1.
Kingstree, South Carolina
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Kingstree is a city and the county seat of Williamsburg County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 3,328 at the 2010 census, the original town was laid out as Williamsburg by the Lords Proprietors in colonial times. But a lone, unusually large white pine was found along the Black River, since tall white pines were ideal for use as masts for ships, it was claimed by the Crown on behalf of the king. The broad arrow mark was carved into the tree to prevent any colonists from cutting it, though white pines are native to the Appalachians as far south as Georgia, it is the only tree of King George’s ever found in the South. Over time, the county kept the name Williamsburg, but the county became known as The Kings Tree. General Francis Marion, known as the Swamp Fox, defeated the British at the Battle of the Lower Bridge in March 1781, there is a historical marker to mark the battle between US Highway 521 and the Black River. After the British had destroyed Charles Town during the revolution, General Marion gained supporters from Major John James, the Battle of Kings Tree took place on August 27,1780. The city sustained losses including, Indiantown Presbyterian Church being burned to the ground, the Kingstree Historic District, M. F. Heller House, Colonel John Gotea Pressley House, Scott House, and Thorntree are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Williamsburg Presbyterian Church was founded in August 1736, the church consisted of three structures. Its founders built the first church in 1738 across from the Williamsburg Cemetery in town, the third, the current structure of the church located on North Academy Street was built in 1914. The stained glass windows on the roof of the church today were imported from Austria, one of the stained glass windows on the roof was removed in 1989 during a renovation and was placed behind the pulpit of the sanctuary. The first person to be buried in the cemetery was John Witherspoon. Williamsburg Presbyterian Church celebrated its 275th Birthday in October 2011, the church held a service to share Kingstrees history. The church is the oldest church still exists today between the Santee and Cape Fear Rivers in North and South Carolina. Williamsburg Presbyterian is the church to 33 other Presbyterian churches. Two daughter churches include nearby Union Presbyterian church in Salters, South Carolina, the Kingstree company formed at Williamsburg Presbyterian Churchs original churchyard in July 1780. The company was led by Captain Henry Mouzon and later turned into the battalion, the Arnette House is one of the three oldest homes in the town and was built in 1840. The home holds significance in the town because the room was used as a school for two periods of history during the early years of the home
2.
Washington and Lee University
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Washington and Lee University is a private liberal arts university in Lexington, Virginia, United States. The campus is approximately 50 miles from Roanoke, Virginia,140 miles from Richmond, Virginia, Washington and Lee was founded in 1749 as a small classical school named Augusta Academy by Scots-Irish Presbyterian pioneers, though the University has never claimed any sectarian affiliation. In 1796, George Washington endowed the academy with a gift of stock. In gratitude, the school was renamed for the first United States President, Washington and Lee is the ninth-oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the second-oldest in Virginia. The University consists of three units, The College, the Williams School of Commerce, Economics, and Politics. The University hosts 24 intercollegiate athletic teams compete as part of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference of the NCAA Division III. The classical school from which Washington and Lee descended was established in 1749 by Scots-Irish Presbyterian pioneers and soon named Augusta Academy, in 1776, it was renamed Liberty Hall in a burst of revolutionary fervor. The academy moved to Lexington in 1780, when it was chartered as Liberty Hall Academy, the academy granted its first bachelors degree in 1785. Liberty Hall is said to have admitted its first African-American student when John Chavis and he is believed to be the first black student to enroll in higher education in the United States, although he did not receive a degree. Washington and Lee enrolled its next African-American student in 1966 in the law school, in 1796, George Washington endowed the academy with $20,000 in James River Canal stock, at the time one of the largest gifts ever given to an educational institution in the United States. Washingtons gift continues to provide nearly $1.87 a year toward every students tuition, the gift rescued Liberty Hall from near-certain insolvency. In gratitude, the changed the schools name to Washington Academy. An 8-foot tall statue of George Washington, carved by Matthew Kahle, the current statue is made of bronze, the original wooden statue was restored and now resides in the universitys library. The campus took its current architectural form in the 1820s when a merchant, Jockey John Robinson. For the dedication celebration in 1824, Robinson supplied a huge barrel of whiskey, but according to a contemporary history, the rabble broke through the barriers and created pandemonium, which ended only when college officials demolished the whiskey barrel with an axe. A justice of the Virginia State Supreme Court, Alex, M. Harman, Jr. re-created the episode in 1976 for the dedication of the new law school building by having several barrels of Scotch imported. Robinson also left his estate to Washington College, the estate included between 70 and 80 slaves. Until 1852, the institution benefited from their labor and, in some cases
3.
