1.
Manhattan Project
–
The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom, from 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs, the Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District, Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, the Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce material, with less than 10% for development. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war, a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, three methods were employed for uranium enrichment, electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, in parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. The plutonium was then separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design, the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, despite the Manhattan Projects tight security, Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was a bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexicos Alamogordo Bombing. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947, there were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter and it urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner, the committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940, Briggs proposed that the spend $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium
2.
Nuclear weapon
–
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
3.
Thin Man (nuclear bomb)
–
Thin Man was the codename for a proposed plutonium gun-type nuclear bomb using plutonium-239 which the United States was developing during the Manhattan Project. A gun-type design was chosen, in which two sub-critical masses would be together by firing a bullet into a target. The idea of a nuclear weapon was suggested by Richard Tolman. It was decided that the gun would receive the bulk of the research effort. It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could be easily adapted from it. The gun-type and implosion-type designs were codenamed Thin Man and Fat Man projects respectively and these code names were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Oppenheimers who worked on the Manhattan Project. He chose them based on their shapes, the Thin Man would be a very long device. The Fat Man bomb would be round and fat and was named after Sydney Greenstreets character in The Maltese Falcon, little Boy would come last and be named only to contrast to the Thin Man bomb. Critchfield had been working with sabots, which Oppenheimer believed would be required by the Thin Man to achieve the high velocities that critical assembly would require. Hirschfelder had been working on internal ballistics and these four created and tested all the elements of the Thin Man design between April 1943 and August 1944. Parsons, who had developed the proximity fuze for the Navy, ran the division, and handled liaison with other agencies. As the head of the E-6 Projectile, Target, and Source Group, Critchfield calculated critical masses, while full-scale Thin Man tubes took months to produce, these were readily and easily obtained. It was not possible to conduct tests with plutonium, as it was not yet available, indeed, the actual physical characteristics of the metal were little more than educated guesses at this time. Hirschfelder headed the E-8 Interior Ballistics Group and his group performed mathematical calculations, but he also had to identify a suitable powder, igniter, and primer. His group conducted full-scale tests with their selections, fixing the physical size of the bomb proved important when it came to selecting a suitable aircraft to carry it. Although the weapons designers thought that bringing a critical mass together would be sufficient. Oppenheimer requested that it also be manufactured in the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee or, when they became available, the Thin Man design was an early nuclear weapon design proposed before plutonium had been successfully bred in a nuclear reactor from the irradiation of uranium-238. It was assumed that plutonium, like uranium-235, could be assembled into a mass by a gun-type method
4.
Edwin McMillan
–
Edwin Mattison McMillan was an American physicist and Nobel laureate credited with being the first-ever to produce a transuranium element, neptunium. For this, he shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Glenn Seaborg in 1951, during World War II, he worked on microwave radar at the MIT Radiation Laboratory, and on sonar at the Navy Radio and Sound Laboratory. In 1942 he joined the Manhattan Project, the effort to create atomic bombs. He led teams working on the nuclear weapon design. McMillan co-invented the synchrotron with Vladimir Veksler and he returned to the Radiation Laboratory after the war, and built them. In 1954 he was appointed director of the Radiation Laboratory. On the death of Lawrence that year, he became director, McMillan was born in Redondo Beach, California, on September 18,1907, the son of Edwin Harbaugh McMillan and his wife Anna Marie McMillan née Mattison. He had a sister, Catherine Helen. His father was a physician, as was his fathers twin brother, California Institute of Technology was only a mile from his home, and he attended some of the public lectures there. In 1932, McMillan was awarded a National Research Council fellowship, McMillans initial work there involved attempting to measure the magnetic moment of the proton, but Otto Stern and Immanuel Estermann were able to carry out these measurements first. His skill with instrumentation came to the fore, and he contributed improvements to the cyclotron, in particular, he helped develop the process of shimming, adjusting the cyclotron to produce a homogeneous magnetic field. Working with M. Stanley Livingston, he discovered oxygen-15, an isotope of oxygen that emits positrons, to produce it, they bombarded nitrogen gas with deuterons. This was mixed with hydrogen and oxygen to water, which was then collected with hygroscopic calcium chloride. Radioactivity was found concentrated in it, proving that it was in the oxygen and this was followed by an investigation of the absorption of gamma rays produced by bombarding fluorine with protons. In 1935, McMillan, Lawrence and Robert Thornton carried out experiments with deuteron beams that produced a series of unexpected results. Deuterons fused with a nuclei, transmuting the target to a heavier isotope while ejecting a proton. Their experiments indicated a nuclear interaction at lower energies than would be expected from a calculation of the Coulomb barrier between a deuteron and a target nucleus. Berkeley theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer and his graduate student Melba Phillips developed the Oppenheimer–Phillips process to explain the phenomenon, McMillan became an assistant professor in 1936, and an associate professor in 1941
5.
Charles Critchfield
–
Charles Louis Critchfield was an American mathematical physicist. After the war he became a professor at the University of Minnesota, and then vice president for research at the Convair division of General Dynamics, where he worked on the Atlas family of rockets. In 1961, J. Carson Mark and Norris Bradbury offered him a position at Los Alamos, Charles Louis Critchfield was born in Shreve, Ohio, on June 7,1910, and grew up in Washington, D. C. He received his B. S. and M. A. degrees in Mathematics from George Washington University, where he also earned a PhD in Physics under the direction of Edward Teller. During Critchfields graduate studies, Tellers colleague George Gamow introduced him to Hans Bethe, with whom he wrote a paper in 1938, in 1967, Bethe was awarded the Nobel Prize for this work on stellar nucleosynthesis. After he graduated, Critchfield taught optics for a year at the University of Rochester at the invitation of Victor Weisskopf, in 1940, he was awarded a National Research Council fellowship, and went to work under Eugene Wigner at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. At this time, Robert Kent had just recruited John von Neumann to the board of the Ballistic Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground. Critchfield joined von Neumann and Wigner there on several visits, as leader of the target, projectile, and source group, he worked on the gun-type fission weapons, Little Boy and Thin Man. In April 1944, the Manhattan Project experienced a crisis when Emilio Segrè discovered that made in nuclear reactors would not work in Thin Man. In response, Oppenheimer completely reorganized the laboratory to focus on development of a nuclear weapon in August. He reassigned Critchfield to a new Gadget Division under Robert Bacher and this group was responsible for the design and testing of the Urchin neutron initiator, which provided a burst of neutrons that kick-started the nuclear detonation of the Fat Man weapon. Critchfield left Los Alamos in 1946 and returned to George Washington University, in 1947 he became an assistant professor at the University of Minnesota, where he participated, with Edward P. Ney and John R. Winckler, in a classified project to improve balloon technology. Here, with Leland S. Bohl, he invented and patented the natural shape balloon, in 1955, after advancing to full professor at Minnesota, Critchfield became vice president for research at the Convair division of General Dynamics. Here, he worked on the Atlas family of rockets, which began as a series of ICBMs and evolved into launch vehicles for Project Mercury and many other space missions. He also created the Convair Scientific Research Laboratory whose staff were expected to serve as consultants for the engineering divisions. In 1957, Critchfields student William C, Erickson joined the staff, and created the Clark Lake Radio Observatory. In 1963, this facility, where observations focused on long wavelength radio waves, was transferred to the University of Maryland, although the original observatory has been abandoned, similar research continues at the much larger Long Wavelength Array in central New Mexico. In early November 1959, President Dwight D. Eisenhowers Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy selected Critchfield to be head of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
6.
Internal ballistics
–
Internal ballistics, a subfield of ballistics, is the study of the propulsion of a projectile. In guns internal ballistics covers the time from the propellants ignition until the exits the gun barrel. The study of internal ballistics is important to designers and users of firearms of all types, from rifles and pistols. For rocket-propelled projectiles, internal ballistics covers the period during which a motor is providing thrust. These times have significance for accuracy, if the weapon is moving, then a shorter lock time minimizes the effect of that motion. The consistency of the ignition and barrel times affect and relate to the muzzle velocity, there are many processes that are significant. The source of energy is the burning propellant and it generates hot gases that raise the chamber pressure. That pressure pushes on the base of the projectile, and causes the projectile to accelerate, the chamber pressure depends on many factors. The amount of propellant that has burned, the temperature of the gases, the burn rate of the propellant depends not only on the chemical make up, but also on the shape of the propellant grains. The temperature depends not only on the released, but also the heat lost to the sides of the barrel. The volume of the chamber is continuously changing, as the propellant burns, as the projectile travels down the barrel, the volume behind the projectile also increases. Some energy is lost in deforming the projectile and causing it to spin, there are also frictional losses between the projectile and the barrel. The projectile, as it travels down the barrel, compresses the air in front of it, models have been developed for these processes. These processes affect the gun design, the breech and the barrel must resist the high-pressure gases without damage. Although the pressure rises to a high value, the pressure starts dropping when the projectile has traveled some distance down the barrel. Consequently, the end of the barrel does not need to be as strong as the chamber end. Barrels and actions would be strong enough to survive a known overload. In the 1800s test barrels began to be instrumented, holes were drilled in the barrel, crusher gauges using copper pellets were attached, the gun was fired, and the pressure was measured indirectly by how much the copper pellet was deformed
7.
