1.
Thomas Annan
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Thomas Annan was a Scottish photographer, notable for being the first to record the bad housing conditions of the poor. Born in Dairsie, Fife he was one of seven children of John Annan, after his initial apprenticeship as a lithographic writer and engraver at the Fife Herald in Cupar, he moved to Glasgow in 1849 and worked as a lithographer and engraver for Joseph Swan until 1855. He set up business with George Berwick at 40 Woodlands Road, Glasgow, listing in the 1855 -56 Glasgow post office directory as calotypists, in 1855, he photographed RMS Persia, under construction on the Clyde, which was probably a commission by engineer, Robert Napier. After dissolving his previous partnership, he established himself in a studio at 116 Sauchiehall Street during 1857. In 1859, the moved to 200 Hope Street and he was also able to establish a printing works in Hamilton in 1863. It was this series of photographs, created between 1868 and 1871, entitled the Old Closes and Streets of Glasgow, that ensured his prosperity. In 1869, Thomas purchased the contents of Rock House, which belonged David Octavius Hill and these were eventually exhibited by Thomas son, James Craig Annan, and reproduced in photogravure in Alfred Stieglitzs journal Camera Work. His works include, Bond and free, five sketches illustrative of slavery, Glasgow in 1777 by McArthur 2. Glasgow in 1807 by Fleming 3. Map of the Environs of Scotland in 1795 by Richardson Glasgow improvements act 1868, photographs of streets, taken 1868 -71 Scottish landscape, The works of Horatio McCulloch, with a sketch of his life by Alexander Fraser. One hundred photographs by Annan with descriptive notices of the houses and families by John Buchanan Photographs of old closes, streets, & c. Annan could scarcely fail to be attractive, for in a country so beautiful a clever artist is bound to produce results in keeping with the nature of the subject, indeed, Annans work was often praised not only for its aesthetics, but also for its technical virtuosity. Twenty years later, Annans studio would be singled out by Baden Pritchard for its accomplishments in carbon printing, Thomas Annan purchased the rights to the photogravure process in Britain from Karel Klíč of Vienna in 1883 after visiting the city with his second son, James Craig Annan. The family business survives to the present day in the form of the Annan Fine Art Gallery, a selection of prints from the Glasgow Improvements act 1868 series were displayed in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery from 2011 to 2012
2.
Royal Scottish Academy
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For Scotlands national academy, see Royal Society of Edinburgh. The Royal Scottish Academy is a Scottish organisation that promotes contemporary Scottish art, founded in 1826 as the Scottish Academy, it became the Royal Scottish Academy on being granted a royal charter in 1838. The RSA is separate from the Royal Academy in London, though there are links between the two organisations, in addition to a continuous programme of exhibitions, the RSA also administers scholarships, awards, and residencies for artists who live and work in Scotland. Displays of the collections are mounted whenever possible. Its home since 1911 has been the Royal Scottish Academy Building on The Mound, Princes Street, Edinburgh, the building is managed by the National Galleries of Scotland but the 1910 Order grants the RSA permanent administration offices in the building. Exhibition space is shared throughout the year with the NGS and other organisations, the building, originally designed by William Henry Playfair, was recently refurbished as part of the Playfair Project, and is also used by the National Galleries of Scotland. The RSA is led by a body of eminent artist and architect members who encompass a broad cross-section of contemporary Scottish art, members are known as Academicians, and are entitled to use the postnominal letters RSA. The president uses the postnominal letters PRSA while in office, Academicians are elected to the Academy by their peers. There are also Honorary Academicians, including the RSAs patron, the Duke of Edinburgh, the membership includes 30 Honorary Academicians and 104 Academicians. As of 2010, the RSA President is Professor Bill Scott, Secretary Arthur Watson, Royal West of England Academy Esme Gordon The Royal Scottish Academy of Painting, Sculpture & Architecture 1826-1976
3.
Doctor of Law
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Doctor of Law or Doctor of Laws is a degree in law. The application of the term varies from country to country, and includes such as the Doctor of Juridical Science, Doctor juris, Doctor of Philosophy, Juris Doctor. In Argentina the Doctor of Laws or Doctor of Juridical Sciences is the highest academic qualification in the field of Jurisprudence, to obtain the doctoral degree the applicant must have previously achieved, at least the undergraduate degree of Attorney. In some of the countrys most important universities there is a title known as livre docência. However, this title is not a degree in the strict sense, because livre docência nowadays is an internal title. The doctoral degree is awarded upon the completion and the defense of a thesis prepared by the doctoral candidate under the supervision of a tutor. The thesis must be examined by a board of five professors, holders of the title of doctor or of a livre docência, two of the members of the board must be professors from another institution. In most Brazilian Law Schools, the candidates are required to earn a minimum number of credits. Unlike the rules of other countries, the Brazilian norms governing the grant of doctoral titles do not require the publication of the thesis as a precondition for the award of the degree, nevertheless, copies of the thesis must be delivered to the institutions library. Usually, doctoral thesis are published by specialized editors after the grant of the doctoral title, if one obtains a doctoral title in a foreign country, one cannot enjoy the academic privileges of the title in Brazil unless the title be first validated by a Brazilian University. Admission to doctoral courses is almost universally reserved to holders of a masters degree, there are, however, a few universities that allow direct admission to the doctoral course without previous completion of the Masters course in exceptional circumstances. Thus, in cases, a bachelor of Laws, can be admitted directly to a doctoral course. Usually, one is allowed three years time to complete a Master of Laws degree, and four years time to complete the doctoral course. On the other hand, in the cases in which a bachelor of Laws is allowed to pursue a direct doctorate. Unlike the Master of Laws dissertation, the Doctoral Thesys must contain a contribution to the field of Law under study. In Canada, there are several academic law-related doctorates, the Doctor of Laws, Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science, Doctor of Civil Law, the Doctor of Jurisprudence is the professional doctorate degree that is usually required for admissions to post-graduate studies in law. The first law degree was known until recently as the Bachelor of Laws, after the first law degree, one may pursue a second, the Masters of Laws and after that, the Doctor of Law, at some Canadian universities. Of the universities in Canada that offer earned academic doctorates in law, four offer LL. Ds, four offer Ph. Ds, the differences largely reflect the divide between Canadas two legal systems
4.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
5.
Folklore
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Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and they include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations like Christmas and weddings, folk dances, each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next, for folklore is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration, the academic study of folklore is called folkloristics. To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts and it is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature, the second half of the compound word, lore, proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār instruction, and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, the concept of folk proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, a more modern definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family. This expanded social definition of folk supports a view of the material, i. e. the lore. These now include all things people make with words, things they make with their hands, Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a group and how they are transmitted. Transmission is a part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, for folklore is also a verb. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, the folk group is not individualistic, it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, in direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within the social group. Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs, for these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group
6.
Celtic mythology
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Celtic mythology is the mythology of Celtic polytheism, the religion of the Iron Age Celts. Like other Iron Age Europeans, the early Celts maintained a polytheistic mythology and it is mostly through contemporary Roman and Christian sources that their mythology has been preserved. The Celtic peoples who maintained either their political or linguistic identities left vestigial remnants of their ancestral mythologies, however, from what has survived of Celtic mythology, it is possible to discern commonalities which hint at a more unified pantheon than is often given credit. Indeed, many Gaelic myths were first recorded by Christian monks, the oldest body of myths stemming from the Heroic Age is found only from the early medieval period of Ireland. As Christianity began to take over, the gods and goddesses were slowly eliminated as such from the culture, the Tuatha Dé represent the functions of human society such as kingship, crafts and war, while the Fomorians represent chaos and wild nature. The leader of the gods for the Irish pantheon appears to have been the Dagda, the Dagda was the figure on which male humans and other gods were based because he embodied ideal Irish traits. Celtic gods were considered to be a clan due to their lack of specialization. Irish tales depict the Dagda as a figure of power, armed with a club, in Dorset there is a famous outline of an ithyphallic giant known as the Cerne Abbas Giant with a club cut into the chalky soil. While this was produced in relatively modern times, it was long thought to be a representation of the Dagda. In Gaul, it is speculated that the Dagda is associated with Sucellus, the Morrígan was a tripartite battle goddess of the Celts of Ancient Ireland. She was known as the Morrígan, but the different sections she was divided into were also referred to as Nemain, Macha and she is most commonly known for her involvement in the Táin Bó Cúailnge. The god appearing most frequently in the tales is Lugh, the most famous of these are the cities of Lugdunum, Lugdunum Batavorum and Lucus Augusti. Lug is described in the Celtic myths as the last to be added to the list of deities, in Ireland a festival called the Lughnasadh was held in his honour. Other important goddesses include Brigid, the Dagdas daughter, Aibell, Áine, Macha, notable is Epona, the horse goddess, celebrated with horse races at the summer festival. Significant Irish gods include Nuada Airgetlám, the first king of the Tuatha Dé Danann, Goibniu, the smith and brewer, Dian Cecht, the patron of healing, less is known about the pre-Christian mythologies of Britain than those of Ireland. Important reflexes of British mythology appear in the Four Branches of the Mabinogi, especially in the names of characters, such as Rhiannon, Teyrnon. The children of Llŷr in the Second and Third Branches, and the children of Dôn in the Fourth Branch are major figures, indeed, though there is much in common with Irish myth, there may have been no unified British mythological tradition per se. Whatever its ultimate origins, the material has been put to good use in the service of literary masterpieces that address the cultural concerns of Wales in the early
7.
Crimea
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The peninsula is located south of the Ukrainian region of Kherson and west of the Russian region of Kuban. It is connected to Kherson Oblast by the Isthmus of Perekop and is separated from Kuban by the Strait of Kerch, the Arabat Spit is located to the northeast, a narrow strip of land that separates a system of lagoons named Sivash from the Sea of Azov. Crimea has historically been at the boundary between the world and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Crimea and adjacent territories were united in the Crimean Khanate during the 15th to 18th century, in 1783, Crimea was annexed by the Russian Empire. It became the Autonomous Republic of Crimea within newly independent Ukraine in 1991, with Sevastopol having its own administration, within Ukraine, the ex-Soviet Black Sea Fleet and its facilities were divided between Russias Black Sea Fleet and the Ukrainian Naval Forces. The two navies shared some of the harbours and piers, while others were demilitarised or used by either country. Sevastopol remained the location of the Russian Black Sea Fleet headquarters with the Ukrainian Naval Forces Headquarters also based in the city, most of the international community does not recognize the annexation and considers Crimea to be Ukrainian territory. Russia currently administers the peninsula as two federal subjects, the Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol. Ukraine continues to assert its right over the peninsula, the classical name Tauris or Taurica is from the Greek Ταυρική, after the peninsulas Scytho-Cimmerian inhabitants, the Tauri. In English usage since the modern period the Crimean Khanate is referred to as Crim Tartary. The Italian form Crimea also becomes current during the 18th century, the omission of the definite article in English became common during the later 20th century. The name Crimea follows the Italian form from the Crimean Tatar name for the city Qırım which served as a capital of the Crimean province of the Golden Horde, the name of the capital was extended to the entire peninsula at some point during Ottoman suzerainty. The origin of the word Qırım is uncertain, suggestions argued in various sources include, a corruption of Cimmerium. A derivation from the Turkic term qirum, from qori-, other suggestions that have not been supported by sources but are apparently based on similarity in sound include, a derivation from the Greek Cremnoi. However, he identifies the port, not in Crimea, no evidence has been identified that this name was ever in use for the peninsula. The classical name was revived in 1802 in the name of the Russian Taurida Governorate, in the 8th century BCE the Cimmerians migrated to the region and subsequently the Scythians as well it being the site of Greek colonies. The most important city was Chersonesos at the edge of todays Sevastopol, the Persian Achaemenid Empire expanded to Crimea. Later occupiers included the Romans, Goths, Huns, Bulgars, the Byzantine Empire, Khazars, the Kipchaks, the Golden Horde, consideration of the succeeding residents of the peninsula by their linguistic grouping is also of relevance
8.