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
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The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center is a prominent medical education and biomedical research institution in the United States. One of the largest medical schools in the country, UT Southwestern annually trains about 3,700 medical, graduate, and health students, residents. The network comprises 27 hospitals,300 clinics, and more than 2,000 physicians, cTSAs encourage collaboration across scientific disciplines, train clinical and translational researchers, and drive innovative approaches to research challenges. With approximately 14,400 employees and a budget of nearly $2.5 billion. Founded during World War II, the school was initially housed in a handful of abandoned barracks. The Board of Regents accepted this offer from the foundation, in 1954 the name was changed to The University of Texas Southwestern Medical School. The present campus site on Harry Hines Boulevard was occupied in 1955 upon the completion of the Edward H. Cary Building and this placed the medical school faculty next to the then-newly built Parkland Memorial Hospital. In November 1972 the name and scope of the school were changed with its reorganization into The University of Texas Health Science Center at Dallas. In 1986 the Howard Hughes Medical Institute opened a facility on the campus. Concentrating on molecular biology, it has brought outstanding scientists to head laboratories in their specialties and these Investigators also hold faculty positions in the basic science departments of the Medical School and Graduate School. Since the late 1960s the university has added more than 6 million square feet of new construction, affiliated hospitals adjacent to the campus are Zale Lipshy University Hospital, Parkland Memorial Hospital, William P. Clements Jr. University Hospital, and Childrens Medical Center, in 1987 the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation gave the university 30 acres near the South Campus for future expansion. Rogers Magnetic Resonance Center and the Moncrief Radiation Oncology Center, three research towers and an elevated campus connector, linking the South Campus with the North Campus, were completed in the 1990s. A fourth 14-story research tower was completed in 2005, followed by a 12-story research tower in 2011, in 1999 the university purchased an additional 50 acres from the MacArthur Foundation, and a portion of the property was used to create an on-campus student-housing complex of 156 apartments. A second phase of 126 units opened in the summer of 2004, in 2008, the university purchased the 24-acre Exchange Park adjacent to the North Campus. In 2008, UT Southwestern opened the BioCenter at Southwestern Medical District, the clinical services are expanding as annual patient visits to the Medical Center’s clinics average 400,000 a year, up from 50,000 annually 15 years ago. There, physicians treat every cancer, from breast, urologic, gynecologic, lung, gastrointestinal, head and neck, brain, and skin to lymphomas, leukemia, UT Southwestern also is an Advanced Comprehensive Stroke Center, the highest level of certification for stroke care. The Medical Center also is home to an NIH Alzheimer’s Disease Center and is a Network of Excellence in Neuroscience Clinical Trials Center
4.
Cholesterol
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Cholesterol, from the Ancient Greek chole- and stereos followed by the chemical suffix -ol for an alcohol, is an organic molecule. Cholesterol enables animal cells to dispense with a wall, thereby allowing animal cells to change shape rapidly. In addition to its importance for cell structure, cholesterol also serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, bile acid. Cholesterol is the principal sterol synthesized by all animals, in vertebrates, hepatic cells typically produce the greatest amounts. It is absent among prokaryotes, although there are exceptions, such as Mycoplasma. François Poulletier de la Salle first identified cholesterol in solid form in gallstones in 1769, however, it was not until 1815 that chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul named the compound cholesterine. Furthermore, it can be absorbed directly from animal-based foods, a human male weighing 68 kg normally synthesizes about 1 gram per day, and his body contains about 35 g, mostly contained within the cell membranes. Typical daily cholesterol dietary intake for a man in the United States is 307 mg, most ingested cholesterol is esterified, and esterified cholesterol is poorly absorbed. The body also compensates for any absorption of cholesterol by reducing cholesterol synthesis. For these reasons, cholesterol in food, seven to ten hours after ingestion, has little and it is also important to recognize, however, that the concentrations measured in the samples of blood plasma vary with the measurement methods used. Cholesterol is recycled in the body, the liver excretes it in a non-esterified form into the digestive tract. Typically, about 50% of the excreted cholesterol is reabsorbed by the small intestine back into the bloodstream, plants make cholesterol in very small amounts. Plants manufacture phytosterols, which can compete with cholesterol for reabsorption in the intestinal tract, when intestinal lining cells absorb phytosterols, in place of cholesterol, they usually excrete the phytosterol molecules back into the GI tract, an important protective mechanism. Cholesterol, given that it composes about 30% of all cell membranes, is required to build. The membrane remains stable and durable without being rigid, allowing cells to change shape. In this structural role, cholesterol also reduces the permeability of the membrane to neutral solutes, hydrogen ions. Within the cell membrane, cholesterol also functions in intracellular transport, cell signaling, cholesterol is essential for the structure and function of invaginated caveolae and clathrin-coated pits, including caveola-dependent and clathrin-dependent endocytosis. The role of cholesterol in endocytosis of these types can be investigated by using methyl beta cyclodextrin to remove cholesterol from the plasma membrane, in multiple layers, cholesterol and phospholipids, both electrical insulators, can facilitate speed of transmission of electrical impulses along nerve tissue
5.
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
6.
National Medal of Science
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The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
7.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
8.