Captain (United States O-6)
–
The predecessors of the NOAA Corps, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps and the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps, also used the rank. In the United States Navy, captain is an officer rank. It ranks above commander and below rear admiral and it is equivalent to the rank of colonel in the other uniformed services. Promotion to captain is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980 or its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act, Navy captains with sea commands in the surface warfare officer community generally command ships of cruiser size or larger. The more senior the officer, the larger the ship, others may hold command as commodores of destroyer squadrons consisting of multiple destroyers and frigates. Surface Warfare Officers may also command large amphibious warfare ships or combat support ships. Today, like their surface warfare counterparts, captains in the community may serve as commodores of submarine squadrons. A smaller cohort outside of sea and shore commands may also serve as astronauts on loan to the National Aeronautics, in the Naval Special Warfare Sea Air Land community, captains with sea commands are typically commodores in command of Naval Special Warfare Groups. In addition, in the strike group, the Marine Expeditionary Unit commanding officer will always be a Marine Corps colonel. Adding to the confusion, all commanding officers of commissioned U. S. Navy warships and submarines are called captain regardless of actual rank. The United States Coast Guard also uses the same rank system for its commissioned officers as the U. S. Navy, with a Coast Guard captain ranking above a commander. The sleeve and shoulder board insignia are similar to the Navy insignia, the Coast Guard has no staff corps officers. Like the U. S. Navy, all commanding officers of commissioned cutters are addressed as captain regardless of their actual rank, seagoing NOAA captains command certain National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ships, while NOAA aviators command NOAA flight operations activities. USPHS rapid deployment force teams, containing 105 USPHS physicians, nurses, although it exists largely as a maritime training organization, the United States Maritime Service also uses the rank of captain. Captain DA Pamphlet 600–3, Commissioned Officer Professional Development and Career Management
8.
William Sterling Parsons
–
Rear Admiral William Sterling Deak Parsons was an American naval officer who worked as an ordnance expert on the Manhattan Project during World War II. He is best known for being the weaponeer on the Enola Gay, to avoid the possibility of a nuclear explosion if the aircraft crashed and burned on takeoff, he decided to arm the bomb in flight. While the aircraft was en route to Hiroshima, Parsons climbed into the cramped and dark bomb bay and he was awarded the Silver Star for his part in the mission. A1922 graduate of the United States Naval Academy, Parsons served on a variety of warships beginning with the battleship USS Idaho and he was trained in ordnance and studied ballistics under L. T. E. Thompson at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren, Virginia, in July 1933, Parsons became liaison officer between the Bureau of Ordnance and the Naval Research Laboratory. He became interested in radar and was one of the first to recognize its potential to locate ships and aircraft, the fuze, eventually known as the VT fuze, Mark 32, went into production in 1942. Parsons was on hand to watch the cruiser USS Helena shoot down the first enemy aircraft with a VT fuze in the Solomon Islands in January 1943. In June 1943, Parsons joined the Manhattan Project as Associate Director at the laboratory at Los Alamos. Parsons became responsible for the aspects of the project, including the design. He was also responsible for the program, codenamed Project Alberta. He watched the Trinity nuclear test from a B-29, after the war, Parsons was promoted to the rank of rear admiral without ever having commanded a ship. He participated in Operation Crossroads, the weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946. In 1947, he became deputy commander of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project and he died of a heart attack on 5 December 1953. William Sterling Parsons was born in Chicago, Illinois, on 26 November 1901, in 1909, the family moved to Fort Sumner, New Mexico, where William learned to speak fluent Spanish. He attended the schools in Fort Sumner and was home schooled by his mother for a time. He commenced at Santa Rosa High School, where his mother taught English and Spanish, in 1917 he attended Fort Sumner High School, from which he graduated in 1918. In 1917 Parsons travelled to Roswell, New Mexico to take the United States Naval Academy exam for one of the appointments by Senator Andrieus A. Jones and he was only an alternate, but passed the exam while more favored candidates did not, and received the appointment. As he was only 16, two younger than most candidates, he was shorter and lighter than the physical standards called for
9.
National Academy of Sciences
–
The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
10.
Theoretical physics
–
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
11.
Los Alamos National Laboratory
–
Los Alamos National Laboratory is one of two laboratories in the United States in which classified work towards the design of nuclear weapons has been undertaken. LANL is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, managed and operated by Los Alamos National Security, located in Los Alamos, the laboratory is one of the largest science and technology institutions in the world. It conducts multidisciplinary research in such as national security, space exploration, renewable energy, medicine, nanotechnology. General Leslie Groves wanted a central laboratory at a location for safety. It should be at least 200 miles from international boundaries and west of the Mississippi, major John Dudley suggested Oak City, Utah or Jemez Springs, New Mexico but both were rejected. Manhattan Project scientific director J. Robert Oppenheimer had spent much time in his youth in the New Mexico area, Dudley had rejected the school as not meeting Groves’ criteria, but as soon as Groves saw it he said in effect This is the place. Oppenheimer became the laboratorys first director, during the Manhattan Project, Los Alamos hosted thousands of employees, including many Nobel Prize-winning scientists. The location was a total secret and its only mailing address was a post office box, number 1663, in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Eventually two other post office boxes were used,180 and 1539, also in Santa Fe, though its contract with the University of California was initially intended to be temporary, the relationship was maintained long after the war. The work of the laboratory culminated in the creation of several devices, one of which was used in the first nuclear test near Alamogordo, New Mexico, codenamed Trinity. The other two were weapons, Little Boy and Fat Man, which were used in the attacks on Hiroshima, the Laboratory received the Army-Navy ‘E’ Award for Excellence in production on October 16,1945. Many of the original Los Alamos luminaries chose to leave the laboratory, in the years since the 1940s, Los Alamos was responsible for the development of the hydrogen bomb, and many other variants of nuclear weapons. In 1952, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was founded to act as Los Alamos competitor, Los Alamos and Livermore served as the primary classified laboratories in the U. S. national laboratory system, designing all the countrys nuclear arsenal. Additional work included basic research, particle accelerator development, health physics. Many nuclear tests were undertaken in the Marshall Islands and at the Nevada Test Site, during the late-1950s, a number of scientists including Dr. J. Robert Bob Beyster left Los Alamos to work for General Atomics in San Diego. Three major nuclear-related accidents have occurred at LANL, criticality accidents occurred in August 1945 and May 1946, and a third accident occurred during an annual physical inventory in December 1958. Several buildings associated with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos were declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965, Los Alamos nuclear work is currently thought to relate primarily to computer simulations and stockpile stewardship. The development of the Dual-Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test Facility will allow complex simulations of nuclear tests to take place without full explosive yields, the lab has made intense efforts for humanitarian causes through its scientific research in medicine
12.
National Medal of Science
–
The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
13.
Gerald Ford
–
Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977, following the resignation of Richard Nixon. Prior to this he served eight months as the 40th Vice President of the United States, before his appointment to the vice presidency, Ford served 25 years as U. S. Representative from Michigans 5th congressional district, the nine of them as the House Minority Leader. As President, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, marking a move toward détente in the Cold War, with the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U. S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended. Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation, one of his most controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. During Fords presidency, foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, in the Republican presidential primary campaign of 1976, Ford defeated former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination. Arthur not to be elected in his own right, following his years as President, Ford remained active in the Republican Party. After experiencing health problems, he died at home on December 26,2006, Ford lived longer than any other U. S. president –93 years and 165 days – while his 895-day presidency was the shortest of all presidents who did not die in office. Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14,1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr. a wool trader, Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her sons birth. She took her son with her to the Oak Park, Illinois, home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, from there, she moved to the home of her parents, Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913, she gained custody of her son. Fords paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930, Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother. James M. Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man. After two and a half years with her parents, on February 1,1916, Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford and they then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford, Jr. The future president was never adopted, and did not legally change his name until December 3,1935. He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mothers marriage, Thomas Gardner Tom Ford, Richard Addison Dick Ford. Ford also had three half-siblings from the marriage of Leslie King, Sr. his biological father, Marjorie King, Leslie Henry King
14.