Dunfermline
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Dunfermline is a town and former Royal Burgh, and parish, in Fife, Scotland, on high ground 3 miles from the northern shore of the Firth of Forth. The earliest known settlements in the area around Dunfermline likely date as far back as the Neolithic period, the area was not regionally significant until at least the Bronze Age. The town was first recorded in the 11th century, with the marriage of Malcolm III, King of Scotland, as his Queen consort, Margaret established a new church dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which evolved into an Abbey under their son, David I in 1128. Following the burial of Alexander I in 1160, the abbey graveyard confirmed its status as the place of Scotlands kings and queens up to. The town is a service centre for west Fife. Dunfermline retains much of its significance, as well as providing facilities for leisure. Employment is focused in the sector, with the largest employer being Sky UK. Other large employers in the area include Amazon, Best Western, CR Smith, FMC Technologies, Lloyds, there have been various interpretations of the name, Dunfermline. The first element, dun translated from Gaelic, has accepted as a hill. The rest of the name is problematic, the first record of a settlement in the Dunfermline area was in the Neolithic period. This evidence includes finds of an axe, some flint arrowheads. A cropmark which is understood to have used as a possible mortuary enclosure has been found at Deanpark House. By the time of the Bronze Age, the area was beginning to some importance. Important finds included an axe in Wellwood and a gold torc from the Parish Churchyard. The first historic record for Dunfermline was made in the 11th century, following her marriage to King Malcolm III, Queen Margaret encouraged her husband to convert the small culdee chapel into a church for Benedictine monks. The founding of new church of Dunfermline was inaugurated around 1072. The foundations of the church evolved into an Abbey in 1128, under the reign of their son, Dunfermline Abbey would play a major role in the general romanisation of religion throughout the kingdom. At the peak of its power the abbey controlled four burghs, Dunfermline had become a burgh between 1124 and 1127, if not before this time
9.
Fife
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Fife is a council area and historic county of Scotland. It is situated between the Firth of Tay and the Firth of Forth, with boundaries to Perth and Kinross. By custom it is held to have been one of the major Pictish kingdoms, known as Fib. It is an area, and was a county of Scotland until 1975. It was very occasionally known by the anglicisation Fifeshire in old documents, a person from Fife is known as a Fifer. Fife was a government region divided into three districts, Dunfermline, Kirkcaldy and North-East Fife. Since 1996 the functions of the councils have been exercised by the unitary Fife Council. Fife is Scotlands third largest local authority area by population and it has a resident population of just under 367,000, over a third of whom live in the three principal towns of Dunfermline, Kirkcaldy and Glenrothes. The historic town of St Andrews is located on the northeast coast of Fife and it is well known for the University of St Andrews, one of the most ancient universities in the world and is renowned as the home of golf. Fife, bounded to the north by the Firth of Tay, the earliest known reference to the common epithet The Kingdom of Fife dates from only 1678, in a proposition that the term derives from the quasi-regal privileges of the Earl of Fife. The notion of a kingdom may derive from a misintrepretation of an extract from Wyntoun, the name is recorded as Fib in A. D.1150 and Fif in 1165. It was often associated with Fothriff, the hill-fort of Clatchard Craig, near Newburgh, was occupied as an important Pictish stronghold between the sixth and eighth centuries AD. Fife was an important royal and political centre from the reign of King Malcolm III onwards, Malcolm had his principal home in Dunfermline and his wife Margaret was the main benefactor of Dunfermline Abbey. The Abbey replaced Iona as the resting place of Scotlands royal elite. The Earl of Fife was until the 15th century considered the principal peer of the Scottish realm, wool, linen, coal and salt were all traded. Salt pans heated by local coal were a feature of the Fife coast in the past, the distinctive red clay pan tiles seen on many old buildings in Fife arrived as ballast on trading boats and replaced the previously thatched roofs. This endeavour lasted until 1609 when the colonists, having been opposed by the population, were bought out by Kenneth Mackenzie. Fife became a centre of industry in the 19th century
10.
Damask
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Damask is a reversible figured fabric of silk, wool, linen, cotton, or synthetic fibres, with a pattern formed by weaving. Damasks are woven with one warp yarn and one weft yarn, usually with the pattern in warp-faced satin weave, twill damasks include a twill-woven ground or pattern. The production of damask was one of the five basic weaving techniques—the others being tabby, twill, lampas, damasks derive their name from the city of Damascus—in that period a large city active both in trading and in manufacture. Damasks became scarce after the 9th century outside of Islamic Spain, the word damask first appeared in records in a Western European language in the mid-14th century in French. By the 14th century, damasks were being woven on draw looms in Italy, from the 14th to 16th century, most damasks were woven in one colour with a glossy warp-faced satin pattern against a duller ground. Two-colour damasks had contrasting colour warps and wefts, and polychrome damasks added gold, medieval damasks were usually woven in silk, but weavers also produced wool and linen damasks. Modern damasks are woven on computerized Jacquard looms, Damask weaves are commonly produced in monochromatic weaves in silk, linen, or synthetic fibres such as rayon and feature patterns of flowers, fruit, and other designs. The long floats of satin-woven warp and weft threads cause soft highlights on the fabric which reflect light differently according to the position of the observer, Damask weaves appear most commonly in table linens and furnishing fabrics, but they are also used for clothing. The Damask weave is used throughout the fashion industry due to its versatility and high-quality finish. Damask is usually used for mid-to-high-quality garments, meaning the label tends to have a higher definition and a more “expensive” look
11.
Amelia Robertson Hill
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She also was the main female contributor to the statues on the Scott Monument, contributing three figures thereon. She was born in Wooer’s Alley, Dunfermline, the daughter of Joseph Neil Paton a damask designer and she had a sister Jemima, born in 11 November 1823 and her brothers were both artists, Joseph Noel Paton and Waller Hugh Paton. She appears to have trained as a sculptor under William Brodie in Edinburgh, in 1862 she married the pioneer photographer David Octavius Hill as his second wife and her career blossomed. His role as secretary of the Royal Scottish Academy played a part in this, in 1861 they moved to George Square, and in 1863 to Calton Stairs. In 1868 they set up home at Rock House, on the south-west corner of Calton Hill near the entrance steps to the hill. Although they are connected with this address they lived here only two years. He died in 1870 and Amelia moved out of the house and she placed a bronze bust of his likeness, sculpted by her own hands, on his grave. The 1891 census describes her as “sculptor, retired” but she exhibited at the Royal Scottish Academy until 1902 and she died at her house, Newington Lodge,38 Mayfield Terrace on 5 July 1904 aged 83. She was buried next to her husband in Dean Cemetery, beneath her own sculpture of 34 years earlier
12.
Waller Hugh Paton
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Waller Hugh Paton RSA RSW, was a Scottish landscape artist working in the second half of the 19th century. He was born in Wooers Alley, Dunfermline, the son of Joseph Neil Paton a damask designer and his brother and sister were also artists, Joseph Noel Paton and Amelia Robertson Hill. In his teens he worked with his father as a damask designer, from age twenty he trained under the mid-19th century artist, John Houston RSA. He was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1857, in 1878 he became a member of the Royal Society of Watercolourists. In 1858 he and his brother illustrated William Edmondstoune Aytouns book, from 1859 he lived in Edinburgh. In both 1861 and 1868 he toured the Continent with his friend, Donald MacKenzie Wallace, and brother, in 1862 he married Margaret Kinloch of Maryculter near Aberdeen. They had four sons and three daughters and he died at his home,14 George Square, Edinburgh, on 8 March 1895 from pleurisy, which had plagued him for the last 10 years of his life. He is buried in Grange Cemetery in southern Edinburgh and his son Waller Hubert Paton was a sculptor. Paton was one of the few of his generation to work en plain air and he enjoyed depicting the countryside of Perthshire, Aberdeenshire and especially the Isle of Arran. His work is typified by rich purple sunsets
13.
Dunfermline Abbey
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Dunfermline Abbey is a Church of Scotland Parish Church located in Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland. The minister is the Reverend MaryAnn R. Rennie, the church occupies the site of the ancient chancel and transepts of a large medieval Benedictine abbey, which was sacked in 1560 during the Scottish Reformation and permitted to fall into disrepair. Part of the old church continued in use at that time and some parts of the abbey infrastructure still remain to this day. Dunfermline Abbey is one of Scotlands most important cultural sites, Malcolm III or Malcolm Canmore, and his queen, St Margaret of Scotland. At its head was the Abbot of Dunfermline, the first of which was Geoffrey of Canterbury, former Prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, the Kent monastery that probably supplied Dunfermlines first monks. At the peak of its power it controlled four burghs, three courts of regality, and a portfolio of lands from Moray in the north south to Berwickshire. The foundations of the earliest church, namely the Church of the Holy Trinity, are under the superb Romanesque nave built in the 12th century. During the winter of 1303 the court of Edward I of England was held in the Abbey, during the Scottish Reformation, the abbey church was sacked in March 1560. Some parts of the infrastructure still remain, principally the vast refectory. The nave was also spared and it was repaired in 1570 by Robert Drummond of Carnock and it served as the parish church till the 19th century, and now forms the vestibule of a new church. Also of the monastery there still remains the south wall of the refectory, next to the abbey is the ruin of Dunfermline Palace, also part of the original abbey complex and connected to it via the gatehouse. Dunfermline Abbey, one of Scotlands most important cultural sites, has received more of Scotland’s royal dead than any place in the kingdom. One of the most notable names to be associated with the abbey is the northern renaissance poet. The tomb of Saint Margaret and Malcolm Canmore, within the walls of the Lady chapel, was restored and enclosed by command of Queen Victoria. The current building on the site of the choir of the old Abbey church is a Parish Church of the Church of Scotland, in 2002 the congregation had 806 members. The minister is the Reverend Mary Ann R. Rennie, the old building was a fine example of simple and massive Romanesque, as the nave testifies, and has a beautiful doorway in its west front. Another rich Romanesque doorway was exposed in the wall in 1903. A new site was found for this monument in order that the ancient, the venerable structure is maintained publicly, and private munificence has provided several stained-glass windows
14.