Biochemistry
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Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of energy through metabolism. Biochemistry is closely related to biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate. The chemistry of the cell depends on the reactions of smaller molecules. These can be inorganic, for water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism, the findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases, in nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control. However, biochemistry as a scientific discipline has its beginning sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier. Gowland Hopkins on enzymes and the nature of biochemistry. The term biochemistry itself is derived from a combination of biology, the German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister. Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea and these techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and this part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, in 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference, in the silencing of gene expression. Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring elements are essential to various kinds of biological life. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life, while a few common ones are not used, most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals
9.
Michael Stuart Brown
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Michael Stuart Brown is an American geneticist and Nobel laureate. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Joseph L. Goldstein in 1985 for describing the regulation of cholesterol metabolism, Brown was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Evelyn, a homemaker, and Harvey Brown, a textile salesman. Brown graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1962 and received his M. D. from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in 1966, the lack of sufficient LDL receptors is implicated in familial hypercholesterolemia, which predisposes heavily for cholesterol-related diseases. In addition to explaining the underlying pathology of disease, their work uncovered a fundamental aspect of cell biology - Receptor-mediated endocytosis. Their discoveries are improving more lives every year, both in the United States and around the world, New federal cholesterol guidelines will triple the number of Americans taking statin drugs to lower their cholesterol, reducing the risk of heart disease and stroke for countless people. Following these important advances, their team of dedicated researchers elucidated the role of lipid modification of proteins in cancer, in 1984 he was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University together with Joseph L. Goldstein. In 1988, Brown received National Medal of Science for his contributions to the world of Medicine, in 1993, their trainees Xiaodong Wang and Michael Briggs purified the Sterol regulatory element binding proteins. He and his colleague are among the most highly cited scientists in the world, Brown is also on the prestigious Prix Galien USA Committee that recognizes the technical, scientific and clinical research skills necessary to develop innovative medicines. Brown has won awards and honors including
10.
Residency (medicine)
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Residency is a stage of graduate medical training. A resident or house officer is a physician who practices medicine usually in a hospital or clinic under the direct or indirect supervision of an attending physician, successful completion of a residency program is a requirement to obtaining an unrestricted license to practice medicine in many jurisdictions. Residency training may be followed by fellowship or sub-specialty training, a resident physician is more commonly referred to as a resident, senior house officer, or alternatively as a senior resident medical officer or house officer. Residents have graduated from a medical school and hold a medical degree. Residents are, collectively, the staff of a hospital. This term comes from the fact that resident physicians traditionally spend the majority of their training in house, duration of residencies can range from three years to seven years, depending upon the program and specialty. A year in residency begins between late June and early July depending on the program, and ends one calendar year later. Depending on the number of years a specialty requires, the term junior resident may refer to residents that have not completed half their residency, Senior residents are residents in their final year of residency. Some residency programs refer to residents in their year as chief residents. Alternatively, a resident may describe a resident who has been selected to extend his or her residency by one year and organize the activities. If a physician finishes a residency and decides to further his or her education in a fellowship, post-residency physicians are referred to as attending physicians, or consultants. However, the above applies only in educational institutes in which the period of training is specified in advance. In privately owned, non-training hospitals, in countries, the above terminology may reflect the level of responsibility held by a physician rather than their level of education. The first formal residency programs were established by Sir William Osler, residencies elsewhere then became formalized and institutionalized for the principal specialties in the early 20th century. But even mid-century, residency was not seen as necessary for general practice, residencies are traditionally hospital-based, and in the middle of the twentieth century, residents would often live in hospital-supplied housing. Call was sometimes as frequent as every second or third night for up to three years, pay was minimal beyond room, board, and laundry services. It was assumed that most young men and women training as physicians had few obligations outside of training at that stage of their careers. The first year of practical patient-care-oriented training after school has long been termed internship
11.
National Institutes of Health
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The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
12.