Wendover Air Force Base
–
Wendover Air Force Base is a former United States Air Force base in Utah now known as Wendover Airport. During World War II, it was a base for B-17. It was the site of the 509th Composite Group, the B-29 unit that carried out the atomic bombings of Hiroshima. After the war, Wendover was used for training exercises, gunnery range and it was closed by the Air Force in 1969, and the base was given to Wendover City in 1977. Tooele County, Utah, assumed ownership of the airport and base buildings in 1998, a portion of the original bombing range is now the Utah Test and Training Range which is used extensively by the Air Force with live fire targets on the range. Wendover Air Force Bases history began in 1940, when the United States Army began looking for additional bombing ranges. The area near the town of Wendover was well-suited to these needs, the land was uninhabited, had generally excellent flying weather. Though isolated, the area was served by the Western Pacific Railroad, construction of the base began on 20 September 1940 and on the range on 4 November 1940. Wendover Air Base became a subpost of Fort Douglas in Salt Lake City on 29 July 1941, by that time a total of 1,822,000 acres had been acquired for the base and associated gunnery/bombing range 86 miles long and 18 to 36 miles wide. Ranchers protested the loss of their land, which they claimed would wipe them out. They took their complaints to Governor Henry Hooper Blood, but the War Department pressed on with the development of the bombing range, the first military contingent arrived on 12 August 1941, to construct targets on the bombing range. To provide water, a pipeline was run from a spring on Pilot Peak to the base, with the entrance of the United States into World War II, Wendover Field took on greater importance. It was the Army Air Forces largest bombing and gunnery range, on March 1942 the Army Air Force activated Wendover Army Air Field and also assigned the research and development of guided missiles, pilotless aircraft, and remotely controlled bombs to the site. The new base was supplied and serviced by the Ogden Air Depot at Hill Field, in April 1942, the Wendover Sub-Depot was activated and assumed technical and administrative control of the field, under the Ogden Air Depot. The Wendover Sub-Depot was tasked to requisition, store, and issue all Army Air Forces property for organizations stationed at Wendover Field for training, by late 1943 there were some 2,000 civilian employees and 17,500 military personnel at Wendover. Construction at the base continued for most of the war, including three 8, 100-foot paved runways, taxiways, a 300, 000-square-foot ramp, and seven hangars, wendovers mission was to train heavy bomb groups. The training of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator groups began in April 1942, from March 1942 through April 1944, Wendover AAF hosted twenty newly formed B-17 and B-24 groups during one phase of their group training. The Second Air Force organized bombardment training into three phases, in the first, training focused on the individual crew members
15.
Project Alberta
–
Project Alberta was formed in March 1945, and consisted of 51 United States Army, Navy, and civilian personnel, including one British scientist. It first had to design a shape for delivery by air, then procure. It supported the ballistic testing work at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, conducted by the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit, the Manhattan Project began in October 1941, just before U. S. entry into World War II. Within the Los Alamos Laboratory, responsibility for delivery lay with its Ordnance Division, with the Ordnance Division, the E-7 Group was created with responsibility for the integration of design and delivery. Led by physicist Norman F. Ramsey, it consisted of himself, Sheldon Dike, any other airframe would have had to be completely redesigned and rebuilt, or carry the bomb externally. Parsons arranged for tests to be carried at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren, no B-29s or Lancasters were available so a 9-foot scale model Thin Man was used, and dropped from a Grumman TBF Avenger. The results were disappointing, with the falling in a flat spin. This indicated that a thorough test program was required, further testing of Silverplate B-29 aircraft and Thin Man and Fat Man bomb shapes was carried out at Muroc Army Air Field in March and June 1944. Testing shifted to Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, in October, Project Y controlled the scheduling and contents of the tests, which were carried out by the Flight Test Section of the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit as Project W-47. The tests were supervised by Ramsey until November, when Commander Frederick Ashworth became Parsons head of operations, the test bombs were assembled by the 509th Composite Groups 1st Ordnance Squadron, Special, and the 216th Army Air Forces Base Units Special Ordnance Detachment. Tests continued until the end of the war in August 1945, Project Alberta, also known as Project A, was formed in March 1945, absorbing existing groups of Parsonss Ordnance Division that were working on bomb preparation and delivery. These included Ramseys delivery group, now called O-2, Commander Francis Birchs O-1 Group, Kenneth Bainbridges X-2 Group, Robert Brodes O-3 Group and George Galloways O-4 Group. Parsons became the head of Project Alberta, with Ramsey as his scientific and technical deputy, there were two bomb assembly teams, a Fat Man Assembly Team under Commander Norris Bradbury and Roger Warner, and a Little Boy Assembly under Birch. Philip Morrison was the head of the Pit Crew, Bernard Waldman and Luis Alvarez led the Aerial Observation Team, physicists Robert Serber and William Penney, and US Army Captain James F. Nolan, a medical expert, were special consultants. All members of Project Alberta had volunteered for the mission, in all, Project Alberta consisted of 51 Army, Navy and civilian personnel. Army personnel were two officers, Nolan and First Lieutenant John D. Hopper, and 17 enlisted men from the Manhattan Projects Special Engineer Detachment, there were Navy personnel were Parsons, Ashworth, Lieutenant Commander Edward C. Stephenson, Lieutenant Victor A. Miller, and eight ensigns, Purnell, Farrell and Parsons became informally known as the Tinian Joint Chiefs. They had decision-making authority over the nuclear mission, in February 1945, Ashworth traveled to Guam bearing a letter for Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz informing him of the Manhattan Project
16.
Fat Man
–
Fat Man was the codename for the atomic bomb that was detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki by the United States on 9 August 1945. It was the second of the two nuclear weapons ever used in warfare, the first being Little Boy, and its detonation marked the third-ever man-made nuclear explosion in history. It was built by scientists and engineers at Los Alamos Laboratory using plutonium from the Hanford Site, for the Fat Man mission, Bockscar was piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney. The name Fat Man refers generically to the design of the bomb, because it had a wide. It was also known as the Mark III, Fat Man was an implosion-type nuclear weapon with a solid plutonium core. The first of type to be detonated was the Gadget, in the Trinity nuclear test, less than a month earlier on 16 July at the Alamogordo Bombing. Two more Fat Man bombs were detonated during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946, some 120 Fat Man units were produced between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb. The Fat Man was retired in 1950, a gun-type design was chosen, in which two sub-critical masses would be brought together by firing a bullet into a target. Tolman suggested an implosion-type nuclear weapon, but the idea attracted scant consideration, the feasibility of a plutonium bomb was questioned in 1942. Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton, who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago respectively knew about the problem, the committee concluded that any problems could be overcome simply by requiring higher purity. Nonetheless, it was decided that the gun would receive the bulk of the research effort. It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could be adapted from it. The gun-type and implosion-type designs were codenamed Thin Man and Fat Man respectively and these code names were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Oppenheimers who worked on the Manhattan Project. Little Boy would come last, as a variation of Thin Man and he was assisted in this work by Hugh Bradner, Charles Critchfield, and John Streib. L. T. E. Thompson was brought in as a consultant, Thompson was skeptical that an implosion could be made sufficiently symmetric. But Neddermeyers efforts in July and August at imploding tubes to produce cylinders tended to produce objects that resembled rocks, Neddermeyer was the only person who believed that implosion was practical, and only his enthusiasm kept the project alive. Oppenheimer brought John von Neumann to Los Alamos in September 1943 to take a look at implosion. The prospect of more-efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer, Teller, and Hans Bethe, kistiakowskys name was immediately suggested, and Kistiakowsky was brought into the project as a consultant in October 1943
17.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
–
Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
18.
