1.
Gardener
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A gardener is someone who practices gardening, either professionally or as a hobby. The garden designer is someone who will design the garden, the term gardener is also used to describe garden designers and landscape gardeners, who are involved chiefly in the design of gardens, rather than the practical aspects of horticulture. Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, vita Sackville-West, Gertrude Jekyll and William Robinson were garden designers as well as gardeners. Garden design is the creation of a plan for the construction of a garden, the design can include different themes such as perennial, butterfly, wildlife, Japanese, water, tropical, or shade gardens. In 18th-century japan, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such as at Versailles, France, or Stowe, Professional landscape designers are certified by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers. The designer also provides directions and supervision during construction, and the management of establishment, the gardener is the person who has the skill to maintain the gardens design. Weeds tend to thrive at the expense of the more refined edible or ornamental plants, gardeners need to control weeds using physical or chemical methods to stop weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to domesticated plants. Early activities, such as starting young plants from seeds for later transplantation, are performed in early spring
2.
The Crystal Palace
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The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and plate-glass structure originally built in Hyde Park, London, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in its 990, designed by Joseph Paxton, the Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet long, with an interior height of 128 feet. It stood there from 1854 until its destruction by fire in 1936, Crystal Palace F. C. were founded at the site in 1905 and played at the Cup Final venue in their early years. The park still contains Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkinss Crystal Palace Dinosaurs which date back to 1854, the Commission in charge of mounting the Great Exhibition was established in January 1850, and it was decided at the outset that the entire project would be funded by public subscription. Within three weeks, the committee had received some 245 entries, including 38 international submissions from Australia, turner was furious at the rejection, and reportedly badgered the commissioners for months afterwards, seeking compensation, but at an estimated £300,000, his design was too expensive. Opponents of the scheme lobbied strenuously against the use of Hyde Park, the most outspoken critic was arch-conservative Col. At this point renowned gardener Joseph Paxton became interested in the project, the lily and its house led directly to Paxtons design for the Crystal Palace and he later cited the huge ribbed floating leaves as a key inspiration. Paxton left his 9 June 1850 meeting with Henry Cole fired with enthusiasm and he immediately went to Hyde Park, where he walked the site earmarked for the Exhibition. Two days later, on 11 June, while attending a meeting of the Midland Railway, Paxton made his original concept drawing. In the event, Paxtons design fulfilled and surpassed all the requirements, would cover roughly twenty-five times the ground area of its progenitor. He was exultant, but now had less than eight months to finalize his plans, manufacture the parts and erect the building in time for the Exhibitions opening, which was scheduled for 1 May 1851. Paxton was able to design and build the largest glass structure yet created, from scratch, in less than a year, Paxtons modular, hierarchical design reflected his practical brilliance as a designer and problem-solver. These were the largest available at the time, measuring 10 inches wide by 49 inches long, the original Hyde Park building was essentially a vast, flat-roofed rectangular hall. A huge open gallery ran along the axis, with wings extending down either side. The main exhibition space was two stories high, with the upper floor stepped in from the boundary. Most of the building had a roof, except for the central transept. Both the flat-profile sections and the transept roof were constructed using the key element of Paxtons design - his patented ridge-and-furrow roofing system. The basic roofing unit, in essence, took the form of a triangular prism
3.
Cavendish banana
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A Cavendish banana is the fruit of a banana cultivar belonging to the Cavendish subgroup of the AAA cultivar group. The same term is used to describe the plants on which the bananas grow. They include commercially important cultivars like Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain, since the 1950s, these cultivars have been the most internationally traded bananas, replacing the Gros Michel banana after crops of the latter were devastated by Panama disease. Cavendish bananas were named after William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, though they were not the first known banana specimens in Europe, in around 1834 Cavendish received a shipment of bananas courtesy of the chaplain of Alton Towers. His gardener, Sir Joseph Paxton cultivated them in the greenhouses of Chatsworth House, the plants were botanically described by Paxton as Musa cavendishii, after the Duke. The Chatsworth bananas were shipped off to places in the Pacific around the 1850s. African bananas in turn were introduced from Southeast Asia into Madagascar by early Austronesian sailors, in 1888, bananas from the Canary Islands were imported into England by Thomas Fyffe. These bananas are now known to belong the Dwarf Cavendish cultivar, Cavendish bananas entered mass commercial production in 1903 but did not gain prominence until later when Panama disease attacked the dominant Gros Michel variety in the 1950s. Because they were grown in the same soils as previously affected Gros Michel plants. Contrary to this notion, in mid-2008, reports from Sumatra, Cavendish bananas are a subgroup of the triploid cultivars of Musa acuminata. Cavendish cultivars are distinguished by the height of the plant and features of the fruits, the most important clones for fruit production include, Dwarf Cavendish, Grande Naine, Lacatan, Poyo, Valéry, and Williams under one system of cultivar classification. Another classification includes, Double, Dwarf Cavendish, Extra Dwarf Cavendish, Grande Naine, Pisang Masak Hijau, Grande Naine is the most important clone in international trade, while Dwarf Cavendish is the most widely grown clone. Grande Naine is also known as Chiquita banana, Cavendish bananas accounted for 47% of global banana production between 1998 and 2000, and the vast majority of bananas entering international trade. The fruits of the Cavendish bananas are eaten raw, used in baking, fruit salads, fruit compotes, the outer skin is partially green when sold in food markets, and turns yellow when it ripens. As it ripens the starches turn to making a sweeter fruit. When it reaches its final stage, brown/black sugar spots develop, when overripe, the skin turns black and the flesh becomes mushy. Bananas ripen naturally until they are picked, once picked they no longer turn yellow on their own, and need to be gassed with ethylene gas to start up ripening again. Bananas which are turning yellow emit ethylene, most retailers sell bananas in stages 3–6, with stage 4 being the most ideal
4.
Banana
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The banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, in contrast to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red, purple. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant, almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from two wild species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, the old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used. Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between bananas and plantains. Especially in the Americas and Europe, banana usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, by contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many kinds of banana are grown and eaten. The term banana is used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit. This can extend to members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana, pink banana. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, like the snow banana, both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant, all the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a corm. Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are mistaken for trees. Bananas grow in a variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of plants are composed of a stalk and a blade. The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath, the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, the edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart, cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions
5.
Battlesden House
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Battlesden House was a large manor house situated in parkland, Battlesden Park, close to the hamlet of Battlesden in Bedfordshire, England. A manor house was constructed in the late 16th century and was associated with the family of Lord Bathurst before he sold the estate to Sir Gregory Page in 1724, the estate was later inherited by Pages great-nephew Sir Gregory Page-Turner in 1775. The original house was demolished in 1860 and a new house was built in 1864 and this had 40 rooms and a large ballroom and cost £70,000 to build, while the surrounding parkland and lake were created by Sir Joseph Paxton. However, the owner, Sir Edward Page-Turner did not like the house, preferring to let it to a wealthy tenant before selling the estate to Francis Russell, 9th Duke of Bedford in 1885. The Duke, who owned two country houses in the county, was interested in the land rather than the building. Only the ground floor was retained, which was used as a home during the First World War. This was demolished after the war leaving just the Garden House, which is today a private dwelling. According to legend, the house was haunted by the ghost of a steward, who would recite the rhyme, Milk and water I sold ever, Weight and measure I gave never And I shant rest, never, never
6.
Woburn, Bedfordshire
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Woburn is a village and civil parish in Bedfordshire, England. It is situated about 5 miles southeast of the centre of Milton Keynes, at the 2011 census, it had a population of 933. Woburn was first recorded as a hamlet in 969 and is found in the Domesday Book of 1086, the village may have been called Woburne Chapell in Medieval times, in order to distinguish it from the abbey. Woburn has been burned down and rebuilt three times, a mediaeval chimney fire spread due to the prevalence of thatched roofs and closely built houses. Then, during the English Civil War, the Cavaliers burned down much of the village and in 1724 a third fire destroyed much of the town, during the nineteenth century, Woburn was an important staging post on a nationwide coaching network. The town had 27 inns and the first 24-hour post office outside London, however, with Woburn Sands rather than Woburn being selected for a railway station, Woburns importance attached to its strategic location decreased. The population fell from 2,100 in 1851 to 700 about a century later, under the 8th Duke of Bedford, a new parish church was completed in Woburn in 1868. It was equipped with a crypt beneath, which was intended as the burial place of the Dukes of Bedford. In the end the dukes continued to use the ancient mausoleum at St Michaels, Chenies, the hatch through which coffins would have been lowered into the crypt is still visible. Woburn is a village and tourist attraction. Aside from Woburn Abbey and Woburn Safari Park, tourists visit Woburns Georgian centre, Woburn hosts a popular Village Festival around the last weekend in August every year attracting thousands of visitors. Facilities for residents include an outdoor swimming pool open in the summer months. Woburn also has a monthly Farmers Market on the third Sunday of the month organised by the Village Traders, tiger Moth airplane rallies continue at Woburn Abbey with the 2013 rally seeing over 80 vintage and classic aircraft in the air above the stately home. Woburn Abbey has also played host to many live music concerts including Dire Straits, Elton John. In July 2007 the Abbey hosted the three-day Woburn Live concert featuring Classic FM Live, Van Morrison, Woburn was chosen by Center Parcs as the named location for its fifth holiday village at a cost of £250 million. The actual location is 7 miles away between Millbrook and Steppingley, Center Parcs Woburn Forest sits on an ancient wood called Millbrook Warren and it opened to guests in spring 2014. Notable people who live in Woburn include, the Duke of Bedford, and, the family of Sir Jackie Stewart, apart from the new Centerparcs, Woburn has its own lido. In addition to the walks and cycling opportunities afforded by the Estate
7.