Bethesda, Maryland
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Bethesda is a census-designated place in southern Montgomery County, Maryland, United States, located just northwest of the U. S. capital of Washington, D. C. It takes its name from a church, the Bethesda Meeting House. In Aramaic, ܒܝܬ ܚܣܕܐ beth ḥesda means House of Mercy and in Hebrew, the National Institutes of Health main campus and the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center are in Bethesda, as are a number of corporate and government headquarters. In 2014 it placed first in Forbes list of Americas most educated small towns, as an unincorporated area, Bethesda has no official boundaries. The United States Census Bureau defines a place named Bethesda whose center is located at 38°59′N 77°7′W. The United States Geological Survey has defined Bethesda as an area whose center is at 38°58′50″N 77°6′2″W, other definitions are used by the Bethesda Urban Planning District, the United States Postal Service, and other organizations. According to estimates released by the U. S. Census Bureau in 2013, Most of Bethesdas residents are in Maryland Legislative District 16. Bethesda is situated along a thoroughfare that was originally the route of an ancient Native American trail. Henry Fleet, an English fur trader, was the first European to travel to the area, Most early settlers in Maryland were tenant farmers who paid their rent in tobacco. A small settlement grew around a store and tollhouse along the turnpike, by 1862, the community was known as Darcys Store after the owner of a local establishment, William E. Darcy. The church burned in 1849 and was rebuilt the same year about 100 yards south at its present site. Throughout most of the 19th century, Bethesda never developed beyond a small village, consisting of a post office, a blacksmith shop, a church and school. It was not until the installation of a line in 1890. Until that time, dependence on proximity to rail lines insulated Bethesda from growth, the arrival of the personal automobile ended this dependency, and Bethesda planners grew the community with the newest transportation revolution in mind. Subdivisions began to appear on old farmland, becoming the neighborhoods of Drummond, Woodmont, Edgemoor, further north, several wealthy men made Rockville Pike famous for its mansions. These included Brainard W. Parker, James Oyster, George E. Hamilton, wilson, Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor, and George Freeland Peter. In 1930, Dr Armistead Peters pioneering manor house Winona became the clubhouse of the original Woodmont Country Club, merle Thorpes mansion, Pooks Hill —on the site of the current neighborhood of the same name—became the home-in-exile of the Norwegian Royal Family during World War II. That war, and the expansion of government that it created, both the National Naval Medical Center and the NIH complex were built just to the north of the developing downtown
13.
Molecular biology
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Writing in Nature in 1961, William Astbury described molecular biology as. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however and it must at the same time inquire into genesis and function. Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology but increasingly combine these techniques and ideas from genetics. There is not a line between these disciplines. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules, the study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry. Genetics is the study of the effect of differences on organisms. This can often be inferred by the absence of a normal component, the study of mutants – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called wild type or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions can often confound simple interpretations of such knockout studies, molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the processes of replication, transcription, translation, and cell function. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA, much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at its interface with computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. In the early 2000s, the study of structure and function. There is also a tradition of studying biomolecules from the ground up in biophysics. One of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is molecular cloning, in this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is cloned using PCR and/or restriction enzymes into a plasmid. A vector has 3 distinctive features, an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, the origin of replication will have promoter regions upstream from the replication/transcription start site. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells, introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation via uptake of naked DNA, conjugation via cell-cell contact or by transduction via viral vector. Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, electroporation, microinjection, the plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, a variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell, polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA
14.
Thomson Reuters
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Thomson Reuters Corporation is a multinational mass media and information firm with operational headquarters at 3 Times Square in Manhattan, New York City. The firm was founded in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where its legal domicile offices are located at 333 Bay Street in Downtown Toronto, Thomson Reuters shares maintain a dual listing on the New York Stock Exchange and the Toronto Stock Exchange. Thomson Reuters was ranked as Canadas leading corporate brand in the 2010 Interbrand Best Canadian Brands ranking, Thomson Reuters operates in more than 100 countries, and has more than 60,000 employees around the world. The chief executive of the company is James C. Smith, who was the executive for the professional division, and the chairman is David Thomson. The company was founded by Roy Thomson in 1934 in Ontario as the publisher of The Timmins Daily Press, in 1953, Thomson acquired the Scotsman newspaper and moved to Scotland the following year. He consolidated his position in Scotland in 1957 when he won the franchise for Scottish Television. In 1959, he bought the Kemsley Group, a purchase that eventually gave him control of the Sunday Times and he separately acquired the Times in 1967. He moved into the business in 1965, when he acquired Britannia Airways and into oil. The company at time was known as the International Thomson Organisation Ltd. In 1989, ITOL merged with Thomson Newspapers, forming The Thomson Corporation, in 1996, The Thomson Corporation acquired West Publishing, a purveyor of legal research and solutions including Westlaw. The Company was founded by Paul Julius Reuter in 1851 in London as a business transmitting stock market quotations, in 1865, Reuters in London was the first organization to report the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. The company was involved in developing the use of radio in 1923 and it was acquired by the British National & Provincial Press in 1941 and first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1984. The Thomson Corporation acquired Reuters Group PLC to form Thomson Reuters on April 17,2008, Thomson Reuters operated under a dual-listed company structure and had two parent companies, both of which were publicly listed — Thomson Reuters Corporation and Thomson Reuters PLC. In 2009, it unified its dual listed company structure and stopped its listing on the London Stock Exchange and it is now listed only as Thomson Reuters Corporation on the New York Stock Exchange and Toronto Stock Exchange. On February 13,2013, Thomson Reuters announced it would cut 2,500 jobs to cut cost in its Legal, Financial and Risk division. On October 29,2013, Thomson Reuters announced it would cut another 3,000 jobs, mostly in its Legal, Financial, the Thomson-Reuters merger transaction was reviewed by the U. S. Department of Justice and by the European Commission. On February 19,2008, both the Department of Justice and the Commission cleared the transaction subject to minor divestments and these remedies were viewed as very minor given the scope of the transaction
15.