American Chemical Society
–
The American Chemical Society is a scientific society based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of chemistry. Founded in 1876 at New York University, the ACS currently has more than 158,000 members at all levels and in all fields of chemistry, chemical engineering. It is the worlds largest scientific society by membership, the ACS is a 501 non-profit organization and holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D. C. and it has a concentration of staff in Columbus. The ACS is a source of scientific information through its peer-reviewed scientific journals, national conferences. Its publications division produces 51 scholarly journals including the prestigious Journal of the American Chemical Society, the ACS holds national meetings twice a year covering the complete field of chemistry and also holds smaller conferences concentrating on specific chemical fields or geographic regions. The primary source of income of the ACS is the Chemical Abstracts Service, the organization also publishes textbooks, administers several national chemistry awards, provides grants for scientific research, and supports various educational and outreach activities. In 1874, a group of American chemists gathered at the Joseph Priestley House to mark the 100th anniversary of Priestleys discovery of oxygen. Two years later, on 6 April 1876, during a meeting of chemists at the University of the City of New York the American Chemical Society was founded, the society received its charter of incorporation from the State of New York in 1877. Charles F. Draper was a photochemist and pioneering photographer who had produced one of the first photographic portraits in 1840, chandler would later serve as president in 1881 and 1889. The Journal of the American Chemical Society was founded in 1879 to publish original chemical research and it was the first journal published by ACS and is still the societys flagship peer-reviewed publication. Chemical & Engineering News is a trade magazine that has been published by ACS since 1923. The society adopted a new constitution aimed at nationalizing the organization in 1890, in 1905, the American Chemical Society moved from New York City to Washington, D. C. ACS was reincorporated under a charter in 1937. It was granted by the U. S. Congress and signed by president Franklin D. Roosevelt, ACSs headquarters moved to its current location in downtown Washington in 1941. Divisional activities include organizing technical sessions at ACS meetings, publishing books and resources, administering awards and lectureships, as of 2016, there are 32 technical divisions of ACS. This is the largest division of the Society and it marked its 100th Anniversary in 2008. The first Chair of the Division was Edward Curtis Franklin, the Organic Division played a part in establishing Organic Syntheses, Inc. and Organic Reactions, Inc. and it maintains close ties to both organizations
19.
Marquette University
–
Marquette University /mɑːrˈkɛt/ is a private, coeducational Catholic university located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the central United States. Established by the Society of Jesus as Marquette College on August 28,1881, it was founded by John Martin Henni, initially an all-male institution, Marquette became the first coed Catholic university in the world in 1909, when it began admitting its first female students. Marquette is one of 28 member institutions of the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities, the university is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools and currently has a student body of about 12,000. Marquette is one of the largest Jesuit universities in the United States, the university also administers classes in suburbs around the Milwaukee area and in Washington, DC. While most students are pursuing degrees, the university has over 50 doctoral. The universitys varsity teams, known as the Golden Eagles, are members of the Big East Conference. In 2014, U. S. News & World Report ranked Marquette 75th among national universities, forbes ranked Marquette 87th among American research universities in 2013. Marquette University was founded 136 years ago on August 28,1881 as Marquette College by John Martin Henni, with funding from Belgian businessman Guillaume Joseph DeBuey, the university was named after 17th-century missionary and explorer Father Jacques Marquette. The highest priority of the newly established college was to provide an affordable Catholic education to the areas emerging German immigrant population, the first five graduates of Marquette College received their bachelor of arts degrees in 1887. Between 1891 and 1906, the college employed one full-time lay professor, by 1906, Marquette had awarded 186 students the bachelor of arts,38 the Master of Arts, and one student with a bachelor of science. Marquette College officially became a university in 1907, after it affiliated with a local medical school. Johnston Hall, which now houses the universitys College of Communication, was the first building erected on the new campus grounds, Marquette University High School, formerly the preparatory department of the university, became a separate institution the same year. In 1908, Marquette opened a college and purchased two law schools, which would ultimately become the foundation of its current law program. Initially an all-male institution, Marquette University became the first coed Catholic university in the world, by 1916 its female students had increased to 375, many other Catholic institutions began adopting similar approaches in their enrollments during the 1910s and 1920s. Marquette acquired the Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1913, during the 1920s and again during the post-World War II years, Marquette rapidly expanded, opening a new library, athletics facilities, classroom buildings and residence halls. The student population increased markedly as well, met by the construction of buildings for the schools of law, business, dentistry, Marquette is credited with offering the first degree program specializing in hospital administration in the United States, and graduated the first two students in 1927. Despite the promising growth of the university, financial constraints led to the School of Medicine separating from Marquette in 1967 to become the Medical College of Wisconsin, Marquettes Golden Avalanche football team was disbanded in December 1960, and basketball became the leading spectator sport at the university. Graduate programs in the arts and sciences, for which planning had begun in the preceding decade, were officially opened in the 1970s
20.
University of Southern California
–
The University of Southern California is a private research university founded in 1880 with its main campus in Los Angeles, California. As Californias oldest private university, USC has historically educated a large number of the regions business leaders. In recent decades, the university has also leveraged its location in Los Angeles to establish relationships with research and cultural institutions throughout Asia, an engine for economic activity, USC contributes $8 billion annually to the economy of the Los Angeles metropolitan area and California. For the 2014–15 academic year, there were 18,740 students enrolled in undergraduate programs. USC also has 23,729 graduate and professional students in a number of different programs, including business, law, engineering, social work, and medicine. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the world, consistently ranking among the top 3 in external contributions, multiple academic rankings list the University of Southern California as being among the top 25 universities in the United States. With an acceptance rate of 16 percent, USC is also among the most selective academic institutions in the nation. USC maintains a tradition of innovation and entrepreneurship, with alumni having founded companies such as Lucasfilm, Myspace, Salesforce. com, Intuit, Qualcomm, Box, Tinder. As of 2014, the university has produced the fourth largest number of billionaire alumni out of all institutions in the world. USC is home to the world’s most powerful computer, which is presently housed in a super-cooled. The only other commercially available quantum computing system is operated jointly by NASA, USC was also one of the earliest nodes on ARPANET and is the birthplace of the Domain Name System. Other technologies invented at USC include DNA computing, dynamic programming, image compression, VoIP, USC sponsors a variety of intercollegiate sports and competes in the National Collegiate Athletic Association as a member of the Pac-12 Conference. Members of the teams, the Trojans, have won 102 NCAA team championships, ranking them third in the nation. Trojan athletes have won 288 medals at the Olympic games, more than any university in the United States. If USC were a country, its athletes would have received the 12th-most Olympic gold medals in history. In 1969, it joined the Association of American Universities, the University of Southern California was founded following the efforts of Judge Robert M. Hellman. The three donated 308 lots of land to establish the campus and provided the seed money for the construction of the first buildings. Originally operated in affiliation with the Methodist Church, the school mandated from the start that no student would be denied admission because of race, the university is no longer affiliated with any church, having severed formal ties in 1952
21.
Royal Society of Chemistry
–
The Royal Society of Chemistry is a learned society in the United Kingdom with the goal of advancing the chemical sciences. At its inception, the Society had a membership of 34,000 in the UK. The headquarters of the Society are at Burlington House, Piccadilly and it also has offices in Thomas Graham House in Cambridge where RSC Publishing is based. The Society has offices in the United States at the University City Science Center, Philadelphia, the organisation carries out research, publishes journals, books and databases, as well as hosting conferences, seminars and workshops. The designation FRSC is given to a group of elected Fellows of the society who have made contributions to chemistry. The names of Fellows are published each year in The Times, Honorary Fellowship of the Society is awarded for distinguished service in the field of chemistry. The rim of the wheel is gold, and the spokes are of non-tarnishable metals. The current president is Sir John Holman, AMRSC, Associate Member, Royal Society of Chemistry The entry level for RSC membership, AMRSC is awarded to graduates in the chemical sciences. HonFRSC, Honorary Fellow of the Society Honorary Fellowship is awarded for distinguished service in the field of chemistry, CChem, Chartered Chemist The award of CChem is considered separately from admission to a category of RSC membership. Candidates need to be MRSC or FRSC and demonstrate development of specific attributes and be in a job which requires their chemical knowledge. CSci, Chartered Scientist The RSC is a licensed by the Science Council for the registration of Chartered Scientists, eurChem, European Chemist The RSC is a member of the European Communities Chemistry Council, and can award this designation to Chartered Chemists. MChemA, Mastership in Chemical Analysis The RSC awards this postgraduate qualification which is the UK statutory qualification for practice as a Public Analyst and it requires candidates to submit a portfolio of suitable experience and to take theory papers and a one-day laboratory practical examination. The qualification GRSC was awarded from 1981 to 1995 for completion of college courses equivalent to a chemistry degree. It replaced the GRIC offered by the Royal Institute of Chemistry, the society is organised around 9 divisions, based on subject areas, and local sections, both in the United Kingdom and overseas. Divisions cover broad areas of chemistry but also many special interest groups for more specific areas. Analytical Division for analytical chemistry and promoting the aims of the Society for Analytical Chemistry. Dalton Division, named after John Dalton, for inorganic chemistry, Faraday Division, named after Michael Faraday, for physical chemistry and promoting the original aims of the Faraday Society. There are 12 subjects groups not attached to a division, there are 35 local sections covering the United Kingdom and Ireland
22.
Physics
–
Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
23.
Chemistry
–
Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
24.
Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
25.