Chatsworth House
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Chatsworth House is a stately home in Derbyshire, England. It is in the Derbyshire Dales, about 3.5 miles north-east of Bakewell and 9 miles west of Chesterfield and it is the seat of the Duke of Devonshire and has been home to the Cavendish family since 1549. Standing on the east bank of the River Derwent, Chatsworth looks across to the low hills that divide the Derwent, Chatsworth has been selected as the United Kingdoms favourite country house several times. The name Chatsworth is a corruption of Chetels-worth, meaning the Court of Chetel, Chetel was deposed after the Norman Conquest and in the Domesday Book the Manor of Chetesuorde is listed as the property of the Crown in the custody of William de Peverel. Chatsworth ceased to be an estate, until the 15th century when it was acquired by the Leche family who owned property nearby. They enclosed the first park at Chatsworth and built a house on the ground in what is now the south-eastern part of the garden. Bess began to build the new house in 1553 and she selected a site near the river, which was drained by digging a series of reservoirs, which doubled as fish ponds. Sir William died in 1557, but Bess finished the house in the 1560s and lived there with her husband, George Talbot. In 1568 Shrewsbury was entrusted with the custody of Mary, Queen of Scots and she lodged in the apartment now known as the Queen of Scots rooms, on the top floor above the great hall, which faces onto the inner courtyard. An accomplished needlewoman, Bess joined Mary at Chatsworth for extended periods in 1569,1570, Bess died in 1608 and Chatsworth was passed to her eldest son, Henry. The estate was purchased from Henry by his brother William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Devonshire, few changes were made at Chatsworth until the mid 17th century. William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire was a staunch Royalist and was expelled from the House of Lords in 1642 and he left England for the safety of the continent and his estates were sequestrated. Chatsworth was occupied by both sides during the Civil War, and the 3rd Earl did not return to the house until the restoration of the monarchy and he reconstructed the principal rooms in an attempt to make them more comfortable, but the Elizabethan house was out-dated and unsafe. This called for a rebuilding of the house, which began in 1687 and he enjoyed building and reconstructed the East Front, that included the Painted Hall and Long Gallery, followed by the rebuilding of the West Front from 1699 to 1702. The North Front was completed in 1707 just before the Duke died, the 1st Duke also had large parterre gardens designed by George London and Henry Wise, who was later appointed by Queen Anne to the post of Royal Gardner at Kensington Palace. Connoisseur of the arts the collection include paintings, Old Master drawings and prints, ancient coins and carved Greek, Palladian furniture designed by William Kent was commissioned by the 3rd Duke when he had Devonshire House in London rebuilt following a fire in 1733. Upon the sale and demolition of Devonshire House in 1924 the furniture was transferred to Chatsworth, the 4th Duke made great changes to the house and gardens. He decided the approach to the house should be from the west and had the old stables and offices as well as parts of Edensor village pulled down so they were not visible from the house
8.
William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire
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William George Spencer Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire KG, PC, styled Marquess of Hartington until 1811, was a British peer, courtier, nobleman, and Whig politician. Known as the Bachelor Duke, he was Lord Chamberlain of the Household between 1827 and 1828 and again between 1830 and 1834, the Cavendish banana is named after him. Born in Paris, France, Devonshire was the son of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire and he was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He lost both his parents while still in his youth, his mother died in 1806 and his father in 1811 when, aged 21, along with the title, he inherited eight stately homes and some 200,000 acres of land. Politically Devonshire followed in the Whig family tradition and he supported Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery and reduced factory working hours. He held office as Lord Chamberlain of the Household under George Canning, in 1827 he was sworn of the Privy Council and made a Knight of the Garter. He was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary to the Russian Empire on the coronation of Czar Nicholas I in 1826, Devonshire was also Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire between 1811 and 1858 and carried the Orb at the coronation of George IV in 1821. However, increasing deafness from an early age prevented him taking an even greater part in public life. Devonshire had a major interest in gardening and horticulture, and devoted himself sedulously to the care and nurture of his vast estates and his major projects including the wholesale rebuilding of the village of Edensor, and significant improvement to his several stately houses and their gardens. Paxton greatly expanded the gardens at Chatsworth, including the construction of a 277 foot long conservatory, Devonshire, himself a keen horticulturalist, was elected President of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1838, a position in which he served for twenty years until his death. It was this interest which led him to establish the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew as a botanic garden. The worlds most commercially exploited banana, the Cavendish, was named in his honour and he had acquired an early specimen, which he raised in his glasshouse, and this plant is the progenitor of almost all the worldwide varieties of Cavendish banana. Devonshire was also patron of The Derby Town and County Museum, in that position, he was instrumental in the creation of the Derby Museum and Art Gallery in 1836. Devonshire was a friend of the Prince Regent. Other friends included Antonio Canova and Charles Dickens, much of Devonshires private correspondence, including letters to his mistresses, was destroyed by his Victorian relatives. He intended to marry Lady Caroline Ponsonby, his cousin, but she married William Lamb, Devonshire died at Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, in January 1858, aged 67 and left an estate valued at £500,000 in his will. As he was unmarried the dukedom passed to his cousin William Cavendish and his junior title of Baron Clifford fell into abeyance between his sisters, Georgiana, Countess of Carlisle, and Harriet, Countess Granville. James Lees-Milne, The Bachelor Duke, Life of William Spencer Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, ISBN 0-7195-4920-5 Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Duke of Devonshire
9.
Chiswick House
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Chiswick House is a Palladian villa in Burlington Lane, Chiswick, west London. Arguably the finest remaining example of Neo-Palladian architecture in London, the house was designed by Lord Burlington, the house and gardens occupy 26.33 hectares, and were created mainly by architect and landscape designer William Kent, respectively. The garden is one of the earliest examples of the English landscape garden, after Williams death in 1764, the villa passed to his and Charlottes orphaned young son, William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire. Tory Prime Minister George Canning also died there, in 1827, during the 19th century the house fell into decline, and was rented out by the Cavendish family. It was used as an asylum, the Chiswick Asylum from 1892, in 1929, the 9th Duke of Devonshire sold Chiswick House to Middlesex County Council, and it became a fire station. The villa suffered damage during World War II, and in 1944 a V-2 rocket damaged one of the two wings, the wings were demolished in 1956. Today the house is a Grade I listed building, and is maintained by English Heritage, the original Chiswick House was a Jacobean house owned by Sir Edward Wardour, and possibly built by his father. It is dated c.1610 in a late 17th century engraving of the Chiswick House estate by Jan Kip and Leonard Knyff, Wardour sold the house to Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset in 1624. The house was large, in the 1664 Hearth Tax documents it is recorded as having 33 fireplaces. The house was at the end of the Royalist line in the Battle of Turnham Green. The house was purchased by Charles Boyle, 3rd Viscount Dungarvan in 1682, the Jacobean house was used by the Boyle family as a summer retreat from their central London home, Burlington House. After a fire in 1725, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, then head of the family, during his trip to Italy in 1719, Burlington had acquired a passion for Palladian architecture. He had not closely inspected Roman ruins or made detailed drawings on the sites in Italy, he relied on Palladio, another source of his inspiration were drawings he collected, including those of Palladio himself, which had belonged to Inigo Jones and his pupil John Webb. Burlington, himself an amateur architect and Apollo of the Arts, designed the villa with the aid of William Kent. Construction of the villa took place between 1726 and 1729, after Burlingtons death in 1753, his wife, Lady Dorothy Savile, and daughter, Charlotte, who had married William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire in 1748, inherited the house. Charlotte died in December 1754, and Lady Burlington died in September 1758, after the death of Lady Burlington in 1758, the villa and gardens passed to the Cavendish family. William Cavendish died in 1764, leaving the property to his son William, in 1774, William married Lady Georgiana Spencer, the Duchess of Devonshire, who enjoyed spending time at Chiswick which she referred to as her earthly paradise. She regularly invited members of the Whig party to the house for tea parties in the garden, in 1788 the Cavendish family demolished the Jacobean house and hired architect John White to add two wings to the villa to increase the amount of accommodation
10.
Chesterfield
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Chesterfield is a market town and a borough in Derbyshire, England. It lies 24 miles north of Derby and 11 miles south of Sheffield, the borough – which includes the settlements of Whittington, Brimington and Staveley – had a population of 103,800 in 2011. Chesterfield is the second largest town in the county of Derbyshire. Archaeological examination of the town has traced its beginnings to the 1st century AD and the construction of a Roman fort, later an Anglo-Saxon village grew up on the site. The name Chesterfield derives from the Anglo-Saxon words caester and feld, Chesterfield received its market charter in 1204. It still has a moderately sized market of about 250 stalls held three days a week, the town sits on a large coalfield, which formed a major part of the areas economy until the 1980s. Little visual evidence of the remains today. The towns best known landmark is the Church of St Mary and All Saints, popularly known for its crooked spire, Chesterfield was in the Hundred of Scarsdale. The town received its charter in 1204 from King John. The charter constituted the town as a borough, granting the burgesses of Chesterfield the same privileges as those of Nottingham. In 1266, it was the site of the Battle of Chesterfield, elizabeth I granted a charter of incorporation in 1594, creating a corporation consisting of a mayor, six aldermen, six brethren, and twelve capital burgesses. This remained the governing charter until the borough was reformed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, the borough originally consisted only of the township of Chesterfield, but it was extended in 1892 to parts of some surrounding townships. In 1920 there was an extension when the borough absorbed New Whittington. Chesterfield benefited greatly from the building of the Chesterfield Line – part of the Derby to Leeds railway, during the work, a sizeable seam of coal was discovered during the construction of the Clay Cross Tunnel. This and the local ironstone were promptly exploited by Stephenson, who set up a company in Clay Cross to trade in the minerals, during his time in Chesterfield, Stephenson lived at Tapton House, and remained there until his death in 1848. He is interred in Trinity Church, in 2006, a statue of Stephenson was erected outside Chesterfield railway station. Chesterfield is located on the confluence and valleys of the River Rother and River Hipper at the Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Yorkshire Coalfield. The town also lies in the foothills of the Pennines
11.