Sterol regulatory element-binding protein
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Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins are transcription factors that bind to the sterol regulatory element DNA sequence TCACNCCAC. Mammalian SREBPs are encoded by the genes SREBF1 and SREBF2, SREBPs belong to the basic-helix-loop-helix leucine zipper class of transcription factors. Unactivated SREBPs are attached to the envelope and endoplasmic reticulum membranes. In cells with low levels of sterols, SREBPs are cleaved to a water-soluble N-terminal domain that is translocated to the nucleus and these activated SREBPs then bind to specific sterol regulatory element DNA sequences, thus upregulating the synthesis of enzymes involved in sterol biosynthesis. Sterols in turn inhibit the cleavage of SREBPs and therefore synthesis of additional sterols is reduced through a feed back loop. Mammalian genomes have two separate SREBP genes, SREBP-1 expression produces two different isoforms, SREBP-1a and -1c and these isoforms differ in their first exons owing to the use of different transcriptional start sites for the SREBP-1 gene. SREBP-1c was also identified in rats as ADD-1, SREBP-1c is responsible for regulating the genes required for de novo lipogenesis. SREBP-2 regulates the genes of cholesterol metabolism, SREB proteins are indirectly required for cholesterol biosynthesis and for uptake and fatty acid biosynthesis. These proteins work with asymmetric sterol regulatory element, SREBPs have a structure similar to E-box-binding helix-loop-helix proteins. However, in contrast to E-box-binding HLH proteins, a residue is replaced with tyrosine making them capable of recognizing StREs. Animal cells maintain proper levels of lipids under widely varying circumstances. For example, when cellular cholesterol levels fall below the level needed, a principal step in this response is to make more of the mRNA transcripts that direct the synthesis of these enzymes. Conversely, when there is enough cholesterol around, the cell stops making those mRNAs, as a result, the cell quits making cholesterol once it has enough. A notable feature of this regulatory feedback machinery was first observed for the SREBP pathway - regulated intramembrane proteolysis, subsequently, RIP was found to be used in almost all organisms from bacteria to human beings and regulates a wide range of processes ranging from development to neurodegeneration. A feature of the SREBP pathway is the release of a membrane-bound transcription factor. Proteolytic cleavage frees it to move through the cytoplasm to the nucleus, once in the nucleus, SREBP can bind to specific DNA sequences that are found in the control regions of the genes that encode enzymes needed to make lipids. This binding to DNA leads to the transcription of the target genes. The ~120 kDa SREBP precursor protein is anchored in the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, the precursor has a hairpin orientation in the membrane, so that both the amino-terminal transcription factor domain and the COOH-terminal regulatory domain face the cytoplasm
16.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
17.
Insulin
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Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets. It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and protein by promoting the absorption of, especially, glucose from the blood into fat, liver and skeletal muscle cells. In these tissues the absorbed glucose is converted into either glycogen via glycogenesis or fats via lipogenesis, or, in the case of the liver, Glucose production by the liver is strongly inhibited by high concentrations of insulin in the blood. Circulating insulin also affects the synthesis of proteins in a variety of tissues. It is therefore an anabolic hormone, promoting the conversion of small molecules in the blood into large molecules inside the cells, low insulin levels in the blood have the opposite effect by promoting widespread catabolism. Pancreatic beta cells are known to be sensitive to concentrations in the blood. When glucose concentrations in the blood are high, the pancreatic β cells secrete insulin into the blood, glucagon, through stimulating the liver to release glucose by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, has the opposite effect of insulin. If pancreatic beta cells are destroyed by an reaction, insulin can no longer be synthesized or be secreted into the blood. This results in type 1 diabetes mellitus, which is characterized by high blood glucose concentrations. In type 2 diabetes mellitus the destruction of cells is less pronounced than in type 1 diabetes. Instead there is an accumulation of amyloid in the pancreatic islets, Type 2 diabetes is characterized by high rates of glucagon secretion into the blood which are unaffected by, and unresponsive to the concentration of glucose in the blood glucose. Insulin is still secreted into the blood in response to the blood glucose, as a result, the insulin levels, even when the blood sugar level is normal, are much higher than they are in healthy persons. There are a variety of treatment regimens, none of which is entirely satisfactory, when the pancreas’s capacity to secrete insulin can no longer keep the blood sugar level within normal bounds, insulin injections are given. The human insulin protein is composed of 51 amino acids, and has a mass of 5808 Da. It is a dimer of an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by disulfide bonds, insulins structure varies slightly between species of animals. Insulin from animal sources differs somewhat in effectiveness from human insulin because of these variations, porcine insulin is especially close to the human version, and was widely used to treat type 1 diabetics before human insulin could be produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA technologies. The crystal structure of insulin in the state was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a health system
18.