Celtic cross
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The Celtic cross is a form of Christian cross featuring a nimbus or ring that emerged in Ireland and Britain in the Early Middle Ages. A staple of Insular art, the Celtic cross is essentially a Latin cross with a nimbus surrounding the intersection of the arms, scholars have debated its exact origins, but it is related to earlier crosses featuring rings. The form gained new popularity during the Celtic Revival of the 19th century, the shape, usually decorated with interlace and other motifs from Insular art, became popular for funerary monuments and other uses, and has remained so, spreading well beyond Ireland. Ringed crosses similar to older Continental forms appeared in Ireland and Scotland in incised stone slab artwork, however, the shape achieved its greatest popularity by its use in the monumental stone high crosses, a distinctive and widespread form of Insular art. These monuments, which first appeared in the 9th century, usually take the form of a cross on a stepped or pyramidal base. The form has obvious advantages, reducing the length of unsupported side arms. There are a number of theories as to its origin in Ireland, some scholars consider the ring a holdover from earlier wooden crosses, which may have required struts to support the crossarm. Others have seen it as deriving from indigenous Bronze Age art featuring a wheel or disc around a head, however, Michael W. Herren, Shirley Ann Brown, and others believe it originates in earlier ringed crosses in Christian art. Crosses with a representing the celestial sphere developed from the writings of the Church Fathers. The cosmological cross is an important motif in Coelius Seduliuss poem Carmen Paschale and it is not clear where the first high crosses originated. The first examples date to the about the 9th century and occur in two groups, at Ahenny in Ireland, and at Iona, an Irish monastery off the Scottish coast, the Ahenny group is generally earlier. A variety of crosses bear inscriptions in ogham, an early medieval Irish alphabet, standing crosses in Ireland and areas under Irish influence tend to be shorter and more massive than their Anglo-Saxon equivalents, which have mostly lost their headpieces. Surviving, free-standing crosses are located in Cornwall, including St Pirans cross at Perranporth, Most examples in Britain were destroyed during the Protestant Reformation. By about A. D.1200 the initial wave of building came to an end in Ireland. Popular legend in Ireland says that the Christian cross was introduced by Saint Patrick or possibly Saint Declan and it has often been claimed that Patrick combined the symbol of Christianity with the sun cross to give pagan followers an idea of the importance of the cross. By linking it with the idea of the properties of the sun. Other interpretations claim that placing the cross on top of the circle represents Christs supremacy over the pagan sun, martins Cross at Iona Abbey The Celtic Revival of the mid-19th century led to an increased use and creation of Celtic crosses in Ireland. In 1853, casts of several high crosses were exhibited at the Dublin Industrial Exhibition
15.
Muslin
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Muslin is a cotton fabric of plain weave. It is made in a range of weights from delicate sheers to coarse sheeting. It gets its name from the city of Mosul, Iraq, early muslin was handwoven of uncommonly delicate handspun yarn, especially in the region around Dhaka, Bengal. It was imported into Europe for much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, fine linen muslin was formerly known as sindon. In 2013, the art of weaving Jamdani muslin in Bangladesh was included in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral. Muslin from French mousseline, from Italian mussolina, from Mussolo ‘Mosul’, although this view has the fabric named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, the fabric is believed to have originated in Dhakeshwari, now Dhaka the capital of Bangladesh. In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman made note of the origin in Bengal. Bengali muslin was traded throughout the Muslim world, from the Middle East to Southeast Asia, in many Islamic regions, such as in Central Asia, the cloth was named Daka, after the city of Dhaka. Some believe Crusaders of the First Crusade found the cloth in the Middle East, subsequently, the word Muslin found its place in various European languages as French mousseline, Italian mussolina etc. In 1298, Marco Polo described the cloth in his book The Travels and he said it was made in Mosul, Iraq. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Mughal Bengal emerged as the foremost muslin exporter in the world, during the Roman period Khadi muslin was introduced in Europe and a vast amounts of fabrics were traded to Europe for many centuries. It became highly popular in 18th-century France and eventually spread across much of the Western world, brutality to muslin weavers was intense, William Bolts noting in 1772 that instances have been known of their cutting off their thumbs to prevent their being forced to wind silk. As a result, the quality of muslin suffered greatly and its finesse was nearly lost for two centuries, there have been various attempts at reviving the muslin industry in modern Bangladesh. At the end of the 16th century the English traveler Ralph Fitch greatly admired the muslin of Sonargaon, the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa described the muslin of Bengal in the early 16th century. He mentioned a few types of fabrics, such as estrabante, mamona, fugoza, choutara, in present day, many different types of muslins are produced in many different places, including Dhaka. The word muslin is used colloquially. Under British rule, the British East India company could not compete with the local Muslin with their own export of cloth to India, Muslin production was repressed and the knowledge eradicated. Local weavers were systematically rounded up and their hands mutilated with removal of their thumbs, when sewing clothing, a dressmaker may test the fit of a garment, using an inexpensive muslin fabric before cutting pieces from expensive fabric, thereby avoiding potential costly mistakes
16.
Royal Academy of Arts
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The Royal Academy of Arts is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly in London. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through an act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission to promote the arts of design in Britain through education and exhibition. Supporters wanted to foster a national school of art and to encourage appreciation, fashionable taste in 18th-century Britain was based on continental and traditional art forms, providing contemporary British artists little opportunity to sell their works. From 1746 the Foundling Hospital, through the efforts of William Hogarth, the success of this venture led to the formation of the Society of Artists of Great Britain and the Free Society of Artists. Both these groups were primarily exhibiting societies, their success was marred by internal factions among the artists. The combined vision of education and exhibition to establish a school of art set the Royal Academy apart from the other exhibiting societies. It provided the foundation upon which the Royal Academy came to dominate the art scene of the 18th and 19th centuries, supplanting the earlier art societies. Sir William Chambers, a prominent architect, used his connections with George III to gain royal patronage and financial support of the Academy, the painter Joshua Reynolds was made its first president. Francis Milner Newton was elected the first secretary, a post he held for two decades until his resignation in 1788, the instrument of foundation, signed by George III on 10 December 1768, named 34 founder members and allowed for a total membership of 40. William Hoare and Johann Zoffany were added to this list later by the King and are known as nominated members, among the founder members were two women, a father and daughter, and two sets of brothers. The Royal Academy was initially housed in cramped quarters in Pall Mall, although in 1771 it was given temporary accommodation for its library and schools in Old Somerset House, then a royal palace. In 1780 it was installed in purpose-built apartments in the first completed wing of New Somerset House, located in the Strand and designed by Chambers, the Academy moved in 1837 to Trafalgar Square, where it occupied the east wing of the recently completed National Gallery. These premises soon proved too small to house both institutions, in 1868,100 years after the Academys foundation, it moved to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it remains. Burlington House is owned by the British Government, and used rent-free by the Royal Academy, the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art, open to all artists, opened on 25 April 1769 and ran until 27 May 1769. 136 works of art were shown and this exhibition, now known as the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, has been staged annually without interruption to the present day. In 1870 the Academy expanded its programme to include a temporary annual loan exhibition of Old Masters. The range and frequency of these exhibitions have grown enormously since that time. Britains first public lectures on art were staged by the Royal Academy, led by Reynolds, the first president, a program included lectures by Dr. William Hunter, John Flaxman, James Barry, Sir John Soane, and J. M. W. Turner
17.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
18.
George Jones (painter)
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George Jones was a British painter, and Keeper of the Royal Academy, most famous for his paintings of military subjects. Jones was the son of John Jones, a mezzotint engraver. He became a student at the Royal Academy in 1801 at the age of 15. He was a frequent exhibitor at the Royal Academy over the eight years. He joined the Royal Montgomery Militia, the date of his commission as captain is given as 17 February 1812, there is a possibility that he had served in the South Devon Militia as far back as 1808. His obituary states that he volunteered for service with his company in Spain. After the war he resumed his art career, winning prizes and he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1822, a full member in 1824, becoming its librarian, and from 1840 to 1850 its keeper. He was the friend of Charles Turner, engraver, and of J. M. W. Turner, whose most loyal executor he became, writing a memoir of him. Unlike the two Turners he is not commemorated on his former residences in London by any plaque. He married Gertrude Anne Loscombe in 1844 and he died in Park Square, Regents Park on 19 September 1869. Jones bore a resemblance to his hero, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Jones was said to be proud of his resemblance to the Duke. When Wellington was told about this he remarked, Mistaken for me, is he, thats strange, for no one ever mistakes me for Mr. Jones. In fact, there is evidence that Wellington was once mistaken for Jones, when approached by a man who said Mr Jones, I believe, Wellington replied, if you will believe that you will believe anything. While it is unknown whether Jones went to Spain, he did make the acquaintance of Lieut, gen. Paul Anderson, who had fought in the Peninsular War. The latter had also been a friend of the late General Sir John Moore and was present at the death of the general at the Battle of Corunna, Anderson commissioned Jones to paint the burial scene and possibly two companion pieces. The artist also painted a scene of the Battle of Vittoria which is now in the Royal Collection. His 1816 piece at the BI was for the competition for the best rendition of the battle, in 1829, Jones painted a large scene of Borodino, while from the same year came his scene entitled Nelson boarding the San Josef at St. Vincent
19.
John Everett Millais
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Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Baronet, PRA was an English painter and illustrator who was one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. A child prodigy, at the age of eleven Millais became the youngest student to enter the Royal Academy Schools, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded at his family home in London, at 83 Gower Street. Millais became the most famous exponent of the style, his painting Christ in the House of His Parents generating considerable controversy, by the mid-1850s Millais was moving away from the Pre-Raphaelite style and developing a new and powerful form of realism in his art. His later works were successful, making Millais one of the wealthiest artists of his day. Millaiss personal life has played a significant role in his reputation. His wife Effie was formerly married to the critic John Ruskin, Millais was born in Southampton, England in 1829, of a prominent Jersey-based family. His parents were John William Millais and Emily Mary Millais, most of his early childhood was spent in Jersey, to which he retained a strong devotion throughout his life. The author Thackeray once asked him when England conquered Jersey, the family moved to Dinan in Brittany for a few years in his childhood. His mothers forceful personality was the most powerful influence on his early life and she had a keen interest in art and music, and encouraged her sons artistic bent, promoting the relocating of the family to London to help develop contacts at the Royal Academy of Art. He later said I owe everything to my mother and his prodigious artistic talent won him a place at the Royal Academy schools at the unprecedented age of eleven. While there, he met William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti with whom he formed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in September 1848 in his home on Gower Street. Millaiss Christ in the House of His Parents was highly controversial because of its portrayal of a working class Holy Family labouring in a messy carpentry workshop. Later works were controversial, though less so. Millais achieved popular success with A Huguenot, which depicts a couple about to be separated because of religious conflicts. He repeated this theme in later works. All these early works were painted with great attention to detail, in paintings such as Ophelia Millais created dense and elaborate pictorial surfaces based on the integration of naturalistic elements. This approach has been described as a kind of pictorial eco-system, Mariana is a painting that Millais painted in 1850-51 based on the play Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare and the poem of the same name by Alfred, Lord Tennyson from 1830. In the play, the young Mariana was to be married and this style was promoted by the critic John Ruskin, who had defended the Pre-Raphaelites against their critics
20.