Arboretum
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An arboretum in a narrow sense is a collection of trees only. Related collections include a fruticetum, and a viticetum, a collection of vines, more commonly, today, an arboretum is a botanical garden containing living collections of woody plants intended at least partly for scientific study. An arboretum specializing in growing conifers is known as a pinetum, other specialist arboreta include saliceta, populeta, and querceta. The term arboretum was first used in an English publication by John Claudius Loudon in 1833 in The Gardeners Magazine, egyptian Pharaohs planted exotic trees and cared for them, they brought ebony wood from the Sudan, and pine and cedar from Syria. It is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her Deir el Bahri mortuary temple complex, Arboreta are special places for the cultivation and display of a wide variety of different kinds of trees and shrubs. Many tree collections have been claimed as the first arboretum, in most cases, however, Arboreta differ from pieces of woodland or plantations because they are botanically significant collections with a variety of examples rather than just a few kinds. Of course there are many tree collections that are older than the eighteenth century in different parts of the world. Loudons Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum,8 vols, Loudon urged that a national arboretum be created and called for arboreta and other systematic collections to be established in public parks, private gardens, country estates and other places. He regarded the Derby Arboretum as the most important landscape-gardening commission of the part of his career because it demonstrated the benefits of a public arboretum. The more lofty trees suffered from the high winds. We walked round the two spirals of this coil of trees and shrubs, viz. from Acer to Quercus. There is no garden scene about London so interesting, a plan of Loddiges arboretum was included in The Encyclopaedia of Gardening,1834 edition. One example of an early European tree collection is the Trsteno Arboretum, the date of its founding is unknown, but it was already in existence by 1492, when a 15 m span aqueduct to irrigate the arboretum was constructed, this aqueduct is still in use. The garden was created by the prominent local Gučetić/Gozze family and it suffered two major disasters in the 1990s but its two unique and ancient Oriental Planes remained standing. Udhagamandalam Arboretum, The Nilgiris, India The arboretum at Ooty was established in 1992 with an aim of conserving native and indigenous trees and it was established during the year 1992 and maintained by Department of Horticulture with Hill Area Development Programme funds. The area is the natural habitats of indigenous and migratory birds. During the year 2005-2006, it was rehabilated with funds provided by the Hill Area Development Programme by providing permanent fencing, a foot path, and other infrastructure facilities. The arboretum is the realization of the dream of William Douglas Cook, the arboretum is now the National Arboretum of New Zealand, and holds some 4,000 different trees, shrubs and climbers
12.
Edensor
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Edensor is a village and civil parish in Derbyshire, England. The population of the parish as of the 2011 census was 145. It is the closest village to Chatsworth House, much of it belongs to the Dukes of Devonshire, most of whom are buried in the churchyard of St Peters Church. The planning of the new village was overseen by Joseph Paxton, the Chatsworth Estate office occupies a fine brick building which was built as an inn for visitors to Chatsworth in the 18th century and attributed to James Paine. Many of the buildings in the village are listed buildings, a few at the higher Grade II*, the hamlet of Dunsa lies to the northwest of Edensor at grid reference SK245704. Beeley—another Chatsworth estate village Pilsley—also a Chatsworth estate village Milton Abbas—a village in Dorset that was moved by a landowner Edensor at genuki. co. uk
13.
Emperor Fountain
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The Emperor Fountain stands in the grounds of Chatsworth House, Derbyshire, England. It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II listed building, in 1843 Tsar Nicholas I of Russia informed the Duke that he was likely to visit Chatsworth the following year. In anticipation of this visit, William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire decided to construct the worlds highest fountain, an eight-acre lake, the Emperor Lake, was dug on the moors 350 feet above the house to supply the natural water pressure. The work was finished in just six months, early in 1844, however, the Tsar died in 1855 and never saw the fountain. The fountain was seen by Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, who visited the park on Thursday 22 August 1844, the fountain is situated at the north end of the Canal Pond, which was dug in 1703. The metal jet is surrounded by irregularly placed boulders, to the north are two sandstone sculptures of reclining figures. Due to the supply of water, the fountain usually runs on partial power and only reaches half its full height. The water power found a practical use generating Chatsworths electricity from 1893, gilkes of Kendal installed 3 vortex turbines and a generator in an underground chamber, approximately 400 feet down the hill from the Emperor lake. From 1936 the house was connected to the mains supply. In 1988 a new turbine was installed, which produces about a third of the electricity the house needs
14.
Victoria amazonica
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Victoria amazonica is a species of flowering plant, the largest of the Nymphaeaceae family of water lilies. The species has large leaves, up to 3 m in diameter. The species was once called Victoria regia after Queen Victoria, V. amazonica is native to the shallow waters of the Amazon River basin, such as oxbow lakes and bayous. It is depicted in the Guyanese coat of arms, the flowers are white the first night they are open and become pink the second night. They are up to 40 cm in diameter, and are pollinated by beetles and this process was described in detail by Sir Ghillean Prance and Jorge Arius. It is the largest waterlily in the world. A member of the genus Victoria placed in the Nymphaeaceae family or, sometimes, the first published description of the genus was by John Lindley in October 1837, based on specimens of this plant returned from British Guiana by Robert Schomburgk. Lindley named the genus after the newly ascended Queen Victoria, the spelling in Schomburgks description in Athenaeum, published the month before, was given as Victoria Regina. Despite this spelling being adopted by the Botanical Society of London for their new emblem, an earlier account of the species, Euryale amazonica by Eduard Friedrich Poeppig, in 1832 described an affinity with Euryale ferox. A collection and description was made by the French botanist Aimé Bonpland in 1825. In 1850 James De Carle Sowerby recognised Poeppigs earlier description and transferred its epithet amazonica, the new name was rejected by Lindley. The current name, Victoria amazonica, did not come into use until the twentieth century. Victoria regia, as it was named, was discovered by Tadeáš Haenke in 1801 and it was once the subject of rivalry between Victorian gardeners in England. The species captured the imagination of the public, and was the subject of several dedicated monographs, the botanical illustrations of cultivated specimens in Fitch and W. J. Hookers 1851 work Victoria Regia received critical acclaim in the Athenaeum, they are accurate, and they are beautiful. The Duke of Devonshire presented Queen Victoria with one of the first of these flowers, the lily, with ribbed undersurface and leaves veining like transverse girders and supports, was Paxtons inspiration for The Crystal Palace, a building four times the size of St. Peters in Rome
15.
Espalier
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Espalier is the horticultural and ancient agricultural practice of controlling woody plant growth for the production of fruit, by pruning and tying branches to a frame. Plant are frequently shaped in formal patterns, flat against a structure such as a wall, fence, or trellis, Espaliers, trained into flat two-dimensional forms, are used not only for decorative purposes, but also for gardens in which space is limited. These two strategies allow the season to be extended so that fruit has more time to mature, a restricted form of training consists of a central stem and a number of paired horizontal branches all trained in the same plane. The most important advantage is that of being able to increase the growth of a branch by training it vertically, later, one can decrease growth while increasing fruit production by training it horizontally. The word espalier is French, and it comes from the Italian spalliera, Espalier as a technique seems to have started with the ancient Romans. In the Middle Ages the Europeans refined it into an art, vineyards have used the technique in the training of grapes for hundreds or perhaps even thousands of years. A Belgian fence is created by cutting back an unbranched, slender tree to between fifteen and eighteen inches above the ground, the topmost three buds are allowed to form, one in the middle is trained vertically while two others are trained into a V shape. Any other buds are rubbed away, removing the vertical stem completes the individual V-shaped espalier. By placing many similarly trained trees in a two feet apart with their branches trained to the same plane, a Belgian fence is created. Multiple levels of horizontal branching can be trained in this way, certain types of trees adapt better to this practice than others, but almost any woody plant can be trained to grow along a flat plane by removing growth outside that plane. Horizontal T training of an apple or pear tree is an example of the ideal species for espalier. In the spring, the tree is pruned to the lowest wire perhaps 15 to 18 inches above the ground, during the summer, buds lengthen into branches, one trained vertically to the next wire while others are trained along the wires. Unnecessary buds are removed by rubbing them away with a thumb, in autumn, the side branches are lowered and tied to the wires completing the level. The following year another level is created, examples of species for espalier include, Espalier design often uses traditional formal patterns developed over hundreds of years, but can also employ more modern informal designs. A stunted or deformed plant, or one already has interesting or unique characteristics. Common formal patterns include the following styles, the V shape is the first step in producing many other formal patterns. Belgian fence, More than one V shaped espaliers are planted two feet apart, so their branches cross, and are tied to a trellis, stepover, A Horizontal espalier with only one set of branches tied to a wire around 15 inches above the ground. Start with a V shape until desired branch length is attained, takes only one year to produce the design from a well-rooted unbranched tree
16.
