anti-imperialists, and anti-slavery elements strongly opposed. Critics in the United States pointed to the casualties suffered by U. S. forces. The war intensified the debate over slavery in the United States, in Mexico, the war came in the middle of political turmoil, which increased into chaos during the conflict. Border left many Mexican citizens separated from their national government, for the indigenous peoples who had never accepted Mexican rule, the change in border meant conflicts with a new outside power. The northern area of Mexico was sparsely settled and not well controlled politically by the government based in Mexico City, after independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico contended with internal struggles that sometimes verged on civil war and the northern frontier was not a high priority. In the sparsely settled interior of northern Mexico, the end of Spanish rule was marked by the end of financing for presidios, there were conflicts between indigenous people in the northern region as well. The Comanche were particularly successful in expanding their territory in the Comanche–Mexico Wars, the Apache–Mexico Wars also made Mexicos north a violent place, with no effective political control. The Apache raids left thousands of people dead through out northern Mexico, when the United States Army entered northern Mexico in 1846 they found demoralized Mexican settlers. There was little resistance to US forces from the civilian population, hostile activity from indigenous people also made communications and trade between the interior of Mexico and provinces such as Alta California and New Mexico difficult
Mexican-American War
–
Clockwise from top left U.S. soldiers engaging the retreating Mexican force during the
Battle of Resaca de la Palma, American victory
at Churubusco outside Mexico City, U.S. marines
storming Chapultepec castle under a large American flag,
Winfield Scott entering
Plaza de la Constitución after the
Fall of Mexico City.
Mexican-American War
Mexican-American War
Mexican-American War
23.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
–
New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
–
Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
–
Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
–
Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
24.
Battle of Williamsburg
–
Following up the Confederate retreat from Yorktown, the Union division of Brig. Gen. Joseph Hooker encountered the Confederate rearguard near Williamsburg. Hooker assaulted Fort Magruder, an earthen fortification alongside the Williamsburg Road, Confederate counterattacks, directed by Maj. Gen. James Longstreet, threatened to overwhelm the Union left flank, until Brig. Gen. Philip Kearnys division arrived to stabilize the Federal position. Brig. Gen. Winfield S. Hancocks brigade then moved to threaten the Confederate left flank, Hancocks localized success was not exploited. The Confederate army continued its withdrawal during the night in the direction of Richmond and he also ordered Brig. Gen. William B. Franklins division to board transport ships on the York River in an attempt to move upstream, by May 5, Johnstons army was making slow progress on muddy roads and Stonemans cavalry was skirmishing with Brig. Gen. J. E. B. Brig. Gen. Joseph Hookers 2nd division of the III Corps was the infantry in the Union Army advance. It assaulted Fort Magruder and a line of pits and smaller fortifications that extended in an arc south-west from the fort. Hooker had expected Brig. Gen. William F. Baldy Smiths 2nd Division of the IV Corps, marching north on the Yorktown Road, to hear the sound of battle, however, Smith had been halted by Sumner more than a mile away from Hookers position. He had been concerned that the Confederates would leave their fortifications, longstreets men did leave their fortifications, but they attacked Hooker, not Smith or Sumner. The brigade of Brig. Gen. Cadmus M. Wilcox applied strong pressure to Hookers line, the Confederates were pushed off the Lees Mill Road and back into the woods and the abatis of their defensive positions. There, sharp firefights occurred until late in the afternoon, Early and posted them on the grounds of the College of William and Mary. Hearing the sounds of Union artillery, Early and Hill hurried in that direction and he personally led the 24th Virginia Infantry on a futile assault and was wounded by a bullet through the shoulder. Hancock had been ordered repeatedly by Sumner to withdraw his command back to Cub Creek, as the 24th Virginia charged, D. H. Hill emerged from the woods leading one of Earlys other regiments, the 5th North Carolina. He called off the assault after it had begun, but Hancock ordered a counterattack, the North Carolinians suffered 302 casualties, the Virginians 508. Brig. Gen. John J. Pecks brigade of Brig. Gen. Darius N, the morale of Hookers troops had been affected terribly by the loss of Captain Charles H. Webbers Battery H of the 1st U. S. Light Artillery and Captain Walter M. Bramhalls 6th Battery of the New York Light Artillery, Pecks arrival on the field and his brigades recovery of Bramhalls battery came at a critical moment for Hookers division, which was on the verge of retreat. The Northern press portrayed the battle as a victory for the Federal army, mcClellan miscategorized it as a brilliant victory over superior forces. However, the defense of Williamsburg was seen by the South as a means of delaying the Federals, Confederate casualties, including the cavalry skirmishing on May 4, were 1,682
Battle of Williamsburg
–
Maj. Gen.