Eugene Wigner
–
Eugene Paul E. P. Wigner, was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist, engineer and mathematician. Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into physics, along the way he performed ground-breaking work in pure mathematics, in which he authored a number of mathematical theorems. In particular, Wigners theorem is a cornerstone in the formulation of quantum mechanics. He is also known for his research into the structure of the atomic nucleus, in 1930, Princeton University recruited Wigner, along with John von Neumann, and he moved to the United States. Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first, during the Manhattan Project, he led a team whose task was to design nuclear reactors to convert uranium into weapons grade plutonium. At the time, reactors existed only on paper, and no reactor had yet gone critical, Wigner was disappointed that DuPont was given responsibility for the detailed design of the reactors, not just their construction. In later life, he became more philosophical, and published The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, Wigner Jenő Pál was born in Budapest, Austria-Hungary on November 17,1902, to middle class Jewish parents, Elisabeth and Anthony Wigner, a leather tanner. He had a sister, Bertha, known as Biri, and a younger sister Margit, known as Manci. He was home schooled by a teacher until the age of 9. During this period, Wigner developed an interest in mathematical problems, at the age of 11, Wigner contracted what his doctors believed to be tuberculosis. His parents sent him to live for six weeks in a sanatorium in the Austrian mountains, Wigners family was Jewish, but not religiously observant, and his Bar Mitzvah was a secular one. From 1915 through 1919, he studied at the grammar school called Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium. Religious education was compulsory, and he attended classes in Judaism taught by a rabbi, a fellow student was János von Neumann, who was a year behind Wigner. They both benefited from the instruction of the mathematics teacher László Rátz. In 1919, to escape the Béla Kun communist regime, the Wigner family briefly fled to Austria, partly as a reaction to the prominence of Jews in the Kun regime, the family converted to Lutheranism. Wigner explained later in his life that his decision to convert to Lutheranism was not at heart a religious decision. On religious views, Wigner was an atheist, after graduating from the secondary school in 1920, Wigner enrolled at the Budapest University of Technical Sciences, known as the Műegyetem. He was not happy with the courses on offer, and in 1921 enrolled at the Technische Hochschule Berlin and he also attended the Wednesday afternoon colloquia of the German Physical Society
26.
Henry Eyring (chemist)
–
Henry Eyring was a Mexican-born American theoretical chemist whose primary contribution was in the study of chemical reaction rates and intermediates. A prolific writer, he authored more than 600 scientific articles, ten books. Several other chemists later received the Nobel Prize for work based on it, sterling M. McMurrin believed Eyring should have received the Nobel Prize but was not awarded it because of his religion. Eyring was elected president of the American Chemical Society in 1963, Eyring, a third-generation Mormon, was reared on a cattle ranch in Colonia Juárez, Chihuahua, a Mormon colony, for the first 11 years of his life. In July 1912, the Eyrings and about 4,200 other immigrants were driven out of Mexico by violent insurgents during the Mexican Revolution and moved to El Paso, Texas. After living in El Paso for approximately one year, the Eyrings relocated to Pima, Arizona and he also studied at Gila Academy in Thatcher, Arizona, now Eastern Arizona College. By 1919, Eyring had received a fellowship to the University of Arizona, where he received degrees in mining engineering, metallurgy. After a review of his dissertation, Princeton University recruited Eyring as an instructor in 1931 and he would continue his work at Princeton until 1946 when he was offered a position as dean of the graduate school at the University of Utah. The chemistry building on the University of Utah campus is now named in his honor and she was a native of Granger, Utah, who had a degree from the University of Utah and served as head of the physical education department there. She met Eyring while pursuing a doctorate at the University of Wisconsin, the oldest, Edward M. Ted Eyring is an emeritus professor of chemistry at the University of Utah. Eyring is an authority of the LDS Church. Eyring is an education administrator for the State of Utah. His wife, Mildred, died June 25,1969, in Salt Lake City, on August 13,1971, he married Winifred Brennan in the Salt Lake City temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Eyring was a member of the LDS Church throughout his life and his views of science and religion were captured in this quote, Is there any conflict between science and religion. There is no conflict in the mind of God, but often there is conflict in the minds of men, Eyring also feared overeager defenders of faith would discard new scientific findings because of apparent contradictions. He encouraged parents and teachers to distinguish between what they know to be true and what they think may be true, to avoid clumping them together and throwing the baby out with the bath. As a member of the LDS Church, Eyring served as a president, district president, and, for over twenty years. Eyring is currently an apostle and member of the First Presidency of the church, volume 2 The Theory of Rate Processes in Biology and Medicine with Frank H. Johnson and Betsy Jones Stover Theory of Optical Activity with D. J
27.
Laureate
–
In English, the word laureate has come to signify eminence or association with literary awards or military glory. It is also used for winners of the Nobel Prize and the Gandhi Peace Award, in ancient Greece, the laurel was sacred to Apollo and as such sprigs of it were fashioned into a crown or wreath of honor for poets and heroes. This symbolism has been ever since. Laureate letters in old times meant the dispatches announcing a victory, the name of bacca-laureate for a bachelors degree shows a confusion with a supposed etymology from Latin bacca lauri, which, though incorrect, involves the same idea. Jonsons appointment does not seem to have been made as poet laureate. The post then became an institution, though the emoluments varied. Abolition was similarly advocated when Thomas Warton and William Wordsworth died, Wordsworth stipulated, before accepting the honor, that no formal effusions from him should be considered a necessity, but Tennyson was generally happy in his numerous poems of this class. The emoluments of the post have varied, Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, to Pye an allowance of £27 was made instead of the wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the Lord Chamberlains department, glory This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
28.
Roger Adams
–
Roger Adams was an American organic chemist. He is best known for the eponymous Adams catalyst, and his work did much to determine the composition of naturally occurring substances such as vegetable oils. Adams was born in Boston, Massachusetts and grew up in a neighborhood in South Boston. Adams was part of the prominent Adams family, and was descended from John Adamss grandfather, Adams attending Boston Latin School and Cambridge Latin High School. In 1900, the moved to Cambridge, which was closer to the two colleges. Adams entered Harvard University in 1905 and completed the requirements for a degree in three years. In his first year, he earned a John Harvard Honorary Scholarship by getting four As and his years at Harvard were undistinguished, earning high grades in chemistry and mining. After graduation from Harvard in 1909 he worked towards his Ph. D. at Radcliffe College supported by a teaching assistantship, torrey died unexpectedly in 1910, so Adams finished his Ph. D. under Charles Loring Jackson, George Shannon Forbes, and Latham Clarke. In 1912 he was initiated as a brother of Alpha Chi Sigma at Omicron Chapter at Harvard, after returning from Europe in 1913, Adams returned to Harvard and worked as a research assistant for Charles L. Jackson for $800 a year. During the next three years he taught chemistry at Harvard and Radcliffe, initiated the first elementary organic chemistry laboratory at Harvard. Several other prominent contemporaries of Adams at Harvard Graduate School were Elmer Keiser Bolton, Farrington Daniels, in 1916, Adams accepted an offer of an assistant professorship from William A. Noyes, head of the chemistry department at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He began a career at UIUC that would span 56 years, Adams succeeded Noyes as department head in 1926, and remained in that position until 1954. During this time, Adams made several well-known discoveries, Roger Adams and his students developed the so-called Adams catalyst, which is one of the most readily-prepared and active catalysts for hydrogenation reactions. The catalyst can be prepared by fusing sodium nitrate with chloroplatinic acid or ammonium chloroplatinate, working at the Noyes Laboratory, Adams and his more than 250 graduate students made many significant discoveries, Synthesis of chloralkyl esters by combining aldehydes and acyl chlorides. That aliphatic acid anhydrides effectively form ketones in the Friedel-Crafts reaction, determination of the structure of disalicylaldehyde and dehydroacetic acid. A method of synthesizing polyhydroxyanthraquinones with precisely-known stereochemistry using phthalides, determination of the structures of leprosy drugs chaulmoogric acid and hydnocarpic acid and the synthesis of their dihydro derivatives. Determination of the structure of gossypol for the cottonseed industry, isolated and identified cannabidiol from Cannabis sativa, showed its relationship to cannabinol and tetrahydrocannabinol. Studies of Senecio and Crotalaria alkaloids that opened two fields of study, pyrrolizidine and large-ring diester chemistry, at UIUC, Adams took charge of the Organic Chemical Manufactures started by his predecessor C. G
29.