National Academy of Medicine
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The National Academy of Medicine, formerly called the Institute of Medicine, is an American nonprofit, non-governmental organization. The National Academy of Medicine provides national advice on issues relating to science, medicine, and health. Operating outside the framework of the U. S. federal government, it relies on a volunteer workforce of scientists and other experts, the institute was founded in 1970, under the congressional charter of the National Academy of Sciences as the Institute of Medicine. These changes took effect on July 1,2015, the National Academies attempt to obtain authoritative, objective, and scientifically balanced answers to difficult questions of national importance. The work is conducted by committees of volunteer scientists—leading national and international experts—who serve without compensation, committees are composed in an attempt to assure the requisite expertise and to avoid bias or conflict of interest. Victor Dzau is President and Chairman of the Council and his six-year term began on July 1,2014. The Interim Leonard D. Schaeffer Executive Officer is Clyde J. Behney, the majority of studies and other activities are requested and funded by the federal government. Private industry, foundations, and state and local governments also initiate studies, reports are made available online for free by the publishing arm of the United States National Academies, the National Academies Press, in multiple formats. The academy is both an honorific membership organization and a research organization. Election to active membership is both an honor and a commitment to serve in Institute affairs, the bylaws specify that no more than 80 new members shall be elected annually, including 10 from outside the United States. The announcement of newly elected members occurs at the Annual Meeting in October, as of October 20,2015, the number of regular members plus international and emeritus members is 2,012. The Food and Nutrition Board is body within the NAM set up to study the safety and it publishes principles and guidelines for good nutrition. It judges the relationship between nutrition, good health and disease prevention, the New York Times called the IOM the United States most esteemed and authoritative adviser on issues of health and medicine, and its reports can transform medical thinking around the world. It is accompanied by a medal and $20,000
19.
Howard Hughes Medical Institute
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The Howard Hughes Medical Institute is an American non-profit medical research organization based in Chevy Chase, Maryland. It was founded by the American businessman Howard Hughes in 1953 and it is one of the largest private funding organizations for biological and medical research in the United States. HHMI spends about $1 million per HHMI Investigator per year, which amounts to annual investment in research of about $825 million. The institute has an endowment of $18.2 billion, making it the second-wealthiest philanthropic organization in the United States, HHMI is the former owner of the Hughes Aircraft Company - an American aerospace firm which was divested to various firms over time. The institute was formed with the goal of research including trying to understand, in Hughess words. Despite its principles, in the days it was generally viewed as a tax haven for Hughess huge personal fortune. Hughes was HHMIs sole trustee and transferred his stock of Hughes Aircraft to the institute, for many years the Institute grappled with maintaining its non-profit status, the Internal Revenue Service challenged its charitable status which made it tax exempt. The institute was initially in Miami, Florida in 1953, Hughess internist, Dr. Verne Mason, who treated Hughes after his 1946 plane crash, was chairman of the institutes medical advisory committee. The institute moved to Coconut Grove, Florida, in the mid-1970s and then to Bethesda, Maryland, in 1993 the institute moved to its headquarters in Chevy Chase, Maryland. It was not until after Hughess death in 1976 that the institutes profile increased from a budget of $4 million in 1975 to $15 million by 1978. In this period it focused its mission on genetics, immunology, since Hughes died without a will as the sole trustee of the HHMI, the institute was involved in lengthy court proceedings to determine whether it would benefit from Hughess fortune. In April 1984, a court appointed new trustees for the institutes holdings, in January 1985 the trustees announced they would sell Hughes Aircraft by private sale or public stock offering. On June 5,1985 General Motors was announced as the winner of a secretive five-month, sealed-bid auction. The purchase was completed on December 20,1985 for an estimated $5.2 billion, $2.7 billion in cash, the proceeds caused the institute to grow dramatically. HHMI completed the building of a new campus in Ashburn. It is modeled after AT&Ts Bell Labs and the Medical Research Councils Laboratory of Molecular Biology, with a main laboratory building nearly 1,000 feet long, it contains 760,000 square feet of enclosed space, used primarily for research. The campus also features apartments for visiting researchers, the agreement takes effect for articles published after September 1,2007. In 2008, the Trustees of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute selected Dr. Robert Tjian as the new president of HHMI, in 2009, HHMI awarded fifty researchers, as part of the HHMI Early Career Scientist Competition
20.