George B. McClellan, USA
Battle of Williamsburg
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Battle of Williamsburg, by Kurz and Allison, 1893.
Battle of Williamsburg
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Gen.
Joseph E. Johnston, CSA
Battle of Williamsburg
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McClellan arriving at the battle, as depicted by
Currier and Ives.
25.
Battle of Antietam
–
After pursuing the Confederate general Robert E. Lee into Maryland, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan of the Union Army launched attacks against Lees army, in defensive positions behind Antietam Creek. At dawn on September 17, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hookers corps mounted an assault on Lees left flank. Attacks and counterattacks swept across Millers Cornfield, and fighting swirled around the Dunker Church, Union assaults against the Sunken Road eventually pierced the Confederate center, but the Federal advantage was not followed up. In the afternoon, Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnsides corps entered the action, capturing a bridge over Antietam Creek. At a crucial moment, Confederate Maj. Gen. A. P. Hills division arrived from Harpers Ferry and launched a counterattack, driving back Burnside. Although outnumbered two-to-one, Lee committed his entire force, while McClellan sent in less than three-quarters of his army, during the night, both armies consolidated their lines. In spite of crippling casualties, Lee continued to skirmish with McClellan throughout September 18, despite having superiority of numbers, McClellans attacks failed to achieve force concentration, which allowed Lee to counter by shifting forces and moving interior lines to meet each challenge. Therefore, despite ample reserve forces that could have been deployed to exploit localized successes, McClellan had halted Lees invasion of Maryland, but Lee was able to withdraw his army back to Virginia without interference from the cautious McClellan. McClellans refusal to pursue Lees army led to his removal from command by President Abraham Lincoln in November, although the battle was tactically inconclusive, the Confederate troops had withdrawn first from the battlefield, making it, in military terms, a Union victory. Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia—about 55,000 men—entered the state of Maryland on September 3,1862, emboldened by success, the Confederate leadership intended to take the war into enemy territory. Lees invasion of Maryland was intended to run simultaneously with an invasion of Kentucky by the armies of Braxton Bragg and it was also necessary for logistical reasons, as northern Virginias farms had been stripped bare of food. They sang the tune Maryland, My Maryland, as they marched, but by the fall of 1862 pro-Union sentiment was winning out, especially in the western parts of the state. Civilians generally hid inside their houses as Lees army passed through their towns, or watched in cold silence, while the Army of the Potomac was cheered and encouraged. While McClellans 87, 000-man Army of the Potomac was moving to intercept Lee, the order indicated that Lee had divided his army and dispersed portions geographically, thus making each subject to isolation and defeat if McClellan could move quickly enough. McClellan waited about 18 hours before deciding to take advantage of this intelligence and reposition his forces, McClellans Army of the Potomac, bolstered by units absorbed from John Popes Army of Virginia, included six infantry corps. The I Corps, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of the divisions of, the II Corps, under Maj. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Israel B. The V Corps, under Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter, consisted of the divisions of, the VI Corps, under Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin, consisted of the divisions of, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, Maj. Gen. William F. Baldy Smith
Battle of Antietam
–
Maj. Gen.
Fitz John Porter
Battle of Antietam
–
The Battle of Antietam, by
Kurz & Allison, depicting the scene of action at Burnside's Bridge
Battle of Antietam
–
Maj. Gen.
William B. Franklin
Battle of Antietam
–
Maj. Gen.
Ambrose E. Burnside
26.