Eduard Ortgies
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Karl Eduard Ortgies, was a German horticulturist and nurseryman. Here he served out 3 years of apprenticeship until December 1847, to round off his education he visited the renowned nurseries of Berlin, Potsdam, Magdeburg, Leipzig, Dresden, Erfurt and Hanover, and on 1 March 1848 started as assistant at Andrew Henderson & Co. William Cavendish, the incumbent Duke, was a passionate gardener, three of the seedlings were donated to Chatsworth, Syon House and Regents Park, and competition was intense for the honour of coaxing from this waterlily the first blossom in Europe. On the evening of 8 November 1849, Ortgies could report to the Duke that the first bud was about to open, the news was wired to Queen Victoria and to the botanists Hooker, John Lindley, George Bentham who were invited to Chatsworth. This illustrious gathering attended the opening of the second bud, the head of his cultivation section, Benedikt Roezl, later famous as an orchid hunter, had met Ortgies in 1848 in London. Van Houtte urged Roezl to write to Ortgies and beg a seedling of Victoria and, if Paxton would agree, to employ Ortgies as head of the culture of aquatics and orchids. At that time Paxton was inundated with requests, but immediately agreed to the proposal, feeling that Ortgies, as keeper of the Victoria, on 1 April 1850 Ortgies reported for duty at van Houttes garden and a conservatory to his design was constructed for the Victoria. On 5 September the first flower opened, amidst a host of Nymphaea species in full bloom, Ortgies crossed Nymphaea dentata with N. rubra to produce the first Nymphaea hybrid ever, illustrated in Flore des serres 8 t. 775,776 under the name Nymphaea ortgiesiano-rubra, later he managed to coax the Australian Nymphaea gigantea into flowering and setting seed. During this period Ortgies made business trips to England, Germany, Denmark and other European countries, creating a circle of acquaintances. His predecessor in Zurich had been the energetic Eduard August von Regel, the Zurich Botanical Garden was poorly subsidised, necessitating the sale of plants and seed in order to cover its running costs. As reward for his efforts, Ortgies received the title of Inspector, Ortgies was interested in acquiring new or rare plants, and for this his contacts abroad were ideal. Arranged through Ortgies, collections by Roezl streamed onto the Zurich plant market, Roezl managed a huge import nursery, holding auctions in London with business contacts in most European gardens. That Roezl had become affluent was in no small part due to his friend Ortgies and his part in Roezls success led to his being approached by the collector Gustav Wallis whose contracts with Jean Linden and Veitch Nurseries had been terminated. Ortgies acted as his agent for a few years, but Wallis fell ill, Wallis was followed by Lehmann in Colombia and Ricardo Pfau in Costa Rica - both shipped their most interesting plants to the Zurich Botanical Garden. There was also Fuchs in Guatemala, Garnier in Cuba, Gaibrois and Bruchmüller in Colombia, after 38 years with the Botanical Garden, Ortgies retired to Kilchberg to be with his family
17.
Modular building
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Modular buildings and modular homes are sectional prefabricated buildings, or houses, that consist of multiple sections called modules. Modular is a method of construction differing from other methods of building, the module sections are constructed at an off site facility, then delivered to the intended site of use. Complete construction of the sections are completed on site. The modules can be placed side-by-side, end-to-end, or stacked, allowing a variety of configurations. Modular buildings, also called prefabricated homes or precision built homes, are built to the same or higher building standards as complete on site stick built homes, Modular homes are built the same and considered the same as a stick built home. Material for stick built and modular homes are the same, Modular homes are not doublewides or mobile homes. First, modular homes do not have axles or a metal frame, secondly, modular buildings must conform to all local building codes for their proposed use, while doublewides and mobile homes have metal under framing. Doublewides and mobile homes made in the United States, are required to conform to federal codes governed by HUD, Modular buildings may be used for long-term, temporary or permanent facilities, such as construction camps, schools and classrooms, civilian and military housing, and industrial facilities. Other uses have included churches, health facilities, sales and retail offices, fast food restaurants. They can also be used in areas that have weather concerns, Modular components are typically constructed indoors on assembly lines. Modules construction may take as little as ten days but more often one to three months, completed modules are transported to the building site and assembled by a crane. Placement of the modules may take several hours to several days. The entire process of modular construction places significance on the design stage and this is where practices such as Design for Manufacture and Assembly are used to ensure that assembly tolerances are controlled throughout manufacture and assembly on site. It is vital that there is enough allowance in the design to allow the assembly to take up any slack or misalignment of components, the use of advanced CAD systems, 3D printing and manufacturing control systems are important for modular construction to be successful. This is quite unlike on-site construction where the tradesman can often make the part to any particular installation. Modular buildings are argued to have advantages over conventional buildings, for a variety of reasons, speed of construction/faster return on investment. Modular construction allows for the building and the work to be completed simultaneously. According to some materials, this can reduce the overall completion schedule by as much as 50%, Assembly is independent of weather, which can increase work efficiency and avoids damaged building material
18.
Cast iron
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Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
19.
The Great Exhibition
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It was the first in a series of Worlds Fairs, exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the 19th century, and it was a much anticipated event. The Great Exhibition was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. It was arguably a response to the highly successful French Industrial Exposition of 1844, indeed, Queen Victoria and her family visited three times. Although the Great Exhibition was a platform on which countries from around the world could display their achievements, Britain sought to prove its own superiority. The British exhibits at the Great Exhibition held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, Britain also sought to provide the world with the hope of a better future. Europe had just struggled through two decades of political and social upheaval, and now Britain hoped to show that technology. Technology and moving machinery were popular, especially working exhibits and she also notes that visitors could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments were found in class X, and included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, a special building, nicknamed The Crystal Palace, or The Great Shalimar, was built to house the show. The building was architecturally adventurous, drawing on Paxtons experience designing greenhouses for the sixth Duke of Devonshire. It took the form of a glass house,1851 feet long by 454 feet wide and was constructed from cast iron-frame components and glass made almost exclusively in Birmingham. From the interior, the large size was emphasized with trees and statues, this served, not only to add beauty to the spectacle. The Crystal Palace was an success, considered an architectural marvel. The building was moved and re-erected in 1854 in enlarged form at Sydenham Hill in south London. It was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936, six million people—equivalent to a third of the entire population of Britain at the time—visited the Great Exhibition. The average daily attendance was 42,831 with an attendance of 109,915 on 7 October. The event made a surplus of £186,000, which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and they were all built in the area to the south of the exhibition, nicknamed Albertopolis, alongside the Imperial Institute. The remaining surplus was used to set up an educational trust to provide grants and scholarships for industrial research, the Exhibition caused controversy as its opening approached. Some conservatives feared that the mass of visitors might become a revolutionary mob, must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman
20.
Hyde Park, London
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Hyde Park is one of the largest parks in London and one of its Royal Parks. The park is divided by the Serpentine and the Long Water, the park is contiguous with Kensington Gardens, which are often assumed to be part of Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens has been separate since 1728, when Queen Caroline divided them. To the southeast, outside the park, is Hyde Park Corner, during daylight, the two parks merge seamlessly into each other, but Kensington Gardens closes at dusk, and Hyde Park remains open throughout the year from 5 a. m. until midnight. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was held in the park, for which the Crystal Palace, the park became a traditional location for mass demonstrations. The Chartists, the Reform League, the suffragettes, and the Stop the War Coalition have all held protests there, many protesters on the Liberty and Livelihood March in 2002 started their march from Hyde Park. Hyde Park is also a ward of the City of Westminster, the population of the ward at the 2011 Census was 12,462. Hyde Park was created for hunting by Henry Vlll in 1536, Charles I created the Ring, and in 1637 he opened the park to the general public. In 1652, during the Interregnum, Parliament ordered the then 620-acre park to be sold for ready money and it realised £17,000 with an additional £765 6s 2d for the resident deer. In 1689, when William III moved his residence to Kensington Palace on the far side of Hyde Park, public transport entering London from the west runs parallel to the Kings private road along Kensington Gore, just outside the park. In the late 1800s, the row was used by the wealthy for horseback rides, the first coherent landscaping was undertaken by Charles Bridgeman for Queen Caroline, under the supervision of Charles Withers, the Surveyor-General of Woods and Forests, who took some credit. It was completed in 1733 at a cost to the public purse of £20,000, the 2nd Viscount Weymouth was made Ranger of Hyde Park in 1739 and shortly after began digging the Serpentine lakes at Longleat. The Serpentine is divided from the Long Water by a bridge designed by George Rennie, one of the most important events to take place in the park was the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Crystal Palace was constructed on the side of the park. The public did not want the building to remain after the closure of the exhibition and he had it moved to Sydenham Hill in South London. At the age of twenty-five, Decimus Burton was commissioned by the Office of Woods and he laid out the paths and driveways and designed a series of lodges, the Screen/Gate at Hyde Park Corner and the Wellington Arch. The Screen and the Arch originally formed a single composition, designed to provide a transition between Hyde Park and Green Park, although the arch was later moved. An early description reports, It consists of a screen of handsome fluted Ionic columns, the extent of the whole frontage is about 107 ft. The two side gateways, in their elevations, present two insulated Ionic columns, flanked by antae, all these entrances are finished by a blocking, the sides of the central one being decorated with a beautiful frieze, representing a naval and military triumphal procession
21.