Othmar Ammann
–
Othmar Hermann Ammann was a Swiss-American structural engineer whose bridge designs include the George Washington Bridge, Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, and Bayonne Bridge. He also directed the planning and construction of New York Citys Lincoln Tunnel, Othmar Ammann was born nearby Schaffhausen, Switzerland in 1879. His father was a manufacturer and his mother was a hat maker and he received his engineering education at the Polytechnikum in Zürich, Switzerland. He studied with Swiss engineer Wilhelm Ritter, in 1904, he emigrated to the United States, spending his career working mostly in New York City. In 1905 he briefly returned to Switzerland to marry Lilly Selma Wehrli, together they had 3 children- Werner, George, and Margot- before she died in 1933. In 1924, he became a citizen of the United States. He then married Karly Vogt Noetzli in 1935 in California, Ammann wrote two reports about bridge collapses, the collapse of the Quebec Bridge and the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge. It was the report that he wrote about the failure of the Quebec Bridge in 1907 that first earned him recognition in the field of design engineering. Because of this report, he was able to obtain a position working for Gustav Lindenthal on the Hell Gate Bridge, by 1925, he had been appointed bridge engineer to the Port of New York Authority. His design for a bridge over the Hudson River was accepted one developed by his mentor. Ultimately, this became the George Washington Bridge, under Ammanns direction, it was completed six months ahead of schedule for less than the original $60 million budget. Ammanns designs for the George Washington Bridge, and, later, the Bayonne Bridge, caught the attention of master builder Robert Moses, who drafted Ammann into his service. The last four of Ammanns six New York City bridges — Triborough, Bronx-Whitestone, Throgs Neck, in 1946, Ammann and Charles Whitney founded the firm Ammann & Whitney. In 1964, Ammann opened the Verrazano Narrows Bridge in New York, that had the worlds longest suspended span of 4,260 feet, the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge is currently the eleventh-longest span in the world and longest in the Western Hemisphere. Ammann also assisted in the building of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Othmar Ammann designed more than half of the eleven bridges that connect New York City to the rest of the United States. His talent and ingenuity helped him create the two longest suspension bridges of his time, Ammann was known for being able to create bridges that were light and inexpensive, yet they were still simple and beautiful. He was able to do this by using the deflection theory and he believed that the weight per foot of the span and the cables would provide enough stiffness so that the bridge would not need any stiffening trusses. This made him popular during the era when being able to reduce the cost was crucial
30.
Theodosius Dobzhansky
–
Dobzhansky was born in Ukraine, then part of the Russian Empire, and became an immigrant to the United States in 1927, aged 27 years old. His 1937 work Genetics and the Origin of Species became an influence on the synthesis and was awarded the US National Medal of Science in 1964. Dobzhansky was born on January 25,1900 in Nemyriv, Russian Empire, currently Ukraine and his father, Grigory Dobzhansky, was a mathematics teacher, and his mother was Sophia Voinarsky. In 1910 the family moved to Kiev, Russian Empire, at high school, Dobzhansky collected butterflies and decided to become a biologist. In 1915, he met Victor Luchnik who convinced him to specialize in beetles instead, Dobzhansky attended the Kiev State University between 1917 and 1921, where he then studied until 1924. He then moved to Saint Petersburg, Russia, to study under Yuri Filipchenko, on August 8,1924, Dobzhansky married geneticist Natalia Natasha Sivertzeva who was working with I. I. The Dobzhanskys had one daughter, Sophie, who married the U. S. archaeologist and anthropologist Michael D. Coe. Before moving to the USA, Dobzhansky published 35 scientific works on entomology, genetics, Dobzhansky immigrated to the United States in 1927 on a scholarship from the International Education Board of the Rockefeller Foundation to work and study in the United States. Arriving in New York City on December 27, he worked with Thomas Hunt Morgan at Columbia University and he followed Morgan to the California Institute of Technology from 1930 to 1940. On the basis of his experiments, he articulated the idea that reproductive isolation can be caused by differences in presence of microbial symbionts between populations, Dobzhanskys work was instrumental in spreading the idea that it is through mutations in genes that natural selection takes place. Also in 1937, he became a citizen of the United States. During this time, he had a public falling out with one of his Drosophila collaborators, Alfred Sturtevant. In 1941, Dobzhansky was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences and he returned to Columbia University from 1940 to 1962. He was one of the signatories of the 1950 UNESCO statement The Race Question and he then moved to the Rockefeller Institute until his retirement in 1971. In 1972 he was elected the first president of the BGA, and was recognised by the society for his role in behavior genetics, Dobzhansky was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1965. In 1970, he published Genetics of the evolutionary process, Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ashley Montagu debated the use and validity of the term “race” over a period of many years without reaching an agreement, and the “debate” has continued to the present day. Montagu argued that “race” was so laden with toxic associations that it was a word best eliminated from science completely and he argued that science should not give into the misuses to which it had been subjected. This was done in hopes that its foundation in population genetics would undermine the deeply ingrained social prejudices associated with “race”, Dobzhansky had serious confidence that mixing races created no serious medical issues
31.
Neal E. Miller
–
Neal Elgar Miller was an American experimental psychologist. Described as a man with a variety of interests, including physics, biology and writing. Millers career in psychology started with research on fear as a learned drive, work in behavioral medicine led him to his most notable work on biofeedback. Over his lifetime he lectured at Yale University, Rockefeller University, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Miller as the eighth most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Miller was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1909 and he grew up in the Pacific Northwest. His father, Irving Miller, worked at Western Washington University as Chair of the Department of Education and his fathers position in Neal Millers words, may have had something to do with his interest in psychology. Originally having a curiosity for science, Miller entered the University of Washington and his senior year he decided that psychology would allow him to pursue his wide variety of interests. He graduated from the University of Washington with a B. S. afterwards he studied at Stanford University where he received his M. S. and an interest in psychology of personality. At Stanford he accompanied his professor, Walter Miles, to the Institute of Human Relations at Yale University as a research assistant, There he was encouraged by another professor to further study psychoanalysis. He spent a total of 30 years at Yale University, and in 1950 he was appointed professor at Yale, in 1966 he began teaching at Rockefeller University and afterwards spent the early 1970s teaching at Cornell University Medical College. In 1985 he returned to Yale as a research associate, Millers early work focused on experimenting with Freudian ideas on behavior in real-life situations. His most notable topic was fear, Miller came to the conclusion that fear could be learned through conditioning. Miller then decided to extend his research to other drives, such as hunger. His unique ideas and experimental techniques to study these autonomic drives resulted in findings that changed ideas about motivations, Miller was also one of the founding fathers behind the idea of biofeedback. Today, many of his ideas have been expanded and added to, Miller was doing experimentation on conditioning and rats when he discovered biofeedback. Neal Miller, along with John Dollard and O. Hobart Mowrer, helped to integrate behavioral and they were able to translate psychological analytic concepts into behavioral terms that would be more easily understood. Specifically, they focused on the stimulus-response theory and these three men also recognized Sigmund Freuds understanding of anxiety as a signal of danger and that some things in Freuds work could be altered to fix this. Miller, Dollard and Mowrer believed that a person who was relieved of high anxiety levels would experience what is called anxiety relief, together with fellow psychologist O. Hobart Mowrer, Miller gives his name to the Miller-Mowrer Shuttlebox apparatus
32.
Herbert A. Simon
–
Simon received many top-level honors in life, including the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978 and the Turing Award in 1975. He also received degrees from various universities, such as from Harvard University. As of 2016, Simon was the most cited person in Artificial Intelligence, with almost a thousand highly cited publications, he was one of the most influential social scientists of the twentieth century. Herbert Alexander Simon was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on June 15,1916 and his father, Arthur Simon, was an electrical engineer who had come to the United States from Germany in 1903 after earning his engineering degree from the Technische Hochschule of Darmstadt. An inventor who was granted several patents, his father also was an independent patent attorney. His mother, Edna Marguerite Merkel, was an accomplished pianist whose ancestors had come from Prague and his European ancestors had been piano makers, goldsmiths, and vintners. Simons father was Jewish and his mother came from a family with Jewish, Lutheran, Simon was educated as a child in the public school system in Milwaukee where he developed an interest in science. He found schoolwork to be interesting and easy, through his uncle’s books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered the social sciences. Among his earliest influences, Simon has cited Richard Ely’s economics textbook, Norman Angell’s The Great Illusion, at that time, Simon argued from conviction, rather than cussedness in favor of Georges controversial single tax on land rents. In 1933, Simon entered the University of Chicago, and following those early influences, he studied the social sciences and he was interested in biology, but chose not to study it because of his color-blindness and awkwardness in the laboratory. He chose instead to focus on science and economics. His most important mentor at the University was Henry Schultz who was an econometrician, eventually his studies led him to the field of organizational decision-making, which would become the subject of his doctoral dissertation. After graduating with his degree, Simon obtained a research assistantship in municipal administration which turned into a directorship at the University of California. From 1942 to 1949, Simon was a professor of political science, there, he began participating in the seminars held by the staff of the Cowles Commission who at that time included Trygve Haavelmo, Jacob Marschak, and Tjalling Koopmans. He thus began a more in-depth study of economics in the area of institutionalism, Marschak brought Simon in to assist in the study he was currently undertaking with Sam Schurr of the “prospective economic effects of atomic energy”. From 1949 to 2001, Simon was a faculty at Carnegie Mellon, in 1949, Simon became a professor of administration and chairman of the Department of Industrial Management at Carnegie Tech. Simon later also taught psychology and computer science in the same university, Simon married Dorothea Pye in 1938. Their marriage lasted 63 years until his death from a cancerous tumor, in January 2001, Simon underwent surgery at UPMC Presbyterian to remove a cancerous tumor in his abdomen
33.