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
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The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848 by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The three founders were joined by William Michael Rossetti, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens and Thomas Woolner to form the seven-member brotherhood and their principles were shared by other artists, including Marie Spartali Stillman and Ford Madox Brown. A later, medievalising strain inspired by Rossetti included Edward Burne-Jones, the groups intention was to reform art by rejecting what it considered the mechanistic approach first adopted by Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo. Its members believed the Classical poses and elegant compositions of Raphael in particular had been an influence on the academic teaching of art. In particular, the group objected to the influence of Sir Joshua Reynolds, founder of the English Royal Academy of Arts, to the Pre-Raphaelites, according to William Michael Rossetti, sloshy meant anything lax or scamped in the process of painting. Any thing or person of a commonplace or conventional kind, the brotherhood sought a return to the abundant detail, intense colours and complex compositions of Quattrocento Italian art. The group associated their work with John Ruskin, an English critic whose influences were driven by his religious background, the group continued to accept the concepts of history painting and mimesis, imitation of nature, as central to the purpose of art. The Pre-Raphaelites defined themselves as a movement, created a distinct name for their form of art. The groups debates were recorded in the Pre-Raphaelite Journal, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded in John Millaiss parents house on Gower Street, London in 1848. At the first meeting, the painters John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Hunt and Millais were students at the Royal Academy of Arts and had met in another loose association, the Cyclographic Club, a sketching society. At his own request Rossetti became a pupil of Ford Madox Brown in 1848, at that date, Rossetti and Hunt shared lodgings in Cleveland Street, Fitzrovia, Central London. Hunt had started painting The Eve of St. Agnes based on Keatss poem of the same name, as an aspiring poet, Rossetti wished to develop the links between Romantic poetry and art. Ford Madox Brown was invited to join, but the more senior artist remained independent but supported the group throughout the PRB period of Pre-Raphaelitism, other young painters and sculptors became close associates, including Charles Allston Collins, Thomas Tupper, and Alexander Munro. The PRB intended to keep the existence of the secret from members of the Royal Academy. The principles were deliberately non-dogmatic, since the brotherhood wished to emphasise the personal responsibility of artists to determine their own ideas. Influenced by Romanticism, the members thought freedom and responsibility were inseparable, nevertheless, they were particularly fascinated by medieval culture, believing it to possess a spiritual and creative integrity that had been lost in later eras. The emphasis on medieval culture clashed with principles of realism which stress the independent observation of nature, in its early stages, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood believed its two interests were consistent with one another, but in later years the movement divided and moved in two directions. The realists were led by Hunt and Millais, while the medievalists were led by Rossetti and his followers, Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris
21.
Diarmid Noel Paton
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Sir Joseph Noel Paton FRSA, LL. D. was a Scottish artist, illustrator and sculptor. He was also a poet and had a deep seated interest in and he was born in Wooers Alley, Dunfermline, Fife, on 13 December 1821 to Joseph Neil Paton and Catherine MacDiarmid, damask designers and weavers in the town. He is the brother of the sculptor Amelia Robertson Hill and the landscape artist Waller Hugh Paton and it lies on the north side of Dunfermline Abbey and is a distinctive red granite Celtic cross amongst other smaller sandstone markers. Paton attended Dunfermline School and then Dunfermline Art Academy, further enhancing the talents he had developed as a child and he followed the family trade by working as the design department director in a muslin factory for three years. Most of his life was spent in Scotland but he studied briefly at the Royal Academy, London in 1843, while studying in London Paton met John Everett Millais, who asked him to join the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. In 1858, he married Margaret Gourlay Ferrier and the couple had eleven children, Patons knowledge of Celtic legends and Scottish folklore is reflected in his paintings. In 1844 Patons first painting, Ruth Gleaning, was exhibited at the Royal Scottish Academy, an earlier study of the Quarrel painting was completed in 1846 and featured as Patons diploma picture at the Royal Scottish Academy that year. The Academy purchased the work for £700. Made an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1847 and a fellow in 1850, in 1865, he was appointed Queens Limner for Scotland. He also published two volumes of poetry and produced a number of sculptures, two years later he received the knighthood and in 1878 was conferred the degree LL. D. by the University of Edinburgh. Paton was a well known antiquary, whose specialty was arms and he died in Edinburgh on 26 December 1901, and is buried in Dean Cemetery. His daughter, Hamilton Lora, is buried 10m to his east with her husband, citations Bibliography National Gallery Of Scotland 30 Painting by or after Joseph Noel Paton at the Art UK site
22.
Daniel Maclise
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Daniel Maclise RA was an Irish history, literary and portrait painter, and illustrator, who worked for most of his life in London, England. Maclise was born in Cork, Ireland, the son of Alexander McLish, a tanner or shoemaker and his education was of the plainest kind, but he was eager for culture, fond of reading, and anxious to become an artist. His father, however, placed him in employment, in 1820, in Newenhams Bank and it became very popular, and led to many commissions for portraits, which he executed, in pencil. There he made a sketch of Charles John Kean, the actor and he entered the Royal Academy schools in 1828, eventually being awarded the highest prizes open to students. Maclise exhibited for the first time at the Royal Academy in 1829, the years that followed were occupied with a long series of figure pictures, deriving their subjects from history and tradition and from the works of Shakespeare, Goldsmith and Le Sage. He also designed illustrations for several of Dickenss Christmas books and other works, in 1858, Maclise commenced one of the two great monumental works of his life, The Meeting of Wellington and Blücher, on the walls of Westminster Palace. It was begun in fresco, a process which proved unmanageable, Maclises vast painting of The Marriage of Strongbow and Aoife hangs in the National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin. It portrays the marriage of the main Norman conqueror of Ireland Strongbow to the daughter of his Gaelic ally, by the grand staircase of Halifax Town Hall, which was completed in 1863, there is a wall painting by Maclise. The intense application which he gave to these great historic works, and various circumstances connected with the commission, had a serious effect on the artists health. He began to shun the company in which he formerly delighted, his old buoyancy of spirits was gone, and when, in 1865 and he died of acute pneumonia on 25 April 1870 at his home 4 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea. His fame rests most securely on his two greatest works at Westminster, a memoir of Maclise, by his friend William Justin ODriscoll, was published in 1871. The works of Maclise in portraiture were celebrated in 1972 at an exhibition in the National Portrait Gallery, the Crawford Gallery in Cork, Ireland, Maclises native town, held a major exhibition of his works from October 2008, opened by David Puttnam. It had been displayed previously from 23 May until 23 August at the Royal Armouries in Leeds as part of the Waterloo 1815, vol 35, Dictionary of National Biography. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Maclise
23.
Samuel Carter Hall
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Samuel Carter Hall was an Irish-born Victorian journalist who is best known for his editorship of The Art Journal and for his much-satirised personality. Hall was born at the Geneva Barracks in Waterford, Ireland and his London-born father was Robert Hall, an army officer and, while in Ireland, engaged in working copper mines which ruined him. His mother supported the family of 12 children with her own business in Cork and he married Ann Kent at Topsham,6 April 1790. Ann Hall supported the family, including 12 children, by running a business in Cork, in 1821, he left Ireland and went to London. He entered law studies at the Inner Temple in 1824, but never practised, not long after, Hall purchased a chief share of the periodical. By 1843, he started giving an expensive, unprofitable novelty, in 1848, with Hall still unable to turn a profit, the London publisher George Virtue purchased into the Art Union Monthly Journal, retaining Hall as editor. Virtue renamed the periodical The Art Journal in 1849, in 1851, Hall engraved 150 pictures from the private collection of the Queen and Prince Albert, and the engravings were featured in the journals Great Exhibition edition. Though this edition was quite popular, the journal remained unprofitable, forcing Hall to sell his share of The Art Journal to Virtue, as editor, Hall exposed the profits that custom-houses were earning by importing Old Masters, and showed how paintings are manufactured in England. While Art Journal became notable for its honest portrayal of fine arts and his intention was to support modern British art by promoting young artists and attacking the market for unreliable old masters. The early issues of the Journal strongly supported the artists of The Clique, Hall remained deeply unsympathetic to Pre-Raphaeliism, publishing several attacks upon the movement. Hall resigned the editorship in 1880, and was granted a Civil List pension for his long and valuable services to literature and his wife, Anna Maria Fielding, became well known, for her numerous articles, novels, sketches of Irish life, and plays. Two of the last, The Groves of Blarney and The French Refugee, were produced in London with success and she also wrote a number of childrens books, and was practically interested in various London charities, several of which she helped to found. Halls notoriously sanctimonious personality was often satirised, and he is cited as the model for the character of Pecksniff in Charles Dickenss novel Martin Chuzzlewit. As Julian Hawthorne wrote, Hall was a genuine comedy figure, such oily and voluble sanctimoniousness needed no modification to be fitted to appear before the footlights in satirical drama. He might be called a hypocrite, an artless humbug. His perversity was of the spirit, not of the letter and his indecency and falsehood were in his soul, but not in his consciousness, so that he paraded them at the very moment that he was claiming for himself all that was their opposite. He was the chairman for the British National Association of Spiritualists and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hall, Samuel Carter. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman
24.