Midland Railway
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The Midland Railway was a railway company in the United Kingdom from 1844 to 1922, when it became part of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. It had a network of lines managed from its headquarters in Derby. It became the third-largest railway undertaking in the British Isles, the Midland Railway Consolidation Act was passed in 1844 authorising the merger of the Midland Counties Railway, the North Midland Railway, and the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway. These met at the Tri-Junct station at Derby, where the MR established its locomotive and later its carriage, leading it were George Hudson from the North Midland, dynamic but unscrupulous, and John Ellis from the Midland Counties, a careful businessman of impeccable integrity. James Allport from the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway found a place elsewhere in Hudsons empire with the York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway, though he later returned. Almost immediately it took over the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway and the Erewash Valley Line in 1845, passengers from Sheffield continued to use Rotherham Masborough until a direct route was completed in 1870. Meanwhile, it extended its influence in the Leicestershire coalfields, by buying the Leicester and Swannington Railway in 1846, after the merger, London trains were carried on the shorter Midland Counties route. The former Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway was left with the traffic to Birmingham and Bristol, the line south was the Birmingham and Bristol Railway, which reached Curzon Street via Camp Hill. These two lines had been formed by the merger of the standard gauge Birmingham and Gloucester Railway and they met at Gloucester via a short loop of the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway. In the event all that was necessary was for the later LNWR to share Birmingham New Street with the Midland when it was opened in 1854, the MR controlled all the traffic to the North East and Scotland from London. The LNWR was progressing slowly through the Lake District, and there was pressure for a line from London to York. Permission had been gained for the Northern and Eastern Railway to run through Peterborough and Lincoln, two obvious extensions of the Midland Counties line were from Nottingham to Lincoln and from Leicester to Peterborough. They were approved while the bill for the line was still before Parliament, forming the present day Lincoln Branch. The Leeds and Bradford Railway had been approved in 1844, by 1850 it was losing money but a number of railways offered to buy it. In spite of the objections of Hudson, for the MR and others, the London and York Railway led by Edmund Denison persisted, after Hudsons departure, the MR was in financial difficulties. Opposition to the Great Northern bill had cost a fortune, a deal of maintenance was overdue. Added to this, the Great Northern was taking much of the traffic from the North East, in 1851 the Ambergate, Nottingham, Boston and Eastern Junction Railway completed its line from Grantham as far as Colwick, from where a branch led to the MR Nottingham station. The Great Northern Railway by then passed through Grantham and both railway companies paid court to the fledgling line, meanwhile, Nottingham had woken up to its branch line status and was keen to expand
22.
John Ellis (businessman)
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John Ellis, of Beaumont Leys and Belgrave Hall in Leicester, was instrumental in interesting George Stephenson in the proposed Leicester and Swannington Railway. Ellis was born near Leicester in 1789 to Joseph and Rebekah Ellis who were both Quakers and farmers, Ellis was at the 1840 Worlds Anti-Slavery Convention in London and he was included in the painting which is now in the National Portrait Gallery in London. In 1845 he eavesdropped on a conversation between two directors of the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway, discussing the Great Western Railways possible acquisition of the line and he took it upon himself to make an offer on behalf of the Midland. The Midland agreed to lease the line and pay off its debts, the Midland thus had control of the lines from Yorkshire to the South West. In the same year Ellis bought Belgrave Hall in Leicester as his families home from the Vann family, John Ellis was a Quaker and a noted liberal reformer. He became a Leicester town councillor in 1836 and a Member of Parliament for Leicester between 1848 and 1852, Ellis was survived by his second wife when he died at his home in 1862. Derby and the Midland Railway, Derby, Breedon Books, leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by John Ellis
23.
Blotting paper
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Blotting paper, sometimes called bibulous paper, is a highly absorbent type of paper or other material. It is used to absorb an excess of liquid substances from the surface of writing paper or objects, blotting paper referred to as bibulous paper is mainly used in microscopy to remove excess liquids from the slide before viewing. Blotting paper has also sold as a cosmetic to aid in the removal of skin oils. Blotting paper is made from different materials of varying thickness, softness and it is often made of cotton and manufactured on special paper machines. It is reported that a Berkshire paper mill failed to add sizing to a batch of paper that was being produced. Subsequently someone tried to write on a piece of this discarded scrap paper and found that it rapidly absorbed any ink applied, making it unusable for writing. A form of blotter paper commonly known as paper is produced for its absorbent qualities, allowing much better absorption of water. Blotting paper is used in chemical analyses as stationary phase in thin-layer chromatography, blotting paper is also used in pool/spa maintenance to measure pH balance. Small squares of blotting paper attached to disposable plastic strips are impregnated with pH sensitive compounds usually extracted from lichens and these strips are used similarly to litmus strips, however filter paper is usually used for litmus strips, generally to allow for the property of diffusion. Drugs active in microgram range, most notably LSD, are distributed on blotting paper. A liquid solution of the drug is applied to the blotting paper, vanity blotter is blotter art that hasnt been exposed to LSD and is usually sold as a collectible, although inevitably much of this art ends up in illegal distribution. The artwork is printed onto paper and then sometimes perforated into tiny squares or tabs which can be torn or cut apart. Most blotter art designs have grid lines as part of the design to aid in perforation or to be left as a cutting grid. Plain white LSD blotter without artwork is commonly referred to as WoW and is not perforated but rather gridded with a pen. Blotting is frequently necessary when using dip pens and occasionally when using fountain pens and this was first done by sprinkling pounce over the wet ink. Blotting papers are commonly used in cosmetics to absorb excess sebum oil from the face. They are popularly marketed and have sold by numerous cosmetic brands worldwide such as Mac and Bobbi Brown, as well as UK high street store. Prices for blotting papers can range from as low as $3.00 per packet to as high as $30 or more
24.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
25.
The Illustrated London News
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The Illustrated London News appeared first on Saturday 14 May 1842, as the worlds first illustrated weekly news magazine. Founded by Herbert Ingram, it appeared weekly until 1971, then less frequently thereafter, the company continues today as Illustrated London News Ltd, a publishing, content and digital agency in London, which holds the publication and business archives of the magazine. As a newsagent, Ingram was struck by the increase in newspaper sales when they featured pictures. Ingram began to plan a weekly newspaper that would contain pictures in every edition, Ingram rented an office, recruited artists and reporters, and employed as his editor Frederick William Naylor Bayley, formerly editor of the National Omnibus. The first issue of The Illustrated London News appeared on Saturday,14 May 1842, Ingram hired 200 men to carry placards through the streets of London promoting the first edition of his new newspaper. Costing sixpence, the first issue sold 26,000 copies, despite this initial success, sales of the second and subsequent editions were disappointing. Its circulation soon increased to 40,000 and by the end of its first year was 60,000, in 1851, after the newspaper published Joseph Paxtons designs for the Crystal Palace before even Prince Albert had seen them, the circulation rose to 130,000. Andrew Spottiswoodes Pictorial Times lost £20,000 before it was sold to Ingram by Henry Vizetelly, Ingram folded it into another purchase, The Ladys Newspaper, which became The Ladys Newspaper and Pictorial Times. Vitezelly was also behind a competitor, The Illustrated Times in 1855. Ingrams other early collaborators left the business in the 1850s, nathanial Cooke, his business partner and brother-in-law, found himself in a subordinate role in the business and parted on bad terms around 1854. 1858 saw the departure of William Little, who, in addition to providing a loan of £10,000, was printer and publisher of the paper for 15 years, littles relationship with Ingram deteriorated over Ingrams harassment of their mutual sister-in-law. By 1863, The Illustrated London News was selling more than 300,000 copies every week, the death of Herbert and his eldest son left the company without a director and manager. Control passed to Ingrams widow Ann, and his friend Sir Edward William Watkin, once Ingrams two younger sons, William and Charles, were old enough, they took over as managing directors, although it was William who took the lead. It was also a period of expansion and increased competition for the ILN, as reading habits and the illustrated news market changed, the ILN bought or established a number of new publications, evolving from a single newspaper to a larger-scale publishing business. As with Herbert Ingrams purchases in the 1850s, this expansion was also a way of managing competition, dominating markets. As too with the acquisitions of the 1850s, several similar illustrated publications were established in this period by former employees of The Illustrated London News. Serious competition for the ILN appeared in 1869, with the establishment of The Graphic, Thomas was a former wood engraver for The Illustrated London News, and brought his expertise in illustrated publishing to his new magazine. The Graphic was highly popular, particularly for its coverage of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, William Ingram became chief proprietor of The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, and The Ladys Pictorial, which may have been a later title of The Ladys Newspaper and Pictorial Times
26.
Charles Fox (civil and railway engineer)
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Sir Charles Fox was an English civil engineer and contractor. His work focused on railways, railway stations and bridges, born in Derby in 1810, he was the youngest of five sons of Dr. Francis Fox. He acquired a taste for driving and was employed on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. In 1830 Fox married Mary, second daughter of Joseph Brookhouse, by whom he had 3 sons, one of his earliest inventions, patented in 1832, was railway points, which superseded the sliding rail used up to that time. In 1837 Robert Stephenson appointed him as one of the engineers on the London and Birmingham Railway, where he was responsible for Watford tunnel and he presented an important paper on the correct principles of skew arches to the Royal Institution. In 1837 the future philosopher of evolution Herbert Spencer, whose father George Spencer had been Foxs tutor when young, joined him as an assistant engineer. Fox then entered into partnership with the contractor Francis Braham to form the company Braham, Fox and Co. which when Braham retired became Fox, Henderson and Co. of London, Smethwick, and Renfrew. The company specialised in equipment, including wheels, bridges, roofs, cranes, tanks. It also experimented with components for suspension and girder bridges, with Fox reading a paper before the Royal Society in 1865, the company was responsible for many important station roofs including Liverpool Tithebarn Street, Bradford Exchange, Paddington and Birmingham New Street. One notable employee of Fox, Henderson & Co. was William Siemens and his designs for an energy-saving boiler led to financial losses for the company, but his electrical telegraph recovered the losses. Fox and Hendersons expertise with structural ironwork led Joseph Paxton to invite them to build The Crystal Palace for The Great Exhibition of 1851, due to its innovative modular design and construction techniques, it was ready in nine months. For their work, Fox, Cubitt and Paxton were knighted on 23 October 1851, after the exhibition they were employed by the Crystal Palace Company to move the structure to Sydenham, re-erecting and enlarging it on Sydenham Hill, thereafter known as Crystal Palace. In 1856 Fox Henderson went into liquidation after sustaining losses building railways in Zealand, railways upon which Fox worked included the Cork and Bandon, Thames and Medway, Portadown and Dungannon, East Kent, Lyons and Geneva, Macon and Geneva, Wiesbaden and the Zealand lines. Fox was also engineer to the Queensland, Cape Town and Wynberg Railway, Sir Charles Fox died at Blackheath, London on 14 June 1874, at the age of sixty-four. He was buried at Nunhead Cemetery on 18 June, hyde Consulting Ltd, Footprints on a Global Landscape Fox, Sir Francis. River, Road, and Rail, Some Engineering Reminiscences, mike Chrimes, Librarian of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Steam Index, British steam locomotive history, Fox, Sir Charles, Robert Thorne, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,2004, accessed 19 August 2011
27.