Rockefeller University
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The Rockefeller University is a center for scientific research, primarily in the biological and medical sciences, providing doctoral and postdoctoral education. Rockefeller is one of the most prestigious institutes for research in the world. Of a 78 person faculty,38 are members of the National Academy of Sciences,18 are members of the National Academy of Medicine,8 are Lasker Award recipients, Rockefeller is located on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, between 63rd and 68th Streets along York Avenue. Richard P. Lifton—previously the executive director of the Center for Human Genetics and Genomics at Yale University—became the universitys president on September 1,2016. The Rockefeller University Press publishes the Journal of Experimental Medicine, the Journal of Cell Biology, the Rockefeller Foundation, a philanthropic organization, founded in 1913, is a separate entity, but had close connections mediated by prominent figures holding dual positions. The first director of laboratories was Simon Flexner, who supervised the development of capacity at the Institute, whose staff made major discoveries in basic research. Flexner retired in 1935 and was succeeded by Herbert Gasser and he was succeeded in 1953 by Detlev Bronk, who broadened The Rockefeller Institute into a university that began awarding the PhD degree in 1954. In 1965 The Rockefeller Institutes name was changed to The Rockefeller University, the Rockefeller Hospitals first director Rufus Cole retired in 1937 and was succeeded by Thomas Milton Rivers. As director of The Rockefeller Institutes virology laboratory, he established virology as an independent field apart from bacteriology, Rockefeller has a remarkable history of research breakthroughs especially given the size of the institution. Discovery of the cell, the sentinel of the immune system Identification of a genetic defect associated with atherosclerosis. Others attained eminence before being drawn to the university, joshua Lederberg, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958, served as president of the university from 1978 to 1990. Paul Nurse, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2001, in all,24 Nobel Prize recipients have been associated with the University. In the mid-1970s, the University attracted a few prominent academicians in the humanities, urged by Rockefeller Jr, his only son, who was enthusiastic about the Institute, Rockefeller Sr visited but once. Rockefeller Jrs youngest son David would visit with his father, to foster an interdisciplinary atmosphere among its 79 laboratories, the university assigns a faculty member to one of six interconnecting research areas. D. and M. D. -Ph. D. Students 1,178 alumni Award affiliations taken from The Rockefeller University » Nobel Laureates, David Albert, physicist and philosopher David Baltimore, recipient of Nobel Prize in Physiology & Medicine in 1975 for the discovery of reverse transcriptase. Has served as president of both the Rockefeller University and the California Institute of Technology, michael Bratman, Durfee Professor of philosophy at Stanford University. Gerald Edelman, recipient of the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, barbara Ehrenreich, social commentator and author of the 2001 book Nickel and Dimed, On Getting By In America. Nef Distinguished Service Professor in the Committee on Social Thought and professor of philosophy at the University of Chicago, recipient of Prince of Asturias Award in 1994
21.
Broad Institute
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Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, often referred to as the Broad Institute, is a biomedical and genomic research center located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The Broad Institute, formerly the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, evolved from a decade of research collaborations among MIT, one cornerstone was the Center for Genome Research of Whitehead Institute at MIT. Founded in 1982, the Whitehead became a center for genomics. Another cornerstone was the Institute of Chemistry and Cell Biology established by Harvard Medical School in 1998 to pursue chemical genetics as an academic discipline and its screening facility was one of the first high-throughput resources opened in an academic setting. It facilitated small molecule screening projects for more than 80 research groups worldwide, the Broads made a founding gift of $100 million and the Broad Institute was formally launched in May 2004. In November 2005, the Broads announced an additional $100 million gift to the Institute, on September 4,2008, the Broads announced an endowment of $400 million to make the Broad Institute a permanent establishment. In November 2013, they invested an additional million to fund a second decade of research at the institute. The Broad Institute has 11 core faculty and 195 associate members from Harvard, MIT, the Broad Institute is made up of three types of organizational units, core member laboratories, research programs, and platforms. The platforms include, The faculty and staff of the Broad Institute include physicians, geneticists, and molecular, chemical, todd Golub, a physician-researcher, is director of the cancer program. He applies genomic tools to the classification and study of cancers, myriam Heiman combines genetics, biochemistry, and cell biology to study the features that define different types of neurons and their vulnerability to disease. Deborah Hung is a chemical biologist and an infectious disease physician who studies the interactions between pathogens and their hosts, with the goal of discovering new antibiotic targets, steven Hyman is the director of the Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research. Eric Lander is the director of the Broad Institute, a geneticist, molecular biologist and mathematician, Lander has been a driving force in the development of genomics and a prominent leader of the Human Genome Project. Aviv Regev is a computational biologist with interests in biological networks, Stuart Schreiber is director of the Chemical Biology program. He has developed ways to explore biology, especially disease biology. Edward Scolnick is the former President of Merck Research Laboratories, former Director, feng Zhang is an assistant professor at MIT who developed optogenetics and genome editing technologies. The Broad Institutes facilities at 320 Charles Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts, as WICGR, this facility was the largest contributor of sequence information to the Human Genome Project. In February 2006, The Broad Institute expanded to a new building at 415 Main Street and this seven-story 231, 000-square-foot building contains office, research laboratory, retail and museum space. In 2011, the announced plans to construct an additional tower adjacent to the 415 Main Street site at 75 Ames Street
22.