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
A visitor to the battlefield described the battle to U. S. President Abraham Lincoln as a butchery. Burnsides plan was to cross the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg in mid-November, bureaucratic delays prevented Burnside from receiving the necessary pontoon bridges in time and Lee moved his army to block the crossings. When the Union army was able to build its bridges and cross under fire. Union troops prepared to assault Confederate defensive positions south of the city, Burnside ordered the grand divisions of Maj. Gens. Sumner and Joseph Hooker to make frontal assaults against Lt. Gen. James Longstreets position on Maryes Heights. On December 15, Burnside withdrew his army, ending another failed Union campaign in the Eastern Theater, in November 1862, Lincoln needed to demonstrate the success of the Union war effort before the Northern public lost confidence in his administration. Confederate armies had been on the earlier in the fall, invading Kentucky and Maryland, and although each had been turned back. Lincoln urged Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant to advance against the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi. McClellan had stopped Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Antietam in Maryland, mcClellans replacement was Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside, the commander of the IX Corps. Burnside had established a reputation as an independent commander, with successful operations earlier that year in coastal North Carolina and, However, he felt himself unqualified for army-level command and objected when offered the position. Burnside assumed command on November 7, in response to prodding from Lincoln and general-in-chief Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck, Burnside planned a late fall offensive, he communicated his plan to Halleck on November 9. The plan relied on movement and deception. He would concentrate his army in a visible fashion near Warrenton, feigning a movement on Culpeper Court House, Orange Court House and he also believed that the Orange and Alexandria Railroad would be an inadequate supply line. Lincoln reluctantly approved the plan on November 14 but cautioned his general to move with great speed, the Union Army began marching on November 15, and the first elements arrived in Falmouth on November 17. Burnside first requisitioned the pontoon bridging on November 7 when he detailed his plan to Halleck, the plan was sent to the attention of Brig. Gen. George Washington Cullum, the chief of staff in Washington. Plans called for both riverine and overland movement of the trains to Falmouth. On November 14, the 50th New York Engineers reported the pontoons were ready to move, unknown to Burnside, most of the bridging was still on the upper Potomac. Communications between Burnsides staff engineer Cyrus B, comstock and the Engineer Brigade commander Daniel P. Woodbury indicate that Burnside had assumed the bridging was en route to Washington based on orders given on November 6
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
Maj. Gen.
Ambrose E. Burnside, USA
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
The Battle of Fredericksburg by Kurz and Allison.
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
Maj. Gen.
William B. Franklin, USA
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
Gen.
Robert E. Lee, CSA
27.
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
The Battle of Chancellorsville was a major battle of the American Civil War, and the principal engagement of the Chancellorsville Campaign. It was fought from April 30 to May 6,1863, in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, two related battles were fought nearby on May 3 in the vicinity of Fredericksburg. The campaign pitted Union Army Maj. Gen. Joseph Hookers Army of the Potomac against a less than half its size. Chancellorsville is known as Lees perfect battle because his risky decision to divide his army in the presence of a larger enemy force resulted in a significant Confederate victory. The Chancellorsville Campaign began with the crossing of the Rappahannock River by the Union army on the morning of April 27,1863, Union cavalry under Maj. Gen. George Stoneman began a long distance raid against Lees supply lines at about the same time. Crossing the Rapidan River via Germanna and Elys Fords, the Federal infantry concentrated near Chancellorsville on April 30, combined with the Union force facing Fredericksburg, Hooker planned a double envelopment, attacking Lee from both his front and rear. Despite the objections of his subordinates, Hooker withdrew his men to the lines around Chancellorsville. On May 2, Lee divided his army again, sending Stonewall Jacksons entire corps on a march that routed the Union XI Corps. While performing a reconnaissance in advance of his line, Jackson was wounded by fire from his own men. Stuart temporarily replaced him as corps commander and that same day, Sedgwick advanced across the Rappahannock River, defeated the small Confederate force at Maryes Heights in the Second Battle of Fredericksburg, and then moved to the west. The Confederates fought a delaying action at the Battle of Salem Church and by May 4 had driven back Sedgwicks men to Banks Ford. Sedgwick withdrew across the early on May 5, and Hooker withdrew the remainder of his army across U. S. Ford the night of May 5–6, the campaign ended on May 7 when Stonemans cavalry reached Union lines east of Richmond. In the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War, the objective of the Union had been to advance and seize the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia. In the first two years of the war, four attempts had failed, the first foundered just miles away from Washington. Robert E. Lee in the Seven Days Battles and that summer, Maj. Gen. John Popes Army of Virginia was defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run. In January 1863, the Army of the Potomac, following the Battle of Fredericksburg, Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside decided to conduct a mass purge of the Army of the Potomacs leadership, eliminating a number of generals who he felt were responsible for the disaster at Fredericksburg. In reality, he had no power to anyone without the approval of Congress
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
Maj. Gen.
John F. Reynolds, USA
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
Battle of Chancellorsville by Kurz and Allison (depicts the wounding of Confederate Lt. Gen. Stonewall Jackson on May 2, 1863)
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
Maj. Gen.
Darius N. Couch, USA
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
Maj. Gen.
Daniel E. Sickles, USA
28.