William Cubitt
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Sir William Cubitt was an eminent English civil engineer and millwright. Born in Norfolk, England, he was employed in many of the great engineering undertakings of his time and he invented a type of windmill sail and the prison treadwheel, and was employed as chief engineer, at Ransomes of Ipswich, before moving to London. He worked on canals, docks, and railways, including the South Eastern Railway and he was the chief engineer of Crystal Palace erected at Hyde Park in 1851. He was president of the Institution of Civil Engineers between 1850 and 1851, the son of Joseph Cubitt of Bacton Wood, near Dilham, Norfolk, a miller, by his wife, Miss Lubbock, he was born at Dilham and attended the village school. His father moved to Southrepps, and William at an early age was employed in the mill, but in 1800 was apprenticed to James Lyon, at Bacton Wood Mills he again worked with his father in 1804, and also constructed a machine for splitting hides. He then joined an agricultural machine maker named Cook, at Swanton, Cubitt became known for the accuracy and finish of his patterns for the iron castings of machines. Self-regulating windmill sails were invented and patented by him in 1807, at which period he settled at Horning, Norfolk and he in 1812 sought and obtained an engagement in the works of Messrs. Ransome of Ipswich, where he became the chief engineer. For nine years he held this situation, and then became a partner in the firm and this invention was brought out about 1818, and was immediately adopted in the major gaols of the United Kingdom. From 1814 Cubitt had been acting as a engineer. He was extensively employed in engineering, and the Oxford canal. The improvement of the River Severn was carried out by him, the Bute docks at Cardiff, the Middlesbrough docks and the coal drops on the Tees, and the Black Sluice drainage were undertakings which he successfully accomplished. After the introduction of railways Cubitts evidence was sought in parliamentary contests, on the Croydon Railway the atmospheric system was tried by him. On the Great Northern, to which Cubitt was the consulting engineer, the Hanoverian government asked his advice on the subject of the harbour and docks at Harburg. The works for supplying Berlin with water were carried out under his direction, among his last works were the two large landing-stages at Liverpool, and the bridge for carrying the London turnpike road across the River Medway at Rochester, Kent. Cubitt joined the Institution of Civil Engineers as a member in 1823, became a member of council in 1831, vice-president in 1836, while president in 1851 he had major responsibility for the erection of the Great Exhibition building in Hyde Park. At the expiration of his services he was knighted by the queen at Windsor Castle on 23 December 1851 and he became a Fellow of the Royal Society on 1 April 1830, and was also a fellow of the Royal Irish Academy, and a member of other learned societies. Moore replaced another of Cubitts assistants, William Snell Chauncy, Cubitt retired from business in 1858, and died at his residence on Clapham Common, Surrey, on 13 October 1861, and was buried in Norwood cemetery on 18 October
28.
Knight
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A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a monarch or other political leader for service to the monarch or country, especially in a military capacity. Historically, in Europe, knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors, during the High Middle Ages, knighthood was considered a class of lower nobility. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, often, a knight was a vassal who served as a fighter for a lord, with payment in the form of land holdings. The lords trusted the knights, who were skilled in battle on horseback, since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, as in the British honours system, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the United Kingdom is Dame, furthermore, Geoffroi de Charnys Book of Chivalry expounded upon the importance of Christian faith in every area of a knights life. This novel explored the ideals of knighthood and their incongruity with the reality of Cervantes world, in the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. Some orders of knighthood, such as the Knights Templar, have become the subject of legend, each of these orders has its own criteria for eligibility, but knighthood is generally granted by a head of state or monarch to selected persons to recognise some meritorious achievement. This linkage is reflected in the etymology of chivalry, cavalier, the special prestige accorded to mounted warriors finds a parallel in the furusiyya in the Muslim world, and the Greek hippeus and Roman eques of classical antiquity. The word knight, from Old English cniht, is a cognate of the German word Knecht and this meaning, of unknown origin, is common among West Germanic languages. Middle High German had the phrase guoter kneht, which also meant knight, the Anglo-Saxon cniht had no connection to horsemanship, the word referred to any servant. A rādcniht, riding-servant, was a servant delivering messages or patrolling coastlines on horseback, a narrowing of the generic meaning servant to military follower of a king or other superior is visible by 1100. The specific military sense of a knight as a warrior in the heavy cavalry emerges only in the Hundred Years War. The verb to knight appears around 1300, and, from the same time, an Equestrian was a member of the second highest social class in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This class is often translated as knight, the medieval knight, both Greek ἳππος and Latin equus are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word root ekwo-, horse. In the later Roman Empire, the classical Latin word for horse, equus, was replaced in common parlance by the vulgar Latin caballus, sometimes thought to derive from Gaulish caballos. From caballus arose terms in the various Romance languages cognate with the English cavalier, Italian cavaliere, Spanish caballero, French chevalier, Portuguese cavaleiro, the Germanic languages have terms cognate with the English rider, German Ritter, and Dutch and Scandinavian ridder. These words are derived from Germanic rīdan, to ride, in turn derived from the Proto-Indo-European root reidh-, in ancient Rome there was a knightly class Ordo Equestris from which European knighthood may have been derived. Some portions of the armies of Germanic peoples who occupied Europe from the 3rd century AD onward had been mounted, in the Early Medieval period any well-equipped horseman could be described as a knight, or miles in Latin
29.
Sydenham
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Sydenham is a suburban district of south-east London in the London Boroughs of Lewisham, Bromley and Southwark. Bordering Forest Hill, Dulwich, Crystal Palace, Penge, Beckenham, Catford, originally known as Shippenham, Sydenham began as a small settlement, a few cottages among the woods, whose inhabitants grazed their animals and collected wood. In the 1640s, springs of water in what is now Wells Park were discovered to have medicinal properties, Sydenham grew rapidly in the 19th century after the introduction of the Croydon Canal in 1809 which linked the Grand Surrey Canal to Croydon and a reservoir was constructed in Sydenham. However, the canal was never successful and closed in 1836 resulting in it being the first canal to be abandoned by an Act of Parliament. The London & Croydon Railway purchased the canal for £40,250 and quickly converted the alignment for a railway from London Bridge to West Croydon, in 1851 the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park was housed in an immense glass building, called the Crystal Palace. In 1854 the building was bought by a company, dismantled and re-erected in Sydenham Park. Exhibitions, concerts, conferences and sporting events were held at the Crystal Palace, in 1872, the Childrens Hospital, Sydenham opened. It closed in 1991, its services being now part of the University Hospital Lewisham, in 1860, the Walter Cobb department store at Lawrie Place, Kirkdale opened, lasting until the 1980s. In 1884, Upper Sydenham railway station opened on the Crystal Palace, the ill fate of the Crystal Palace in 1936 saw patronage reduced and the route finally closed in 1954. Sydenham was attacked by enemies during the Second World War, the gas works were a target, but were never damaged. The railway which ran through Upper Sydenham station was damaged, from here, the City of London skyline is visible. Sydenham Hill has a railway tunnel from the Crystal Palace. Another railway tunnel goes beneath on the Chatham Main Line with Sydenham Hill station at the London end serving both Sydenham Hill and the College area of Dulwich, Upper Sydenham is also located on Sydenham Hill and is a part of the Parish of St Bartholomew. It is diverse both racially and in terms of income, the section of Kirkdale was Sydenhams original High Street. Renamed Kirkdale in 1936, the now has a small range of shops including Costcutter, Tesco Express, local pubs. Sydenham School is located on Dartmouth Road with Forest Hill Library, Green Flag awarded Sydenham Wells Park, the location of the once famous Springs is one of the largest parks within the postcode. Upper Sydenham is also the location of the Sydenham Park allotments, the Sydenham electricity sub station which had a fire in 2008. Lower Sydenham & Bell Green is the location of Sydenham Community Library which was reopened by the local community after the Lewisham Council closed it
30.
The Gardeners' Chronicle
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The Gardeners Chronicle was a British horticulture periodical. It lasted as a title in its own right for nearly 150 years and is extant as part of the magazine Horticulture Week. Its first editor, John Lindley, was one of the founders, another founder, Paxton, later also became editor. Prominent contributors included Charles Darwin and Joseph Hooker, by 1851, the circulation of The Gardeners Chronicle was given as 6500. Compared with that of the far more eminent Observer at 6230, and The Economist at 3826, possibly these figures include the Chronicles large international readership. 1841–1855, The Gardeners Chronicle 1856–1873, The Gardeners Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette 1874–1886, new Series 1887–1956, The Gardeners Chronicle. Flora Europaea - Volume 1, Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, the contemporary Horticulture Week Full text of The Gardeners Chronicle from January to June,1897 Vol 41888 The Gardeners Chronicle links at The Online Books Page Hathi Trust
31.