Scripps Research Institute
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The Scripps Research Institute is a nonprofit American medical research facility that focuses on research and education in the biomedical sciences. In 1946, the clinic separated from Scripps Memorial Hospital. In 1956, the organization was renamed Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation to reflect its broader focus, dixon was appointed director of research operations in 1970, and in 1977 these operations assumed the name of The Research Institute of Scripps Clinic. Upon Dixons retirement in 1986, Richard Lerner, who had been chair of the Scripps Department of Molecular Biology, was appointed the institutes new director. Lerner continued to expand the institute, both in size and reputation, in 1989, the institute launched a graduate program. In 1991, as the result of a merger of hospitals, the branch became part of a larger organization. In 1993, the division separated from the clinical side. Plans for a campus in Florida were announced in October 2003. Michael Marletta became president and CEO on January 1,2012, assuming the position from Lerner, Marletta announced his resignation on July 21,2014 and James C. Paulson was subsequently appointed acting president and CEO, in September 2015, Peter G. Schultz was appointed CEO, and Steve A. Kay, president. Kay announced he was returning to the University of Southern California in August 2016, in February 2017 venture capitalist John Diekman was named chairman of the board. The Scripps Institution of Oceanography is often associated with TSRI. TSRI is a nonprofit institute not directly associated with UCSD. Confusingly, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography was once called the Scripps Institution for Biological Research, TSRIs California campus is located on 35 acres of land between the Torrey Pines State Reserve and the University of California, San Diego in La Jolla. In Florida, TSRI occupies 30 acres adjacent to the John D. MacArthur campus of Florida Atlantic University in Palm Beach County, Florida. Oldstone, Roy A. Periana, William R. Roush, Paul Schimmel, Peter G. Schultz, Charles Weissmann, Ian Wilson, Peter Wright, John R. Yates, Chi-Huey Wong, and Jin-Quan Yu. The Scripps Research Institute was noted as a standout in the Science Watch survey of papers in chemistry. Another measure of productivity, the Hirsch index, placed six TSRI scientists— Wüthrich, Sharpless, Lerner, Yates, Schultz, and Chi-Huey Wong—in the top 100 of 2,000 chemists rated
23.
Woodrow Wilson Awards
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Created in 1999 as a local Award for leadership in Washington, DC, the Awards were expanded in 2001 to recognize great leaders and thinkers throughout the world. Funding from the Awards supports additional research, scholars, and programs in Washington, recipients of this award share Woodrow Wilson’s steadfast belief in public discourse, scholarship, and the extension of the benefits of knowledge in the United States and around the world. The Woodrow Wilson Award for Corporate Citizenship is given to executives who demonstrate a commitment to the common good—beyond the bottom line and they are the people who demonstrate that private firms should be good citizens in their own neighborhoods, as well as in the world. The award is given to those who have done work in improving their local communities. The Wilson Center is the memorial to President Woodrow Wilson, with headquarters in Washington. The Center was established as part of the Smithsonian in 1968 by an act of the United States Congress and it is a nonpartisan research institution that is committed to fostering research, study, and discussion of national and global affairs. The Center promotes collaboration among a full spectrum of individuals concerned with policy and scholarship in national, the mission of the Center is to commemorate the ideals and concerns of President Wilson by providing a link between the world of ideas and the world of policy. Lee H. Hamilton is the president and director of the Wilson Center, the Woodrow Wilson Center is a research body kim belonging to the Smithsonian Institution. Most of its facilities are located in Washington, D. C. but its 19 museums, zoo, mental hospitals and eight research centers include sites in New York City, Virginia, Panama and it has over 142 million items in its collections. Awardees are chosen by the Wilson Center Board of Trustees in recognition of their work to benefit society, in line with President Wilsons vision, honorees participate in efforts to improve the global community through collaboration and open dialogue. They have made contributions to education, peace, health care, culture, legislation, sportsmanship, technology, scholastic research. Woodrow Wilson Awards have gone to a set of professionals, including scientists, politicians, entertainers, diplomats, athletes, business executives, doctors. Among business executives, their industries include health care, hotels, restaurants, hospital Corporation of America Steve and Jean Case, AOL Clarence P. Cazalot, Jr. Gildenhorn, The JBG Companies Richard F. Haskayne, Canadian Wealth Management Ray L. Hunt, Hunt Oil Company Irwin M. Jacobs, QUALCOMM, at each dinner, the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service and the Woodrow Wilson Award for Corporate Citizenship are presented. In some places, the Wilson Center will host events where different scholars talk about policy issues
24.
Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
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The award frequently precedes a Nobel Prize in Medicine, almost 50% of the winners have gone on to win one. Crick, James D. Watson, James V. Neel, gallo 1983 Eric R. Kandel, Vernon B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard 1993 Günter Blobel 1994 Stanley B, doherty, Jack L. Strominger, Emil R. Unanue, Don C. Südhof 2014 Kazutoshi Mori, Peter Walter 2015 Stephen J. Elledge, Evelyn M. Witkin 2016 William Kaelin, Jr. Peter J. Ratcliffe, Gregg L. Semenza
. PMID 22584575.