Chattanooga Campaign
–
The Chattanooga Campaign was a series of maneuvers and battles in October and November 1863, during the American Civil War. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was given command of Union forces in the West, significant reinforcements also began to arrive with him in Chattanooga from Mississippi and the Eastern Theater. On October 19th, Grant removed Rosecrans from command of the Army of the Cumberland, after opening a supply line to feed his starving men and animals, Grants army fought off a Confederate counterattack at the Battle of Wauhatchie on October 28–29,1863. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman maneuvered to launch an attack against Braggs right flank on Missionary Ridge. On November 24, Shermans men crossed the Tennessee River in the morning, the same day, Eastern Theater troops under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker defeated the Confederates in the Battle of Lookout Mountain. The next day began a movement toward Braggs left flank at Rossville. On November 25, Shermans attack on Braggs right flank made little progress, hoping to distract Braggs attention, Grant ordered Thomass army to advance in the center of his line to the base of Missionary Ridge. Braggs defeat eliminated the last significant Confederate control of Tennessee and opened the door to an invasion of the Deep South, Chattanooga was a vital rail hub, and an important manufacturing center for the production of iron and coke, located on the navigable Tennessee River. Rosecrans pursued Bragg and the two collided at the Battle of Chickamauga on September 19–20. Bragg did not cut off the routes to Chattanooga and did not organize a pursuit that might have seriously damaged the Union army before it could regroup. The Union forces took advantage of previous Confederate works to erect defensive positions in a tight. Bragg had three courses of action and he could outflank Rosecrans by crossing the Tennessee either below or above the city, assault the Union force directly in their fortifications, or starve the Federals by establishing a siege line. A direct assault was too costly against a well-fortified enemy, receiving intelligence that Rosecranss men had only six days of rations, Bragg chose the siege option, while attempting to accumulate sufficient logistical capability to cross the Tennessee. Braggs army besieged the city, threatening to starve the Union forces into surrender, Bragg also had little inclination to take offensive action against the Federal army because he was occupied in leadership quarrels within his army. On September 29, Bragg relieved from command two of his subordinates who had disappointed him in the Chickamauga Campaign, Maj. Gen. Thomas C, hindman and Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk. On October 4, twelve of his most senior generals sent a petition to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, Davis personally visited Chattanooga to hear the complaints. After he decided to retain Bragg in command, Bragg retaliated against some of those generals by relieving Lt. Gen. D. H. Hill and Maj. Gen. Simon B. In Chattanooga, Rosecrans was stunned by the defeat of his army, President Abraham Lincoln remarked that Rosecrans seemed confused and stunned like a duck hit on the head
Chattanooga Campaign
–
Maj. Gen.
Ulysses S. Grant and Gen.
Braxton Bragg, commanding generals of the Chattanooga Campaign.
Chattanooga Campaign
–
Maj. Gen.
William T. Sherman
Chattanooga Campaign
–
Maj. Gen.
George H. Thomas
Chattanooga Campaign
–
Lt. Gen.
James Longstreet
29.
Battle of Lookout Mountain
–
The Battle of Lookout Mountain was fought November 24,1863, as part of the Chattanooga Campaign of the American Civil War. Union forces under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker assaulted Lookout Mountain, Chattanooga, Tennessee, after their disastrous defeat at the Battle of Chickamauga, the 40,000 men of the Union Army of the Cumberland under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, Tennessee. Braggs Army of Tennessee besieged the city, threatening to starve the Union forces into surrender, Lookout Mountain was actually a ridge or narrow plateau that extended 85 miles southwest from the Tennessee River, culminating in a sharp point 1,800 feet above the river. Above the bench, the grade steepened into a 500-foot face of rock called the palisades, the Union government, alarmed by the potential for defeat, sent reinforcements. Supplies and reinforcements were able to flow into Chattanooga over the Cracker Line. In response, Bragg ordered Lt. Gen. James Longstreet to force the Federals out of Lookout Valley, the ensuing Battle of Wauhatchie was one of the wars few battles fought exclusively at night. The Confederates were repulsed, and the Cracker Line was secured, on November 12, Bragg placed Maj. Gen. Carter L. Stevenson in overall command for the defense of the mountain, with Stevensons own division positioned on the summit. Walthall, and John C. Moore were placed on the bench of the mountain, Thomas L. Connelly, historian of the Army of Tennessee, wrote that despite the imposing appearance of Lookout Mountain, the mountains strength was a myth. It was impossible to hold was commanded by Federal artillery at Moccasin Bend, Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman arrived from Vicksburg, Mississippi, with his 20,000 men of the Army of the Tennessee in mid-November. Grant subsequently withdrew his support for an attack by Hooker on Lookout Mountain. On November 23, Shermans force was ready to cross the Tennessee River, Gen. Ambrose Burnside was being threatened by a Confederate force under Longstreet. Thomas sent over 14,000 men toward a minor hill named Orchard Knob, surprised by Thomass move against Orchard Knob on November 23, and realizing that his center might be more vulnerable than he had thought, Bragg quickly readjusted his strategy. He recalled all units within a days march that he had ordered to Knoxville. He began to reduce the strength on his left by withdrawing Maj. Gen. William H. T, walkers division from the base of Lookout Mountain and placing them on the far right of Missionary Ridge. He assigned Hardee to command his now critical right flank, turning over the flank to Carter Stevenson. The Union side also changed plans, Sherman had three divisions ready to cross the Tennessee, but the pontoon bridge at Browns Ferry had torn apart and Brig. Gen. Peter J. Osterhauss division was stranded in Lookout Valley. Grants Military Division of the Mississippi assembled the forces at Chattanooga, The Army of the Cumberland. The Army of the Tennessee, commanded by Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman
Battle of Lookout Mountain
–
Battle of Lookout Mountain, 1889 lithograph by Kurz and Allison.