The Art Journal
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The Art Journal, published in London, was the most important Victorian magazine on art. It was founded in 1839 by Hodgson & Graves, print publishers,6 Pall Mall, with the title the Art Union Monthly Journal, Hodgson & Graves hired Samuel Carter Hall as editor, assisted by James Dafforne. Hall soon became principal proprietor, but he was unable to turn a profit on his own, the London publisher George Virtue then purchased into Halls Art Union Monthly Journal in 1848, retaining Hall as editor. Virtue renamed the periodical The Art Journal in 1849, in 1851, Halls engravings,150 pictures from the private collection of the Queen and Prince Albert, were featured in The Art Journal as the Great Exhibition of 1851. Though this feature was popular, the publication remained unprofitable, forcing Hall to sell his share of the journal to Virtue, in 1852, the journal finally turned a profit. As editor, Hall exposed the profits that custom-houses were earning on the import of Old Masters, and showed how paintings were manufactured in England. The Art Journal became noted for its honest portrayal of the fine arts and its articles attacked the PRB and its supporter John Ruskin. After Halls retirement in 1880, the changed its position, and faced strong competition from the Magazine of Art. It was in the end unable to retain its position and ceased publication in 1912, an American edition of The Art Journal was published in New York from 1881 to 1887 by D. Appleton & co. The publication has been referred to, at times, as London Art Journal and Art-journal. The Art Journals most notable essayists included Ralph Nicholson Wornum, Thomas Wright, Frederick William Fairholt, Edward Lewes Cutts, richard Austin Artlett supplied a long series of engraved plates of sculpture
25.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
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Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the major English Romantic poets, and is regarded by some as among the finest lyric, as well as most influential, poets in the English language. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not see fame during his lifetime, but recognition for his poetry grew steadily following his death. Shelley was a key member of a circle of visionary poets and writers that included Lord Byron, Leigh Hunt, Thomas Love Peacock, and his own second wife, Mary Shelley. Shelley is perhaps best known for such poems as Ozymandias, Ode to the West Wind, To a Skylark, Music, When Soft Voices Die, The Cloud. Shelleys close circle of friends included some of the most important progressive thinkers of the day, including his father-in-law, the philosopher William Godwin and Leigh Hunt. Though Shelleys poetry and prose output remained steady throughout his life, most publishers, Shelley became a lodestone to the subsequent three or four generations of poets, including important Victorian and Pre-Raphaelite poets such as Robert Browning and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. He was admired by Oscar Wilde, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, Bertrand Russell, yeats, Upton Sinclair and Isadora Duncan. Henry David Thoreaus civil disobedience was apparently influenced by Shelleys non-violence in protest, Shelleys popularity and influence has continued to grow in contemporary poetry circles. Shelley was born on 4 August 1792 at Field Place, Broadbridge Heath, near Horsham, West Sussex, England. He was the eldest legitimate son of Sir Timothy Shelley, a Whig Member of Parliament for Horsham from 1790–92 and he had four younger sisters and one much younger brother. He received his education at home, tutored by the Reverend Evan Edwards of nearby Warnham. His cousin and lifelong friend Thomas Medwin, who lived nearby and it was a happy and contented childhood spent largely in country pursuits such as fishing and hunting. In 1802, he entered the Syon House Academy of Brentford, in 1804, Shelley entered Eton College, where he fared poorly, and was subjected to an almost daily mob torment at around noon by older boys, who aptly called these incidents Shelley-baits. Surrounded, the young Shelley would have his books torn from his hands and his clothes pulled at and this daily misery could be attributed to Shelleys refusal to take part in fagging and his indifference towards games and other youthful activities. Because of these peculiarities he acquired the nickname Mad Shelley, Shelley possessed a keen interest in science at Eton, which he would often apply to cause a surprising amount of mischief for a boy considered to be so sensible. Shelley would often use an electric machine to charge the door handle of his room. His friends were particularly amused when his tutor, Mr Bethell, in attempting to enter his room, was alarmed at the noise of the electric shocks. His mischievous side was again demonstrated by his last bit of naughtiness at school, despite these jocular incidents, a contemporary of Shelley, W. H. Merie, recalled that Shelley made no friends at Eton, although he did seek a kindred spirit without success
26.
Prometheus Unbound (Shelley)
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Prometheus Unbound is a four-act lyrical drama by Percy Bysshe Shelley, first published in 1820. It is inspired by the classical Prometheia, a trilogy of plays attributed to Aeschylus, Shelleys play concerns Prometheus release from captivity, but unlike Aeschylus version, there is no reconciliation between Prometheus and Jupiter. Instead, Jupiter is abandoned by his supportive elements and falls from power, Shelleys play is a closet drama, meaning it was not intended to be produced on the stage. In the tradition of Romantic poetry, Shelley wrote for the imagination, however, the play is filled with suspense, mystery and other dramatic effects that make it, in theory, performable. Mary Shelley, in a letter on 5 September 1818, was the first to describe her husband Percy Shelleys writing of Prometheus Unbound, Shelley stopped working on the poem following the death of his daughter Clara Everina Shelley on 24 September 1818. After her death, Shelley began to travel across Italy, by April, the majority of the play was completed, and Shelley wrote to Peacock on 6 April 1819, My Prometheus Unbound is just finished, and in a month or two I shall send it. Shelley also wrote to Leigh Hunt to tell him that the play was finished, however, the play was not yet published, Shelley would be delayed in editing and finishing the work by another death, that of his son William Shelley, who died on 7 June 1819. On 6 September 1819, Shelley wrote to Charles and James Ollier to say, My Prometheus, which has long finished, is now being transcribed. The play was delayed in publication, because John Gisborne, whom Shelley trusted to go to England with the text and it was not until December 1819 that the manuscript with the first three acts of Prometheus Unbound was sent to England. While in Italy, Shelley became concerned about the progress of publishing Prometheus Unbound and he wrote many letters to Charles Ollier from March until April asking about the dramas progress and wanted to know if the text was accurate because he was unable to check the proofs himself. Both Percy and Mary Shelley were eager to hear when the book was published, and inquired Gisbornes wife, Thomas Medwin and it was not until late August that they received word that the book was published. They were eager to read the published version and obtained one by November 1820, after they procured a copy, Shelley wrote to the Olliers on 10 November 1820, Mr. Gisborne has sent me a copy of the Prometheus, which is certainly most beautifully printed. A corrected edition was sent on 20 January 1821 along with a letter from Shelley that explains the Errata of Prometheus, Shelley did not forget the printing errors, and even criticised Charles Ollier later when Shelley sent Adonais to be published. Thetis, according to this view of the subject, was given in marriage to Peleus, but, in truth, I was averse from a catastrophe so feeble as that of reconciling the Champion with the Oppressor of mankind. When Shelley wrote Prometheus Unbound, the authorship of the Prometheia and it is this assumed trilogy, including Prometheus reconciliation with Zeus, thought to occur in the final part of the cycle, which Shelley considers in the introduction. Act I begins in the Indian Caucasus where the Titan Prometheus is bound to a face and he is surrounded by the Oceanides Panthea. As morning breaks, Prometheus cries out against the Monarch of Gods and Daemons, Jupiter, from his bound position, Prometheus claims to be greater than Jupiter before relating his suffering to the conditions of nature, including the Earth, Heaven, Sun, Sea, and Shadow. He turns to how nature has aided in his torture along with the constant tearing at his flesh by Heavens winged hound, as he accounts his sufferings more and more, he reaches a peak of declaring that he would recall The curse / Once breathed on thee
27.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan and his critical work, especially on William Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. Coleridge coined many words and phrases, including suspension of disbelief. He was an influence on Ralph Waldo Emerson and American transcendentalism. Throughout his adult life Coleridge had crippling bouts of anxiety and depression, it has been speculated that he had bipolar disorder and he was physically unhealthy, which may have stemmed from a bout of rheumatic fever and other childhood illnesses. He was treated for these conditions with laudanum, which fostered a lifelong opium addiction, Coleridge was born on 21 October 1772 in the town of Ottery St Mary in Devon, England. He had previously been Master of Hugh Squiers School in South Molton, Devon, John Coleridge had three children by his first wife. Samuel was the youngest of ten by the Reverend Mr. Coleridges second wife, Anne Bowden, probably the daughter of John Bowden, Mayor of South Molton, Devon, Coleridge suggests that he took no pleasure in boyish sports but instead read incessantly and played by himself. At that school Coleridge became friends with Charles Lamb, a schoolmate, in fancy I can almost hear him now, exclaiming Harp. Pen and ink, boy, you mean, oh aye. the cloister-pump, I suppose. Be this as it may, there was one custom of our masters and he would often permit our theme exercises. To accumulate, till each lad had four or five to be looked over, throughout his life, Coleridge idealised his father as pious and innocent, while his relationship with his mother was more problematic. His childhood was characterised by attention seeking, which has linked to his dependent personality as an adult. He was rarely allowed to return home during the term. He later wrote of his loneliness at school in the poem Frost at Midnight, With unclosed lids, from 1791 until 1794, Coleridge attended Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1792, he won the Browne Gold Medal for an ode that he wrote on the slave trade, afterwards, he was rumoured to have had a bout of severe depression. His brothers arranged for his discharge a few months later under the reason of insanity and he was readmitted to Jesus College, at Jesus College, Coleridge was introduced to political and theological ideas then considered radical, including those of the poet Robert Southey. Coleridge joined Southey in a plan, soon abandoned, to found a utopian society, called Pantisocracy
29.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
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The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is the longest major poem by the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, written in 1797–98 and published in 1798 in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads. Modern editions use a revised version printed in 1817 that featured a gloss, along with other poems in Lyrical Ballads, it was a signal shift to modern poetry and the beginning of British Romantic literature. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner relates the experiences of a sailor who has returned from a sea voyage. The mariner stops a man who is on the way to a wedding ceremony, the mariners tale begins with his ship departing on its journey. Despite initial good fortune, the ship is driven south by a storm, the sailors change their minds again and blame the mariner for the torment of their thirst. On board are Death and the Night-mare Life-in-Death, a deathly-pale woman, with a roll of the dice, Death wins the lives of the crew members and Life-in-Death the life of the mariner, a prize she considers more valuable. Her name is a clue to the fate, he will endure a fate worse than death as punishment for his killing of the albatross. One by one, all of the members die, but the mariner lives on, seeing for seven days and nights the curse in the eyes of the crews corpses. Eventually, this stage of the curse is lifted after he appreciates the sea creatures swimming in the water. The bodies of the crew, possessed by spirits, rise again. The rotten remains of the sink in a whirlpool, leaving only the mariner behind. A hermit on the mainland had seen the ship and had come to meet it with a pilot and his boy. When they pull him from the water, they think he is dead, but when he opens his mouth, the hermit prays, and the mariner picks up the oars to row. The pilots boy goes crazy and laughs, thinking the mariner is the devil, the poem received mixed reviews from critics, and Coleridge was once told by the publisher that most of the books sales were to sailors who thought it was a naval songbook. Coleridge made several modifications to the poem over the years, in the second edition of Lyrical Ballads, published in 1800, he replaced many of the archaic words. On this second voyage Cook crossed three times into the Antarctic Circle to determine whether the great southern continent existed. Critics have also suggested that the poem may have inspired by the voyage of Thomas James into the Arctic. Some critics think that Coleridge drew upon Jamess account of hardship, according to William Wordsworth, the poem was inspired while Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Wordsworths sister Dorothy were on a walking tour through the Quantock Hills in Somerset
30.