John Lindley
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John Lindley FRS was an English botanist, gardener and orchidologist. Born in Catton, near Norwich, England, John Lindley was one of four children of George, George Lindley was a nurseryman and pomologist and ran a commercial nursery garden. Although he had great knowledge, the undertaking was not profitable. As a boy he would assist in the garden and also collected wild flowers he found growing in the Norfolk countryside, Lindley was educated at Norwich School. He would have liked to go to university or to buy a commission in the army and he became Belgian agent for a London seed merchant in 1815. His first publication, in 1819, a translation of the Analyse du fruit of L. C. M. Lindley went to work at Banks’ house in London. He became acquainted with Joseph Sabine who grew a large assortment of roses and was the Secretary of the Horticultural Society of London and his employment came to an abrupt end with the death of Banks a few months later. One of Banks’ friends, a merchant called William Cattley, paid Lindley to draw. He also paid for the publication of “Digitalia Monographia”, in 1820, at the age of twenty-one, Lindley was elected a fellow of the Linnean Society of London. From 1821 to 1826 he published a work with coloured illustrations that he had painted himself, “Collectanea botanica or Figures and botanic Illustrations of rare. Many of these came from the family Orchidaceae with which he had a lifelong fascination. Lindley was appointed assistant secretary to the Royal Horticultural Society and its new garden at Chiswick in 1822, assistant secretary to the Horticultural Society since 1822, in 1829 Lindley was appointed to the chair of botany at University College, London, which he retained until 1860. He also played a part in having Charles Moore appointed as Director of the Sydney Botanical Gardens. He was a fellow of the Royal, Linnean and Geological Societies and he received the Royal Societys royal medal in 1857, and in 1853 became a corresponding member of the Institut de France. The Society’s historian, Harold R Fletcher, later described him as “ … the backbone of the Society and possibly the greatest servant it had ever had. ”Now with a steady income, in 1823 he married Sarah Freestone. They rented a house in rural Acton Green, a location convenient for the Society’s garden at Turnham Green, the Secretary of the Horticultural Society of London at that time was Joseph Sabine and he authorised expenditure on large projects beyond the Society’s means. Lindley could only expostulate and was unsuccessful in moderating his actions, by 1830, the Society had mounting debts and a committee of enquiry was set up. Sabine resigned as Secretary and Lindley successfully defended his own position and carried the Society forward with the new Honorary Secretary, an eminent botanist of the time, John Claudius Loudon, sought Lindley’s collaboration on his “Encyclopedia of Plants”
32.
Liberal Party (UK)
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The Liberal Party was a liberal political party which was one of the two major parties in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th century. The party arose from an alliance of Whigs and free-trade Peelites and Radicals favourable to the ideals of the American, by the end of the nineteenth century, it had formed four governments under William Gladstone. Despite splitting over the issue of Irish Home Rule, the party returned to power in 1906 with a landslide victory, by the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives main rival. The party went into decline and by the 1950s won no more than six seats at general elections, apart from notable by-election victories, the partys fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party in 1981. At the 1983 General Election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, at the 1987 General Election, its vote fell below 23% and the Liberal and Social Democratic parties merged in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats. A splinter group reconstituted the Liberal Party in 1989 and it was formed by party members opposed to the merger who saw the Lib Dems diluting Liberal ideals. Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes, the Liberal Party grew out of the Whigs, who had their origins in an aristocratic faction in the reign of Charles II, and the early 19th century Radicals. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown, although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of democracy for its own sake. The great figures of reformist Whiggery were Charles James Fox and his disciple, after decades in opposition, the Whigs returned to power under Grey in 1830 and carried the First Reform Act in 1832. The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggism, but it brought about the Whigs demise. As early as 1839 Russell had adopted the name of Liberals, the leading Radicals were John Bright and Richard Cobden, who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England, avoidance of war and foreign alliances, for a century, free trade remained the one cause which could unite all Liberals. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston, and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen to hold office for most of the 1850s and 1860s, a leading Peelite was William Ewart Gladstone, who was a reforming Chancellor of the Exchequer in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal Party is traditionally traced to 1859 and this was brought about by Palmerstons death in 1865 and Russells retirement in 1868. After a brief Conservative government Gladstone won a victory at the 1868 election. The establishment of the party as a membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877. John Stuart Mill was a Liberal MP from 1865 to 1868, for the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. William Ewart Gladstone served as prime minister four times, called the Grand Old Man later in life, Gladstone was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class
33.
Coventry (UK Parliament constituency)
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Coventry was a borough constituency which was represented in the House of Commons of England and its successors, the House of Commons of Great Britain and the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. Centred on the City of Coventry in Warwickshire, it returned two Members of Parliament from 1295 until the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, when its representation was reduced to one. The Coventry constituency was abolished for the 1945 general election, when it was split into two new constituencies, Coventry East and Coventry West, elections were held using the bloc vote system when electing two MPs, and then first-past-the-post to elect one MP thereafter. Mason had opposed the war and was replaced as Liberal candidate by Mansel who supported the Coalition Government, bannington was the candidate of the National Federation of Discharged and Demobilized Sailors and Soldiers. Robert Beatson, A Chronological Register of Both Houses of Parliament Craig, F. W. S
34.
Great Victorian Way
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It would have consisted of a ten-mile covered loop around much of central and west London, integrating a glass-roofed street, railways, shops and houses. Three river crossings – two on the loop and one on a branch – would have continued the arcade. The structure was modelled on Paxtons own Crystal Palace. The later, less ambitious Circle line roughly followed the route of The Great Victorian Way, Paxton pointed out that it took longer to travel by road between the mainline railway termini at Paddington and London Bridge than it did to travel by train between London Bridge and Brighton. It ran through to The Cut and Lambeth before crossing the Thames again south of the Houses of Parliament and it passed near Victoria Street and through Sloane Square, Brompton and Kensington Gardens to the Great Western terminus at Paddington. It then completed the circle by returning to Cheapside via south Islington, the girdle would be about ten miles long, and the branch one mile. Paxton told the select committee there was no need to take the further east as towards Whitechapel there are people who do not go about so much. The structure was modelled on Paxtons own Crystal Palace, a glass-roofed arcade 72 feet wide and 108 feet high would cover a central roadway. Between the City and Regents Street the roadway would have been lined with shops, while in Brompton, behind the shops and residences, there would be two levels of narrow-gauge atmospheric railway tracks on each side, one for fast trains and one for slow trains. Atmospheric railways had failed in the past, but Robert Stephenson, a double wall would insulate the residences from the noise of the trains. Existing streets would cross the roadway on the level, with the railways running uninterrupted above, people, I find, Paxton said will never go much above the ground, and they will never go under ground. The structure would be dry, well-ventilated and easy to maintain—being under cover the road would never become muddy, the same basic cross-section would have been used for the river crossings as for the parts across land creating inhabited bridges – Victorian equivalents of Old London Bridge. The walls of the arcade would be faced in ceramic tiles and its glass roof would keep out the polluted atmosphere of London, and promote a healthy circulation of air. In the section across Kensington Gardens there would be no shops or houses, and they would, however, have no direct link to any existing track. Paxton estimated the total cost at £34,000,000, income would have been generated from the rental from the shops and houses, and from the railway, with no tolls being charged for pedestrians or vehicle passengers. He estimated that the railway would carry about 105,000 passengers each day, report from the Select Committee on Metropolitan Communications, together with the proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence and Appendix
35.
Atmospheric railway
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An atmospheric railway uses differential air pressure to provide power for propulsion of a railway vehicle. A static power source can transmit power to the vehicle in this way. The air pressure, or partial vacuum can be conveyed to the vehicle in a continuous pipe, some form of re-sealable slot is required to enable the piston to be attached to the vehicle. Alternatively the entire vehicle may act as the piston in a large tube, a modern proprietary system has been developed and is in use for short-distance applications. In the early days of railways, single vehicles or groups were propelled by human power, as mechanical power came to be understood, locomotive engines were developed, the iron horse. Many engineers turned their attention to transmitting power from a power source. Such an engine could be more robust and with available space. The solution to transmitting the power, before the days of electricity, was the use of either a cable system or air pressure. In 1799 George Medhurst of London discussed the idea of moving goods pneumatically through cast iron pipes, Medhurst proposed two alternative systems, either the vehicle itself was the piston, or the tube was relatively small with a separate piston. He never patented his ideas and they were not taken further by him, to slow the vehicle down, doors were opened at each end of the vehicle. Vallances system worked, but was not adopted commercially, in 1835 Henry Pinkus patented a system with a large square section tube with a low degree of vacuum, limiting leakage loss. He later changed to a vacuum tube. He built a line alongside the Kensington Canal, and issued a prospectus for his National Pneumatic Railway Association. He was unable to interest investors, and his system failed when the rope stretched, however his concept, a small bore pipe with a resealable slot was the prototype for many successor systems. Jacob and Joseph Samuda were shipbuilders and engineers, and owned the Southwark Ironworks, samuel Clegg was a gas engineer and they worked in collaboration on their atmospheric system. About 1835 they read Medhursts writings, and developed a small bore vacuum pipe system, Clegg worked on a longitudinal flap valve, for sealing the slot in the pipe. In 1838 they took out a patent for a new improvement in valves, in 1840 Jacob Samuda and Clegg leased half a mile of railway line on the West London Railway at Wormholt Scrubs, where the railway had not yet been opened to the public. In that year Clegg left for Portugal, where he was pursuing his career in the gas industry, Samudas system involved a continuous cast iron pipe laid between the rails of a railway track, the pipe had a slot in the top
36.
London Road Cemetery
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London Road Cemetery is a 17 hectares cemetery in Coventry, England, designed by Joseph Paxton and opened in 1847. It lies South-East of the city centre and is bisected by the West Coast main railway line between Coventry and Rugby, which pre-dates the cemetery and runs roughly West-East through it. A Friends of London Road Cemetery group publish newsletters, organise guided tours, Paxton was commissioned by the Coventry Cemetery Committee on 9 October 1845. The chosen site was a quarry, which he first visited in early 1846. He presented his plan to the committee on 6 March 1846 and plans for the chapels. Planting began in November that year, using a variety of native and exotic trees, including Silver Birch, weeping Silver Lime, English Elm, the first superintendent, Paxton protege Richard Ashwell, and his successors continued the programme of planting. A number of buildings and structures survive. The chapel has two fluted columns at the front with a large portico between them. The building was abandoned after it was damaged during the Second World War and it has not been used since, nor has any restoration been undertaken, and the state of the building is described by English Heritage as dilapidated. There are 123 Commonwealth service war graves of the Second World War,21 of whom are in a group in Square 348. The group includes an officer and six men of a Royal Engineers bomb disposal team who were killed when a bomb they were working on after an air raid exploded
37.