George Stigler
–
George Joseph Stigler was a U. S. economist, the 1982 laureate in Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences and a key leader of the Chicago School of Economics. Stigler was born in Seattle, Washington, the son of Elsie Elizabeth and he graduated from the University of Washington in 1931 with a B. A and then spent a year at Northwestern University from which he obtained his M. B. A in 1932. It was during his studies at Northwestern that Stigler developed an interest in economics and his teaching experience began in 1936 at Iowa State College, where he taught until 1938. He spent much of World War II at Columbia University, performing mathematical and statistical research for the Manhattan Project and he then spent one year at Brown University. He served on the Columbia faculty from 1947 to 1958, while at Chicago, he was greatly influenced by Frank Knight, his dissertation supervisor. Stiglers influences included Jacob Viner and Henry Simons, as well as students W. Allen Wallis and this theory is a component of the public choice field of economics but is also deeply opposed by public choice scholars belonging to the Virginia School such as Charles Rowley. He also carried out research in the history of economic thought. Rowley and other public choice thinkers oppose what they see as nihilistic thinking in Stiglers view that policy advice is irrelevant because political markets are efficient, Stiglers most important contribution to economics was disseminated in his landmark article titled The Economics of Information. According to Friedman, Stigler essentially created a new area of study for economists, in this article, Stigler stressed the importance of information by writing, One should hardly have to tell academicians that information is a valuable resource, knowledge is power. And yet it occupies a slum dwelling in the town of economics and his 1962 article Information in the Labor Market developed the theory of search unemployment. In 1963 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association and he was known for his sharp sense of humor, and wrote a number of spoof essays. Another essay, on Truth in Teaching, described the consequences of a set of decisions that held universities legally responsible for the consequences of teaching errors. The Stigler diet was named after him, Stigler wrote numerous articles on the history of economics, published in the leading journals and republished 14 of them in 1965. However, economist Deirdre McCloskey later referred to Stigler as among the worst historians of economic thought in the history of the discipline who read a lot but was defective in paying attention. Stigler was a member of the Mont Pelerin Society, and was president from 1976 to 1978. He received National Medal of Science in 1987, production and Distribution Theories, The Formative Period. “The Economics of Information, ” Journal of Political Economy,69, Journal of Political Economy,70, Part 2, pp. 94–105. Chicago, University of Chicago Graduate School of Business, a Dialogue on the Proper Economic Role of the State
34.
Milton Friedman
–
Friedmans challenges to what he later called naive Keynesian theory began with his 1950s reinterpretation of the consumption function. In the 1960s, he became the main advocate opposing Keynesian government policies and he theorized that there existed a natural rate of unemployment, and argued that employment above this rate would cause inflation to accelerate. He argued that the Phillips curve was, in the run, vertical at the natural rate. Friedman promoted an alternative macroeconomic viewpoint known as monetarism, and argued that a steady and his ideas concerning monetary policy, taxation, privatization and deregulation influenced government policies, especially during the 1980s. His monetary theory influenced the Federal Reserves response to the financial crisis of 2007–08. Friedman was an advisor to Republican U. S. President Ronald Reagan and his political philosophy extolled the virtues of a free market economic system with minimal intervention. He once stated that his role in eliminating U. S. conscription was his proudest accomplishment and his support for school choice led him to found the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, later renamed EdChoice. His books and essays have had influence, including in former communist states. Friedman was born in Brooklyn, New York on July 31,1912 and his parents, Sára Ethel and Jenő Saul Friedman, were Jewish immigrants from Beregszász in Carpathian Ruthenia, Kingdom of Hungary. They both worked as dry goods merchants, shortly after Miltons birth, the family relocated to Rahway, New Jersey. In his early teens, Friedman was injured in a car accident, a talented student, Friedman graduated from Rahway High School in 1928, just before his 16th birthday. In 1932, Friedman graduated from Rutgers University, where he specialized in mathematics and economics, during his time at Rutgers, Friedman became influenced by two economics professors, Arthur F. Burns and Homer Jones, who convinced him that modern economics could help end the Great Depression. After graduating from Rutgers, Friedman was offered two scholarships to do graduate work—one in mathematics at Brown University and the other in economics at the University of Chicago, Friedman chose the latter, thus earning a Master of Arts degree in 1933. He was strongly influenced by Jacob Viner, Frank Knight, and it was at Chicago that Friedman met his future wife, economist Rose Director. During the 1933–1934 academic year he had a fellowship at Columbia University and he was back in Chicago for the 1934–1935 academic year, working as a research assistant for Henry Schultz, who was then working on Theory and Measurement of Demand. That year, Friedman formed what would prove to be lifelong friendships with George Stigler, foreshadowing his later ideas, he believed price controls interfered with an essential signaling mechanism to help resources be used where they were most valued. During 1935, he work for the National Resources Committee. Ideas from this later became a part of his Theory of the Consumption Function
35.
Leonid Hurwicz
–
Leonid Leo Hurwicz was a Polish economist and mathematician active in the United States. He originated incentive compatibility and mechanism design, which show how desired outcomes are achieved in economics, social science, interactions of individuals and institutions, markets and trade are analyzed and understood today using the models Hurwicz developed. To date, Leonid Hurwicz is the oldest Nobel Laureate, having received the prize at the age of 90, Hurwicz was Regents Professor of Economics at the University of Minnesota. He was among the first economists to recognize the value of theory and was a pioneer in its application. Hurwicz shared the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Eric Maskin, Hurwicz was born in Moscow, Russia, to a family of Polish Jews a few months before the October Revolution. Soon after Leonids birth, the returned to Warsaw. Hurwicz and his family experienced persecution by both the Bolsheviks and Nazis, as he became a refugee when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. His parents and brother fled Warsaw, only to be arrested and his family eventually joined him there. Hurwicz hired Evelyn Jensen, who grew up on a Wisconsin farm and was, at the time and they married on July 19,1944 and later lived at a number of locations in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the last being on Edmund Boulevard near W. River Parkway S. They had four children, Sarah, Michael, Ruth and Maxim and his interests included linguistics, archaeology, biochemistry and music. His activities outside the field of economics included research in meteorology and he helped design the walking subcaucus method of allocating delegates among competing groups, which is still used today by political parties. He remained an active Democrat, even attending Precinct Caucus in February 2008 and he was hospitalized in mid-June 2008, suffering from renal failure. He died a week later in Minneapolis, encouraged by his father to study law, in 1938 Hurwicz received his LL. M. degree from the University of Warsaw, where he discovered his future vocation in economics class. He then studied at the London School of Economics with Nicholas Kaldor, in 1939 he moved to Geneva where he studied at the Graduate Institute of International Studies and attended the seminar of Ludwig von Mises. After moving to the United States he continued his studies at Harvard University, Hurwicz had no degree in economics. In 2007 he said, Whatever economics I learned I learned by listening and learning, in 1941 Hurwicz was a research assistant to Paul Samuelson at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and to Oskar Lange at the University of Chicago. At Illinois Institute of Technology during the war, Hurwicz taught electronics to the U. S. Army Signal Corps. From 1942 to 1944, at the University of Chicago, he was a member of the faculty of the Institute of Meteorology and taught statistics in the Department of Economics
36.