The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania
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The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania is an oil on canvas painting by the Scottish artist Sir Joseph Noel Paton. When exhibited in Edinburgh during 1850, it was declared as the painting of the season and it was acquired by the National Galleries of Scotland in 1897, having initially been bought by the Royal Association for Promoting the Fine Arts in Scotland during 1850. An earlier version of painting was Patons diploma picture, which was submitted to the Royal Scottish Academy in 1846. The overall dimensions of the oil on canvas painting are 99 by 152 centimetres, based on William Shakespeares comedy play A Midsummer Nights Dream, it depicts a scene when the fairy queen Titania and fairy king Oberon quarrel with each other. Oberon was considered the King of the fairies in medieval and Renaissance literature, the scene depicts Act II, scene i, put into an enchanting imaginary landscape when Oberon is arguing with Titania, just as nightfall descends. The setting is the couples woodland home outside of Athens and they are surrounded by a group of fairies, according to Lewis Carroll, the author of Alices Adventures in Wonderland,165 fairies are in the painting. The subject of the argument is the changeling boy, who is hiding behind Titania. A lily pond is at the front of the painting and the setting is made up from leaves, flowers. Titanias head is encircled by a group of fairies forming a crown of light. A statue of Pan with a set of pipes is placed to the right of the picture with several couples in a state of undress positioned beneath it. Goblins mingle with elves and imps that all cavort among the fairies, some other little, ugly figures are scattered throughout together with moths. Patons earlier work in 1847, The Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania, was considered by Paton to be related yet self-contained, the Quarrel was later displayed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, being listed as Representative of British Art. It passed to the ownership of the National Galleries of Scotland in 1897, an earlier study of this painting was completed in 1846 and featured as Patons diploma picture at the Royal Scottish Academy that year. The Academy purchased the work for £700. Christopher Wood, an expert in Victorian art, described Patons work as being some of the most remarkable fairy pictures, hermia and Lysander Scene from A Midsummer Nights Dream Citations Bibliography
31.
Scottish National Gallery
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The Scottish National Gallery is the national art gallery of Scotland. It is located on The Mound in central Edinburgh, in a building designed by William Henry Playfair. The gallery houses the Scottish national collection of art, including Scottish. The origins of Scotlands national collection lie with the Royal Institution for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts in Scotland and it began to acquire paintings, and in 1828 the Royal Institution building opened on The Mound. In 1826, the Scottish Academy was founded by a group of artists as an offshoot of the Royal Institution, a key aim of the RSA was the founding of a national collection. It began to build up a collection and from 1835 rented exhibition space within the Royal Institution building, in the 1840s, plans were put in place for a new building to house the RSA. William Henry Playfair was commissioned to prepare designs, and on 30 August 1850, in 1912 the RSA moved into the Royal Institution building, which remains known as the Royal Scottish Academy Building. At this time, internal remodelling was carried out by William Thomas Oldrieve, when it re-opened, the gallery concentrated on building its permanent collection of Scottish and European art for the nation of Scotland Additional basement galleries were constructed in 1970. Construction took five years and cost £32 million, the new underground space was opened as the Weston Link in August 2004. The Print Room or Research Library can be accessed by appointment, at the heart of the National Gallerys collection is a group of paintings transferred from the Royal Scottish Academy Building. This includes masterpieces by Jacopo Bassano, Van Dyck and Giambattista Tiepolo, the National Gallery did not receive its own purchase grant until 1903
32.
Antiquarian
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An antiquarian or antiquary is an aficionado or student of antiquities or things of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history with attention to ancient artifacts, archaeological and historic sites, or historic archives. Today the term is used in a pejorative sense, to refer to an excessively narrow focus on factual historical trivia. The Kaogutu or Illustrated Catalogue of Examined Antiquity compiled by Lü Dalin is one of the oldest known catalogues to systematically describe and classify ancient artifacts which were unearthed. Interests in antiquarian studies of ancient inscriptions and artifacts waned after the Song Dynasty, Books on antiquarian topics covered such subjects as the origin of customs, religious rituals, and political institutions, genealogy, topography and landmarks, and etymology. By contrast, antiquarian works as a form are organized by topic. Major antiquarian Latin writers with surviving works include Varro, Pliny the Elder, Aulus Gellius, the Roman emperor Claudius published antiquarian works, none of which is extant. Some of Ciceros treatises, particularly his work on divination, show strong antiquarian interests, roman-era Greek writers also dealt with antiquarian material, such as Plutarch in his Roman Questions and the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus. The aim of Latin antiquarian works is to collect a number of possible explanations. The antiquarians are often used as sources by the ancient historians, despite the importance of antiquarian writing in the literature of ancient Rome, some scholars view antiquarianism as emerging only in the Middle Ages. Antiquarianisms wider flowering is more associated with the Renaissance, and with the critical assessment. The development of genealogy as a scientific discipline went hand-in-hand with the development of antiquarianism, genealogical antiquaries recognised the evidential value for their researches of non-textual sources, including seals and church monuments. Many early modern antiquaries were also chorographers, that is to say, they recorded landscapes, in England, some of the most important of these took the form of county histories. They increasingly argued that empirical evidence could be used to refine. Antiquaries had always attracted a degree of ridicule, and since the century the term has tended to be used most commonly in negative or derogatory contexts. Nevertheless, many practising antiquaries continue to claim the title with pride, Antiquary was the usual term in English from the 16th to the mid-18th centuries to describe a person interested in antiquities. From the second half of the 18th century, however, antiquarian began to be used widely as a noun. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, a distinction was perceived to exist between the interests and activities of the antiquary and the historian
33.
Dean Cemetery
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The Dean Cemetery is a historically important Victorian cemetery north of the Dean Village, west of Edinburgh city centre, in Scotland. It lies between Queensferry Road and the Water of Leith, bounded on its east side by Dean Path, a 20th-century extension lies detached from the main cemetery to the north of Ravelston Terrace. The main cemetery is accessible through the gate on its east side, through a grace and favour access door from the grounds of Dean Gallery. The modern extension is only accessible at the junction of Dean Path, the many monuments bear witness to Scottish achievement in peace and war, at home and abroad. As the cemetery plots were bought up the cemetery was extended on its north side in 1871. A second set of gates were built on Dean Path. Although this section was originally accessed through this gate the extension was quickly linked to the original section by creating gaps in the mutual wall where no graves existed. This extension is laid out in a more rectilinear pattern than the original curvelinear layout, whilst numerically greater in its number of lords it is far less eye-catching. The entire cemetery is owned by the Dean Cemetery Trust Limited. The resultant layout, with its mature designed landscape, can be seen as an excellent example of a cemetery actually being visible in the form it was conceived to be seen. The southern access from Belford Road is now blocked and the road here is now grassed and used for the interment of ashes. The cemetery stands on the site of Dean House, part of Dean Estate which had purchased in 1609 by Sir William Nisbet. The Nisbets of Dean held the office of Hereditary Poulterer to the King, the famous herald, Alexander Nisbet, of Nisbet House, near Duns, Berwickshire, is said to have written his Systems of Heraldry in Dean House. The estate house was demolished in 1845, and sculptured stones from it are incorporated into the retaining wall supporting at the south side of the cemetery. It is not always realised that this lower, hidden section also contains graves, Sir John Stuart Hepburn Forbes was born in Dean House in 1804. All four Baron Kinross spanning almost two centuries, the oldest soldier buried is Major-General Sir John Munro Sym KCB aged 80. Most of the war graves lie in the independently accessed 20th century section to the north of the main cemetery, robert Digby-Jones VC is memorialised on his parents grave in the north extension. Official website The Dean Cemetery, Edinburgh edited by A. S. Cowper and Euan S. McIver, Edinburgh,1992
34.
Dunfermline City Chambers
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Dunfermline City Chambers is a building historically designed to be the centre of local government in Dunfermline, Fife. In more recent times most of these functions have been devolved to other locations, but the edifice still houses the Council Chambers. The building, constructed in the period 1875-79, was created by James Campbell Walker who also designed the first Carnegie Library and it employs a harmonious composite of French, Gothic and Scots baronial architectural styles and features a prominent four-face clock tower. There are many features of historic and architectural significance in the building, the structure includes heraldic stones recovered from the demolished 1771 Town House. These are plausibly believed to have originated from the now derelict Royal Palace of Dunfermline a few hundred yards to the south. The finely designed interior of the City Chambers incorporates many notable features, the historic police cells, although no longer in use, have also been preserved. Fife Direct website Visit Dunfermline Bert McEwan, Dunfermline, Our Heritage,1998 Edinburgh City Chambers Glasgow City Chambers
35.
British Newspaper Archive
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The British Newspaper Archive web site provides access to searchable digitised archives of British newspapers. It was launched in November 2011, the British Library Newspapers section was based in Colindale in North London, until 2013, and is now divided between the St Pancras and Boston Spa sites. The Library has an almost complete collection of British and Irish newspapers since 1840 and this is partly because of the legal deposit legislation of 1869, which required newspapers to supply a copy of each edition of a newspaper to the library. London editions of daily and Sunday newspapers are complete back to 1801. In total the collection consists of 660,000 bound volumes and 370,000 reels of microfilm containing tens of millions of newspapers with 52,000 titles on 45 km of shelves. After the closure of Colindale in November 2013, access to the 750 million original printed pages was maintained via an automated and climate-controlled storage facility in Boston Spa, in May 2010 a ten-year programme of digitisation of the newspaper archives with commercial partner DC Thomson subsidiary Brightsolid began. In November 2011, BBC News announced the launch of the British Newspaper Archive, the same newspapers from this partnership have also been made available to view on Findmypast and Genes Reunited. The digitisation project established a search facility which people could consult without having to visit the British Library newspaper depository in person. The Thomason Tracts and Burney collections are held at St Pancras, the section also has extensive records of non-British newspapers in languages that use the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets. The Librarys substantial holdings of newspapers in the languages of Asia and the Middle East may be accessed at the Librarys reading rooms at St. Pancras. While access within the British Library is free, online access is via a system based on daily or item charges. As part of The Wikipedia Library, Brightsolid provided free one-year subscriptions to a number of experienced Wikipedia editors from July 2014. The agreement was terminated in 2016 because structural changes at their parent organisation mean that there is no longer interest in continuing the partnership with The Wikipedia Library. Reviews of the service have been mixed, with some early responses complimentary about the ability to access, however, there have been complaints of the excessive cost and the general policy of the British Library allowing a private company the rights to the newspapers. One writer noted that, The BNA demonstrates what happens to our cultural heritage when there is no political will for public investment, web site of the British Newspaper Archive
36.