Battle of Lookout Mountain
–
Brig. Gen.
John W. Geary
Battle of Lookout Mountain
–
Maj. Gen.
Carter L. Stevenson
Battle of Lookout Mountain
–
Brig. Gen.
Edward C. Walthall
30.
Atlanta Campaign
–
The Atlanta Campaign was a series of battles fought in the Western Theater of the American Civil War throughout northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta during the summer of 1864. Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman invaded Georgia from the vicinity of Chattanooga, Tennessee, beginning in May 1864, Johnstons Army of Tennessee withdrew toward Atlanta in the face of successive flanking maneuvers by Shermans group of armies. In July, the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, replaced Johnston with the more aggressive John Bell Hood, Hoods army was eventually besieged in Atlanta and the city fell on September 2, setting the stage for Shermans March to the Sea and hastening the end of the war. The Atlanta Campaign followed the Union victory in the Battles for Chattanooga in November 1863, Chattanooga was known as the Gateway to the South, grants strategy was to apply pressure against the Confederacy in several coordinated offensives. While he, George G. Meade, Benjamin Butler, Franz Sigel, George Crook, at the start of the campaign, Shermans Military Division of the Mississippi consisted of three armies, Maj. Gen. James B. McPhersons Army of the Tennessee, including the corps of Maj. Gen. John A. Logan, Maj. Gen. Grenville M. Dodge, when McPherson was killed at the Battle of Atlanta, Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard replaced him. Maj. Gen. John M. Schofields Army of the Ohio, consisting of Schofields XXIII Corps and a cavalry division commanded by Maj. Gen. George Stoneman. Maj. Gen. George H. Thomass Army of the Cumberland, including the corps of Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, Maj. Gen. John M. Palmer, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, and Brig. Gen. Washington L. Elliott. After Howard took army command, David S. Stanley took over IV Corps, however, by June, a steady stream of reinforcements brought Shermans strength to 112,000. Opposing Sherman, the Army of Tennessee was commanded first by Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, the four corps in the 50, 000-man army were commanded by, Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee. When Polk was killed on June 14, Loring briefly took over as commander of the corps but was replaced by Alexander P. Stewart on June 23. But in Georgia, he faced the more aggressive Sherman. Johnstons army repeatedly took up strongly entrenched defensive positions in the campaign, Sherman prudently avoided suicidal frontal assaults against most of these positions, instead maneuvering in flanking marches around the defenses as he advanced from Chattanooga towards Atlanta. Whenever Sherman flanked the defensive lines, Johnston would retreat to another prepared position, both armies took advantage of the railroads as supply lines, with Johnston shortening his supply lines as he drew closer to Atlanta, and Sherman lengthening his own. Johnston had entrenched his army on the long, high mountain of Rocky Face Ridge, the two columns engaged the enemy at Buzzard Roost and at Dug Gap. In the meantime, the column, under McPherson, passed through Snake Creek Gap and on May 9 advanced to the outskirts of Resaca. Fearing defeat, McPherson pulled his column back to Snake Creek Gap, on May 10, Sherman decided to take most of his men and join McPherson to take Resaca. The next morning, as he discovered Shermans army withdrawing from their positions in front of Rocky Face Ridge, Union troops tested the Confederate lines around Resaca to pinpoint their whereabouts
Atlanta Campaign
–
Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman and his staff in the trenches outside of Atlanta
Atlanta Campaign
–
Maj. Gen.
William T. Sherman
Atlanta Campaign
–
Maj. Gen.
George H. Thomas
Atlanta Campaign
–
Maj. Gen.
James B. McPherson
Major General (U.S.)
Colonel (California)