George Armitage Miller
–
George Armitage Miller was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of the cognitive psychology field. He also contributed to the birth of psycholinguistics and cognitive science in general, Miller wrote several books and directed the development of WordNet, an online word-linkage database usable by computer programs. This paper is frequently cited in both psychology and the wider culture and he also won awards, such as the National Medal of Science. Miller started his education focusing on speech and language and published papers on these topics and he started his career at a time when the reigning theory in psychology was behaviorism, which eschewed any attempt to study mental processes and focused only on observable behavior. Working mostly at Harvard University, MIT and Princeton University, Miller introduced experimental techniques to study the psychology of mental processes. He went on to be one of the founders of psycholinguistics and was one of the key figures in founding the broader new field of cognitive science. He collaborated and co-authored work with figures in cognitive science and psycholinguistics. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Miller as the 20th most cited psychologist of that era. Miller was born on February 3,1920, in Charleston, West Virginia, the son of an executive at a company, George E. Miller. He grew up only his mother during the Great Depression, attended public school. He relocated with his mother and stepfather to Washington D. C. and was at George Washington University for a year and his family practiced Christian Science, which required turning to prayer, rather than medical science, for healing. After his stepfather was transferred to Birmingham, Alabama, Miller transferred to the University of Alabama and he received his bachelors degree in history and speech in 1940, and a masters in speech in 1941 from the University of Alabama. He had taken courses in phonetics, voice science, and speech pathology, membership in the Drama club fostered his interest in courses in the Speech Department. He was also influenced by Professor Donald Ramsdell, who introduced him both to psychology, and, indirectly through a seminar, to his future wife Katherine James and they married on November 29,1939. He married Margaret Ferguson Skutch Page in 2008, Miller taught the course Introduction to Psychology at Alabama for two years. He enrolled in the Ph. D. program in psychology at Harvard University in 1943 and his doctorate thesis, The Optimal Design of Jamming Signals, was classified top secret by the US Army. After receiving his doctorate, Miller stayed as a fellow at Harvard, to continue his research on speech. He was appointed assistant professor of psychology in 1948, the course he developed on language and communication would eventually lead to his first major book, Language and communication
37.
Eleanor J. Gibson
–
Eleanor Jack Gibson was an American psychologist who focused on reading development and perceptual learning in infants and toddlers. Perhaps her most well-known contribution to psychology was the visual cliff and this led to a new understanding of perceptual development in infants. The environment provides information for the system to develop with increased stimuli. Infants develop from adapting to the environment, Gibson was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1971 and as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1977. In 1992 she was awarded the National Medal of Science, which is the highest scientific honor in the United States, Eleanor J. Gibson was born in Peoria, Illinois on December 7,1910. While much of her life is unknown, Gibson received her B. A. degree in 1931. While studying at Smith College Gibson met James J. Gibson, in 1938, she completed her Ph. D. from Yale University. Once completed, Gibson returned to Smith College and began teaching, in 1941 Gibsons husband was drafted by the Air Force to make perceptual tests for some of their pilots so Gibson, her husband and their two children moved to Texas and then on to California. Throughout this time Gibson was a homemaker but returned to work at Smith College for a few years before she and her left for Cornell University. While at Cornell she created the Visual Cliff alongside Richard Walk, Gibson died on December 30,2002. 1960s-1970s, Gibson, alongside her husband, created the Gibsonian ecological theory of development,1960, Gibson created the Visual cliff. 1971, Gibson was elected to the National Academy of Sciences,1972, Gibson was named Susan Linn Sage Professor of Psychology, which made her become the first woman at Cornell to get an endowed professorship. 1977, Gibson was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts,1992, Gibson was awarded the National Medal of Science, the highest scientific honor in the United States. Gibson believed that a different new view of perceptual learning was needed. Gibson worked with her husband James on a joint study to explore the perception of nonsense scribbles to clarify this concept of perceptual learning, the participants were tasked to identify one standard scribble from a set of similar scribbles varying in many different dimensions. At first the standard scribble was imperceptible from the other scribbles, the participants were tested until the standard was identified correctly without any correction given. The Gibsons then stated that the stimulus held all the information for perception rather than the participants learning to perceive through an associative process. This resulted in perceptual learning as being redefined as a change in what was perceived by an observer became more sensitive to the different aspects of a stimulus
38.
Robert K. Merton
–
Robert King Merton was an American sociologist. He spent most of his teaching at Columbia University, where he attained the rank of University Professor. In 1994 he was awarded the National Medal of Science for his contributions to the field and he is considered a founding father of modern sociology. Merton developed notable concepts such as unintended consequences, the group, and role strain. Mertons work on the model first appeared in a study on the socialization of medical students at Columbia University. The term grew from his theory of the group, the group to which individuals compare themselves. Social roles were central to Mertons theory of social groups, Merton emphasized that, rather than a person assuming one role and one status, they have a status set in the social structure that has, attached to it, a whole set of expected behaviors. Robert K. Merton was born on 4 July 1910 in Philadelphia as Meyer Robert Schkolnick into a family of Yiddish-speaking Russian Jews who had immigrated to the United States in 1904 and his mother was Ida Rasovskaya, an unsynagogued socialist who had freethinking radical sympathies. His father was Aaron Schkolnickoff, a tailor who had officially registered at his United States port of entry as Harrie Skolnick. Mertons family lived in straitened circumstances after his father’s uninsured dairy-product shop in South Philadelphia burned down, the father later became a carpenter’s assistant to support the family. Even though Merton grew up poor, however, he believed that he had been afforded many opportunities. He adopted the name Robert K. Merton initially as a name for his magic performances. Young Merton developed a strong interest in magic, heavily influenced by his sister’s boyfriend, for his magic acts he initially chose the stage name “Merlin”, but he eventually settled on the surname “Merton” in order to further Americanize his immigrant-family name. He picked the given name Robert in honor of the 19th-century French magician Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, thus his stage name became Robert Merton, and he kept it as his personal name on receiving a scholarship to Temple University. He started his career under the guidance of George E. Simpson at Philadelphias Temple University. Mertons work as Simpsons research assistant on a project dealing with race, under Simpsons leadership, Merton attended an American Sociological Association annual meeting where he met Pitrim A. Sorokin, the founding chair of the Harvard University Sociology Department. Merton applied to Harvard and went to work as an assistant to Sorokin. Many had doubted that Merton would be accepted into Harvard after graduating from Temple, after completing these, Merton went on to graduate from Harvard with an M. A. and Ph. D. in sociology
39.
Paul Samuelson
–
Paul Anthony Samuelson was an American economist and the first American to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The Swedish Royal Academies stated, when awarding the prize, that he has more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory. Economic historian Randall E. Parker calls him the Father of Modern Economics, Samuelson was likely the most influential economist of the later 20th century. Samuelson considered Mathematics to be the language for economists and contributed significantly to the mathematical foundations of economics with his book Foundations of Economic Analysis. He was author of the economics textbook of all time, Economics, An Introductory Analysis. He entered the University of Chicago at age 16, during the depths of the Great Depression, after graduating, he became an assistant professor of economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology when he was 25 years of age and a full professor at age 32. In 1966, he was named Institute Professor, MITs highest faculty honor, merton, Joseph E. Stiglitz, and Paul Krugman, all of whom went on to win Nobel Prizes. He served as an advisor to Presidents John F. Kennedy, johnson, and was a consultant to the United States Treasury, the Bureau of the Budget and the Presidents Council of Economic Advisers. By contrast Friedman represented the monetarist perspective, Samuelson died on December 13,2009, at the age of 94. Samuelson was born in Gary, Indiana, on May 15,1915, to Frank Samuelson, a pharmacist, and the former Ella Lipton. His family, he said, was made up of upwardly mobile Jewish immigrants from Poland who had prospered considerably in World War I, because Gary was a brand new steel town when my family went there. In 1923 Samuelson moved to Chicago, he graduated from Hyde Park High School, he studied at the University of Chicago. He said he was born as an economist, at 8. 00am on January 2,1932, the lecture mentioned was on the British economist Thomas Malthus, who most famously studied population growth and its effects. He felt there was a dissonance between neoclassical economics and the way the system seemed to behave, and he said Henry Simons and he then completed his Master of Arts degree in 1936, and his Doctor of Philosophy in 1941 at Harvard University. As a graduate student at Harvard, Samuelson studied economics under Joseph Schumpeter, Wassily Leontief, Gottfried Haberler, Samuelson moved to MIT as an assistant professor in 1940 and remained there until his death. Samuelson comes from a family of well-known economists, including brother Robert Summers, sister-in-law Anita Summers, brother-in-law Kenneth Arrow and nephew Larry Summers. During his seven decades as an economist, Samuelsons professional positions included, Assistant Professor of Economics at M. I. T,1940, member of the Radiation Laboratory 1944–45. Professor of International Economic Relations at the Fletcher School of Law, guggenheim Fellowship from 1948–49 Professor of Economics at MIT beginning in 1947 and Institute Professor beginning in 1962