Art UK
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Art UK is a registered charity in the United Kingdom, previously known as the Public Catalogue Foundation. Originally the paintings were made accessible through a series of affordable book catalogues, later the same images and information were placed on a website in partnership with the BBC, originally called Your Paintings, hosted as part of the BBC website. The renaming in 2016 coincided with the transfer of the website to a stand-alone site, works by some 40,000 painters held in over 3,000 collections are now on the website. Future plans include a project to cover sculptures in public collections. The catalogues and website allow readers to see an illustration, normally in colour and this information has significant educational benefits and constitutes the building blocks for later art historical research. Revenue from catalogue sales made by collections is dedicated to the conservation and restoration of oil paintings in their care, the collections of bodies such as Arts Council England, English Heritage and the Government Art Collection are included. However the Royal Collection is not included, Art UK receives funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund and other sources. Of the 210,000 oil paintings in public ownership in the UK, many are held in storage or civic buildings without routine public access. Since 2003, The Public Catalogue Foundation has been working to rectify this through a series of colour catalogues. Before these were completed it was clear that a website was the best way to reach the wider public, the Oil Paintings in Public Ownership book series is published by The PCF mainly on a collection or county-by-county basis. Each county catalogue contains a photograph and basic information about each painting. All paintings are reproduced regardless of quality or condition, the PCF’s first catalogue was published in June 2004, and the series is now complete in 85 volumes. In January 2009 a partnership with the BBC was announced with the aim to place the entire catalogue of publicly owned oil paintings online by 2012. On 4 October 2012 it was announced that the project had photographed every painting that it intended to and all 210,000 would shortly be available. The Public Catalogue Foundation worked with the BBC to put all of the UKs publicly owned oil paintings online, in a section of the BBC website, Your Paintings, the PCF completed the digitisation of the entire national collection and celebrated their success in February 2013. An innovative crowdsourcing project, Your Paintings Tagger, also went online in 2011, the high-quality digital files, however, have not been made available to the public, and paintings on the BBC site can only be saved as a personal collection on the site, not downloaded. In March 2013 the BBC revealed that a painting by Anthony van Dyck had been discovered because of the Your Paintings website. Olivia, the subject of the painting, who died in 1663, was a lady-in-waiting to queen consort Henrietta Maria and she had married Endymion Porter, who was a patron of Anthony van Dyck
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
39.
William Holman Hunt
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William Holman Hunt OM was an English painter and one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. His paintings were notable for their attention to detail, vivid color. These features were influenced by the writings of John Ruskin and Thomas Carlyle, for Hunt it was the duty of the artist to reveal the correspondence between sign and fact. Of all the members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, Hunt remained most true to their ideals throughout his career and he was always keen to maximize the popular appeal and public visibility of his works. After eventually entering the Royal Academy art schools, having initially been rejected and he formed the Pre-Raphaelite movement in 1848, after meeting the poet and artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Along with John Everett Millais they sought to revitalise art by emphasising the detailed observation of the world in a spirit of quasi-religious devotion to truth. This religious approach was influenced by the qualities of medieval art. He had many pupils including Robert Braithwaite Martineau, after a failed engagement to his model Annie Miller, he married Fanny Waugh, who later modelled for the figure of Isabella. When she died in childbirth in Italy, he sculpted her tomb at Fiesole, having it brought down to the English Cemetery in Florence and he had a close connection with St. Marks Church in Florence, and paid for the communion chalice inscribed in memory of his wife and his second wife, Edith, was Fannys sister. At the time it was illegal in Great Britain to marry ones deceased wifes sister, hunts works were not initially successful, and were widely attacked in the art press for their alleged clumsiness and ugliness. He achieved some note for his intensely naturalistic scenes of modern rural and urban life, such as The Hireling Shepherd. Hunt also painted works based on poems, such as Isabella. He eventually built his own house in Jerusalem and he eventually had to relinquish painting because failing eyesight meant that he could not achieve the quality that he wanted. His last major works, including a version of The Light of the World, were completed with the help of his assistant. Hunt died on 7 September 1910 and was buried in St Pauls Cathedral in London, Hunt published an autobiography in 1905. Many of his writings are attempts to control the interpretation of his work. That year, he was appointed to the Order of Merit by King Edward VII, at the end of his life he lived in Sonning-on-Thames
40.
Dante Gabriel Rossetti
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Dante Gabriel Rossetti was an English poet, illustrator, painter and translator. He founded the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848 with William Holman Hunt, Rossetti was later to be the main inspiration for a second generation of artists and writers influenced by the movement, most notably William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. His work also influenced the European Symbolists and was a precursor of the Aesthetic movement. Rossettis art was characterised by its sensuality and its medieval revivalism and his early poetry was influenced by John Keats. His later poetry was characterised by the complex interlinking of thought and feeling, especially in his sonnet sequence, poetry and image are closely entwined in Rossettis work. Rossettis personal life was linked to his work, especially his relationships with his models and muses Elizabeth Siddal, Fanny Cornforth. The son of émigré Italian scholar Gabriele Pasquale Giuseppe Rossetti and his wife Frances Mary Lavinia Polidori, Rossetti was born in London, England and his family and friends called him Gabriel, but in publications he put the name Dante first in honour of Dante Alighieri. He was the brother of poet Christina Rossetti, critic William Michael Rossetti and his father was a Roman Catholic, at least prior to his marriage, and his mother was an Anglican, ostensibly Gabriel was baptized as and was a practicing Anglican. During his childhood, Rossetti was home educated and often read the Bible, along with the works of Shakespeare, Dickens, Sir Walter Scott, the youthful Rossetti is described as self-possessed, articulate, passionate and charismatic but also ardent, poetic and feckless. Like all his siblings, he aspired to be a poet and attended Kings College School and he also wished to be a painter, having shown a great interest in Medieval Italian art. He studied at Henry Sass Drawing Academy from 1841 to 1845, when he enrolled in the Antique School of the Royal Academy, after leaving the Royal Academy, Rossetti studied under Ford Madox Brown, with whom he retained a close relationship throughout his life. Following the exhibition of William Holman Hunts painting The Eve of St. Agnes, the painting illustrated a poem by the little-known John Keats. Rossettis own poem, The Blessed Damozel, was an imitation of Keats, together they developed the philosophy of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood which they founded along with John Everett Millais. Their approach was to return to the abundant detail, intense colours, the eminent critic John Ruskin wrote, Every Pre-Raphaelite landscape background is painted to the last touch, in the open air, from the thing itself. Every Pre-Raphaelite figure, however studied in expression, is a portrait of some living person. Rossettis first major paintings in oil display the realist qualities of the early Pre-Raphaelite movement and his Girlhood of Mary Virgin and Ecce Ancilla Domini portray Mary as a teenage girl. I saw at once that he was not an orthodox boy, the mixture of genius and dilettantism of both men shut me up for the moment, and whetted my curiosity. Although his work subsequently won support from John Ruskin, Rossetti only rarely exhibited thereafter, in 1850, Rossetti met Elizabeth Siddal, an important model for the Pre-Raphaelite painters
41.
James Collinson
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James Collinson was a Victorian painter who was a member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood from 1848 to 1850. He was born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire and was the son of a bookseller and he entered the Royal Academy School, and was also a fellow-student with Holman Hunt, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Collinson was a devout Christian who was attracted to the devotional, a convert to Catholicism, Collinson reverted to high Anglicanism in order to marry Christina Rossetti, but his conscience forced his return to Catholicism and the break-up of the engagement. When Millais painting Christ in the House of his Parents was accused of blasphemy, during his period as a Pre-Raphaelite, Collinson contributed a long devotional poem to The Germ and produced a number of religious works, most importantly The Renunciation of St. Elizabeth of Hungary. After his resignation Collinson trained for the priesthood at a Jesuit college, in 1858, he married Eliza Wheeler, the sister in law of the painter John Rogers Herbert, one of the early influences on the Pre-Raphaelites. He was secretary of the Society of British Artists from 1861 to 1870, in the latter part of his life he lived in Brittany, where he painted The Holy Family. List of Pre-Raphaelite paintings - including the work of James Collinson, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Cust, Lionel Henry. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 381–382, media related to James Collinson at Wikimedia Commons
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Frederic George Stephens
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Frederic George Stephens was an art critic, and one of the two non-artistic members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Stephens was born to Septimus Stephens of Aberdeen and Ann in Walworth, London, because of an accident in 1837, he was physically disabled and was educated privately. He later attended University College School, London, in 1844 he entered the Royal Academy Schools where he first met John Everett Millais and William Holman Hunt. He joined their Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in 1848, often modelling for them in pictures including Millaiss Ferdinand Lured by Ariel, there is a pencil portrait of Stephens by Millais dated 1853 in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery. He was so disappointed by his own talent that he took up art criticism. He communicated the aims of the Brotherhood to the public and he became the art critic and later the art editor of the Athenaeum while writing freelance for other art-history periodicals including The Art Journal and Portfolio. He also wrote for journals on the continent and the United States and his contributions to the Brotherhoods magazine The Germ were made under the pseudonyms Laura Savage and John Seward. During this time he was influenced by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Stephens first work of art history, Normandy, its Gothic Architecture and History was published in 1865, and Flemish Relics, monographs on William Mulready and on Edwin Landseer followed. When Rossetti died Stephens co-wrote his obituary for the edition of Athenaeum dated 15 April 1882, Hunt became increasingly paranoid, and interpreted a money gift from Stephens for his newborn son to be a slight, sending it back. The friendship between the two was broken when Stephens reviewed The Triumph of the Innocents and criticised it for its mixing of hyper-realism, almost twenty years later Hunt retaliated by launching a scathing attack on Stephens in the second edition of his Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. In 1894, Stephens published a Portfolio monograph on Rossetti and he contributed essays on art to Henry Duff Traills Social England, a Record of the Progress of the People placing Pre-Raphaelitism in a continuing tradition of British art. This contradicted the Brotherhoods view that they had flowered uniquely from a pallid past, in 1895 he published a book on Lawrence Alma-Tadema and his review of the posthumous exhibition of Millais in 1898 took the painter to task for poorly thought-out works. Stephens conservative views on art and his strong dislike of Impressionism ended his forty-year association with the Athenaeum. Stephens married the artist Rebecca Clara Dalton in 1866 and their son was the engineer Holman Fred Stephens. At the time of the 1881 census the family was living at 10 Hammersmith Terrace, Stephens died at home on 9 March 1907 and is buried in Brompton Cemetery. Much of his collection of art and books was auctioned at Fosters in 1916, after his widows death and he is sometimes cited as the great exponent of writers block, He started to write a political sonnet for the first number of The Germ magazine. On 13 October 1849 he had completed 11½ lines, which he showed to James Collinson, by 12 November it had attained the length of 12 lines, with the reservation of a tremendous idea for the final two
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Thomas Woolner
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Thomas Woolner RA was an English sculptor and poet who was one of the founder-members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. He was the only sculptor among the original members, after participating in the foundation of the PRB, Woolner emigrated for a period to Australia. He returned to Britain to have a career as a sculptor, creating many important public works as well as memorials, tomb sculptures. He corresponded with notable men of the day and also had some success as a poet. Born in Hadleigh, Suffolk, Woolner trained with the sculptor William Behnes and he became friendly with Dante Gabriel Rossetti and was invited by him to join the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Woolner was active in the history of the group, emphasising the need for a more vivid form of realism in sculpture. Woolners classical inclinations became increasingly difficult to reconcile with Pre-Raphaelite Medievalism, Woolners sculptures immediately after the foundation of the Brotherhood in 1848 display close attention to detail. He made his name with forceful portrait busts and medallions, but was at first unable to make a living and he was forced to emigrate to Australia in 1852, but after a year he returned to Britain, soon establishing himself as both a sculptor and art-dealer. His visit to Australia nevertheless helped him to obtain commissions there and elsewhere for statues of British imperial heroes, such as Captain Cook and his bronze statue of John Robert Godley in Christchurch, New Zealand, was toppled and shattered into several pieces by the February 2011 earthquake. It has since been repaired and was re-erected in March 2015, Woolner became a close friend of Francis Turner Palgrave. The two shared a house and both were known for their combative personalities, Henry Adams refers to them in The Education of Henry Adams, noting that Woolner had a rough personality and had to make a supernatural effort to be polite. Woolner designed the frontispiece of a youth for Palgraves famous verse anthology the Golden Treasury. The well known controversialist Jacob Omnium pointed out in a series of letters to the press that the two lived together, William Holman Hunt wrote a reply supporting Woolner, but Palgrave was forced to withdraw the catalogue. His largest single commission was a programme of architectural sculptures for the Manchester Assize Courts, Woolner created a large number of statues depicting lawgivers and rulers which formed part of the buildings structure. Most dramatic was a giant sculpture depicting Moses which was placed on the top, there were also allegorical figures of Justice and Mercy. Inside was a sculpture depicting the Judgment of Solomon, flanked by statues of a drunk woman. Alfred Waterhouse, the architect, wrote, we are all delighted with your virtuous woman, the building was bombed during World War II. Some of the sculptures were saved and incorporated into the replacement building and these demonstrate his attempt to express the tension between the static stone and the dynamic desires of the figures represented emerging into solidity from it
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George Price Boyce
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George Price Boyce was a British watercolour painter of landscapes and vernacular architecture in the Pre-Raphaelite style. He was a patron and friend of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Boyce was born in Grays Inn Terrace in London, and was the son of George Boyce, a wine merchant turned pawnbroker. He went to school in Chipping Ongar in Essex, and then studied in Paris, in October 1843 he was articled to an architect named Little, with whom he remained for four years, until joining the architectural firm of Wyatt and Brandon. Already disillusioned with architecture a meeting with the artist David Cox in August 1849 persuaded him to give up the profession, in 1854 he went to Venice, where he sketched subjects recommended to him by the critic John Ruskin. Who corresponded with him during his four months in the city, in the 1870s he painted many views of Ludlow, and was increasingly drawn to more remote landscapes. In 1861, following the death of his sister, he went to Egypt, Rossetti, who disliked working out of doors borrowed Boyces sketches to provide the background for his watercolour Writing on the Sand. Boyce exhibited both oils and watercolours at the Royal Academy between 1853 and 1861 and he was a founder member of the Hogarth Club. And of the Medieval Society, an organisation, formed mostly of architects, dedicated to promoting interest in the art and he was also a leading member of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. He exhibited frequently at the Royal Watercolour Society and was elected Associate in 1864, from 1871 he lived at West House, Chelsea, designed for him by his friend Philip Webb. He retired from painting in 1893 through ill health, and died at West House on 9 February 1897. Boyces diary has become a source of information on Rossetti. His sister was the painter Joanna Mary Boyce, lot details for artworks The Pre-Raph Pack Discover more about the artists, the techniques they used and a timeline spanning 100 years
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John Brett (artist)
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John Brett ARA was an artist associated with the Pre-Raphaelite movement, mainly notable for his highly detailed landscapes. Brett was born near Reigate on 8 December 1831, the son of an army vet, in 1851 he began lessons in art with James Duffield Harding, a landscape painter. He also studied with Richard Redgrave, in 1853 he entered the Royal Academy schools, but was more interested in the ideas of John Ruskin and William Holman Hunt, whom he met through his friend the poet Coventry Patmore. Inspired by Hunts ideal of scientific landscape painting, Brett visited Switzerland, in 1858 Brett exhibited The Stonebreaker, the painting that made his reputation. This depicted a youth smashing stones to create a road-surface, sitting in a brightly lit, partly funded by Ruskin, Brett made the trip to paint the location, exhibiting it in 1859, again to high praise from Ruskin, who bought the painting. Other critics were effusive, one describing it as a gravestone for post-Ruskinism. Brett continued to paint carefully detailed landscape views, staying in Italy on many occasions in the 1860s and he was always keen to stress the scientific precision of his rendering of nature, but often infused it with moral and religious significance, as recommended by Ruskin. In his later years he painted more coastal subjects and seascapes, subjects he came to know well due to his ownership of a 210-ton schooner, Viking, on which he travelled the Mediterranean. During summers in the 1880s Brett rented the castle at Newport, Pembrokeshire to use as a base for his family while he painted, sketched and photographed the south. An exhibition in 2001 at the National Museum of Wales, Cardiff, Brett was also a keen astronomer, having studied the subject from childhood. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1871, Brett was a founder member of the Art Workers Guild and Master in 1890. List of Pre-Raphaelite paintings - including the works of John Brett, the Stonebreaker - Henry Wallis painting on the same theme as Bretts. Dictionary of National Biography,1912 supplement, birmingham Museums & Art Gallerys Pre-Raphaelite Online Resource includes three paintings by John Brett. The Pre-Raph Pack online exhibition for John Brett Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
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Ford Madox Brown
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Ford Madox Brown was an English painter of moral and historical subjects, notable for his distinctively graphic and often Hogarthian version of the Pre-Raphaelite style. Arguably, his most notable painting was Work, Brown spent the latter years of his life painting the Manchester Murals, depicting Mancunian history, for Manchester Town Hall. Brown was the grandson of the medical theorist John Brown, founder of the Brunonian system of medicine and his great grandfather was a Scottish labourer. His father Ford Brown served as a purser in the Royal Navy, including a period serving under Sir Isaac Coffin and he left the Navy after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1818, Ford Brown married Caroline Madox, of an old Kentish family, Browns parents had limited financial resources, and they moved to Calais to seek cheaper lodgings, where their daughter Elizabeth Coffin was born in 1819 and their son Ford Madox Brown in 1821. Browns education was limited, as the family moved between lodgings in the Pas-de-Calais and relatives in Kent, but he showed artistic talent in copying of old master prints. His father initially sought a career for his son, writing to his former captain Sir Isaac Coffin. The family moved to Bruges in 1835 so Brown could study at the academy under Albert Gregorius, Brown moved to Ghent in 1836 to continue his studies under Pieter van Hanselaere. He moved to Antwerp in 1837 to study under Gustaf Wappers and he continued to study in Antwerp after his mothers death in 1839. His sister died in 1840, and then his father in 1842, the Tate Gallery holds an early example of Browns work, a portrait of his father. He lived in Montmartre with his new wife and aging father in 1841 and he painted Manfred on the Jungfrau, inspired by Lord Byrons poem Manfred while he was in Paris. In 1843 he submitted work to the Westminster Cartoon Competition, for compositions to decorate the new Palace of Westminster and his entry, The Body of Harold Brought before William, was not successful. His early works were, however, greatly admired by the young Dante Gabriel Rossetti, through Rossetti, Brown came into contact with the artists who went on to form the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Though closely linked to them, he was never actually a member of the brotherhood itself and he was also influenced by the works of Holbein that he saw in Basel in 1845, and by Friedrich Overbeck and Peter Cornelius, whom he met in Rome in 1845-46. Brown struggled to make his mark in the 1850s, with his paintings failing to find buyers, in 1852 he started work on two of his most significant works. One of his most famous images is The Last of England, painted from 1852 to 1855 and it depicts a pair of stricken emigrants as they sail away on the ship that will take them from England forever. It was inspired by the departure of the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor Thomas Woolner, the husband and wife are portraits of Brown and his second wife Emma. Browns most important painting was Work, begun in Hampstead in 1852, Thomas Plint advanced funds to enable Brown to complete the work, in anticipation of obtaining the finished painting, but died in 1861 before the painting had been completed
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Richard Burchett
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Richard Burchett was a British artist and educator on the fringes of the Pre-Raphaelite movement, who was for over twenty years the Headmaster of what later became the Royal College of Art. Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, Queen Victorias daughter, Burchett published collections of his lectures as text-books for the South Kensington system of art education, which he helped to devise. Burchett was born in Brighton on 30 January 1815 and he gave evidence to this in 1846-7, by which time he had become a master at the school, remaining on the staff until his death in 1875, from 1852 as Headmaster. He married twice, and had several children, what appear to be a son and grandson are recorded exhibiting paintings in London. Ebenezer Stanley Burchett worked at South Kensington and then was Head Master of the Bedford Park School of Arts & Crafts, in 1870 Richard Burchett is described as formerly of 43 Brompton Square, but now of 8 Bedford Road, Clapham. Burchett was in bad health for the last years of his life. He had only been in the School for 133 days in 1872, in 1870, he began proceedings for bankruptcy, which were still not concluded by his death. Scott says he took to a sort of farming at considerable expense and he began to get into deep water, and into the hands of 20 per cent money-lenders. Still he fought bravely with his difficulties, and even when his salary was placed under trustees. His venture was ill-timed, hitting a period of agricultural depression and his will was probated at less than £200, and Frayling records that a letter from his widow asking for a pension was found unanswered in the school files thirteen years later. Obituaries were published in the Athenaeum, the Art Journal, Burchett exhibited five works, apparently all large history paintings, at the Royal Academy between 1847, including The Death of Marmion, famous in its day according to Hugh Thomas) and 1873. These are rather described as in the Pre-Raphaelite style by the DNB. He exhibited a work at the British Institution in 1855, superstition, you see, turns them into caitiffs. Academy as the exponent of the same would like to crush out of existence. This small painting, which closely approaches a Pre-Raphaelite landscape style, shows a half-harvested cornfield, with tools. But the only figures visible are two clearly middle-class women, no part of the same party as the artist, one sitting against a stook reading a book. Any georgic or realist focus on agriculture is absent his cornfield is just part of a landscape where middle-class people take their leisure, the corn is no more or no less useful than the beaches which we imagine to be in the distance of this brilliantly coloured painting. Here too a more subtle hint of religious feeling is found, there are a number of public paintings by Burchett, with help of his students, commissioned through the school
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