Liverpool
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Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
38.
Birkenhead Park
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Birkenhead Park is a public park in the centre of Birkenhead, in the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral, in Merseyside, England. It was designed by Joseph Paxton and opened on 5 April 1847 and it is generally acknowledged as the first publicly funded civic park in the world. Paxton had earlier designed Princes Park, Liverpool, a private development, in 1841 an Improvement Commission – part of Birkenheads local government – proposed the idea of a municipal park. A Private Act of Parliament allowed it to use money to buy 226 acres of marshy grazing land on the western edge of Birkenhead. Plots of land on the edge of the park were then sold off in order to finance its construction. The Improvement Commission chose Paxton to design the park and Edward Kemp as the works supervisor because both had worked on redesigning the gardens at Chatsworth House. The park, which five years to build, was designed to be natural and informal rather than a structured neatly arranged urban garden. Several miles of pipes were lain to remove the water from the marshy land. The park also led to the diversion of Old Bidston Road, during construction, hundreds of tonnes of stone and earth was moved to create well-drained terraces, hills, rockeries and lakes. Paxton planted numerous trees and shrubs at various places so visitors would enjoy the surprise of unexpected views or hidden features as they wandered through the park, buildings included the Swiss Bridge, Boathouse, Norman Lodges, Gothic Lodge, Castellated Lodge and Italian Lodge. The Grand Entrance, which is one of several into the park, was built to look like a triumphal arch. As many as 10,000 people attended the opening in 1847. During the First World War, part of the park was used as a ground by the 3rd Battalion of the Cheshire Regiment. Recruits stayed at the Birkenhead Barracks on Grange Road West, conscientious objectors were sent to the 3rd Cheshires because the battalion had a tough reputation. The family of a trade unionist and conchie, George Beardsworth, watched as he was repeatedly beaten. Although his treatment at Birkenhead led to questions in Parliament and a case against the officers and men involved. In 1917 the National Eisteddfod of Wales, which was attended by Prime Minister David Lloyd George, was held within the park, the park had already paid host to the event in 1878 and 1879. During the Second World War the area was damaged by bombs, the park became run down and neglected towards the end of the part of the 20th century
39.
Halifax, West Yorkshire
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Halifax is a minster town in the Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale in West Yorkshire, England. The town has been a centre of manufacture from the 15th century onward. Halifax is known for Mackintoshs chocolate and toffee products including Rolo, the Halifax Building Society was also founded in Halifax. Dean Clough, one of the largest textile factories in the world at more than 1⁄2 mile long, was in the north of the town, the premises have since been converted for office and retail use including a gym, theatre, Travelodge and radio station. The towns name was recorded in about 1091 as Halyfax, from the Old English halh-gefeaxe and this explanation is preferred to derivations from the Old English halig, in hālig feax or holy hair, proposed by 16th century antiquarians. The incorrect interpretation gave rise to two legends, one concerned a maiden killed by a lustful priest whose advances she spurned. Another held that the head of John the Baptist was buried here after his execution, the legend is almost certainly medieval rather than ancient, although the towns coat of arms carries an image of the saint. Another explanation is a corruption of the Old English hay and ley a clearing or meadow and this etymology is based on Haley Hill, the nearby hamlet of Healey, and the common occurrence of the surnames Hayley/Haley around Halifax. The erroneous derivation from halig has given rise to the demonym Haligonian, the Earldom of Halifax took the name of the town. Its first creation, in the Peerage of England in 1677, was for William Savile, george Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, became the President of the Board of Trade in 1748. In 1749 he helped found Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia and he fostered trade, especially with North America. The Halifax River in Central Florida, United States, was named after him. Halifax is not mentioned in the Domesday Book, and evidence of the settlement is sketchy. By the 12th century the township had become the centre of the vast parish of Halifax. Halifax Minster, parts of which date from the 12th century is dedicated to St John the Baptist, the minsters first organist, in 1766, was William Herschel, who discovered the planet Uranus. The coat of arms of Halifax include the chequers from the coat of arms of the Earls Warenne. Halifax was notorious for its gibbet, a form of guillotine used to execute criminals by decapitation. A replica has been erected on the site in Gibbet Street
40.
People's Park, Halifax
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The Peoples Park is a park in Halifax, West Yorkshire, England. It was given to the people of Halifax in 1857 by local carpet manufacturer Sir Francis Crossley, the park was originally designed by Joseph Paxton, but suffering neglect in the late 20th century until a major restoration project which started in 1995. It is listed as Grade II* in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England, and the Crossley Pavilion, Peoples Park, Halifax, West Yorkshire, England. Case studies, Peoples Park, Halifax, West Yorkshire, visitor Safety in the Countryside Group. Discussion of safety issues around the pond during restoration
41.
Scarborough, North Yorkshire
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Scarborough is a town on the North Sea coast of North Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the town lies between 10–230 feet above sea level, rising steeply northward and westward from the harbour onto limestone cliffs, the older part of the town lies around the harbour and is protected by a rocky headland. With a population of just over 61,000, Scarborough is the largest holiday resort on the Yorkshire coast, the town has fishing and service industries, including a growing digital and creative economy, as well as being a tourist destination. Inhabitants of the town are known as Scarborians, the most striking feature of the towns geography is a high rocky promontory pointing eastward into the North Sea. The promontory supports the 11th century ruins of Scarborough Castle and separates the seafront into two bays, to the north and south, the South Bay was the site of the original early-medieval settlement and harbour, which form the old town. This remains the main tourist area, with a beach, cafés, amusements, arcades, theatres. The modern commercial centre has migrated 440 yards north-west of the harbour area and 100 feet above it and contains the transport hubs, main services, shopping. The harbour has undergone major regeneration including the new Albert Strange Pontoons, for many years a mock maritime battle has been regularly re-enacted on the boating lake with large model boats and fireworks throughout the summer holiday season. The North Bay Railway is a railway running from the park through Northstead Manor Gardens to the Sea Life Centre at Scalby Mills. The North Bay Railway has what is believed to be the oldest operational locomotive in the world. Neptune was built in 1931 by Hudswell Clarke of Leeds and is conveniently numbered 1931, Northstead Manor Gardens include the North Bay Railway and three other attractions, a water chute, a boating lake with boats for hire during the summer season and an open-air theatre. The Lord Mayor of London opened the theatre in 1932 and audiences flocked to see Merrie England, productions were put on during the summer seasons until musicals ceased in 1968 after West Side Story apart from a YMCA production in 1982. In 1997 the dressing rooms and stage set building on the island were demolished, the last concert to be held at the open-air theatre before it closed in 1986 was James Last and his orchestra. North Bay and South Bay are linked by Marine Drive, an extensive Victorian promenade, overlooking both bays is Scarborough Castle, which was bombarded by the German warships SMS Derfflinger and SMS Von der Tann in the First World War. Both bays have popular beaches and numerous rock-pools at low tide. The South Cliff Promenade above the Spa and South Cliff Gardens has excellent views of the South Bay and its splendid Regency and Victorian terraces are still intact, with a mix of quality hotels and flats. The ITV television drama The Royal and its recent spin-off series, the South Bay has the largest illuminated star disk anywhere in the UK. It is 85 feet across and fitted with subterranean lights representing the 42 brightest stars, to the south-west of the town, beside the York to Scarborough railway line, is an ornamental lake known as Scarborough Mere
42.
Coventry
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Coventry is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England. Historically part of Warwickshire, Coventry is the 9th largest city in England and it is the second largest city in the West Midlands region, after Birmingham, with a population of 345,385 in 2015. Coventry is 95 miles northwest of central London,19 miles east-south-east of Birmingham,24 miles southwest of Leicester and 11 miles north of Warwick. Coventry Cathedral was built after the destruction of the 14th century cathedral church of Saint Michael by the German Luftwaffe in the Coventry Blitz of 14 November 1940, Coventry motor companies have contributed significantly to the British motor industry. The city has two universities, Coventry University in the city centre and the University of Warwick on the southern outskirts. The Romans founded a settlement in Baginton, next to the River Sowe, and another formed around a Saxon nunnery, founded c. AD700 by St Osburga, that was later left in ruins by King Canutes invading Danish army in 1016. Earl Leofric of Mercia and his wife Lady Godiva built on the remains of the nunnery, in time, a market was established at the abbey gates and the settlement expanded. By the 14th century, Coventry was an important centre of the cloth trade, the bishops of Lichfield were often referred to as bishops of Coventry and Lichfield, or Lichfield and Coventry. Coventry claimed the status of a city by ancient prescriptive usage, was granted a charter of incorporation in 1345, the plays that William Shakespeare witnessed in Coventry during his boyhood or teens may have influenced how his plays, such as Hamlet, came about. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Coventry became one of the three main British centres of watch and clock manufacture and ranked alongside Prescot, in Lancashire, in the late 19th century, Coventry became a major centre of bicycle manufacture. The industry energised by the invention by James Starley and his nephew John Kemp Starley of the Rover safety bicycle, by the early 20th century, bicycle manufacture had evolved into motor manufacture, and Coventry became a major centre of the British motor industry. Jaguar is owned by the Indian company, Tata Motors, with many of the citys older properties becoming increasingly unfit for habitation, the first council houses were let to their tenants in 1917. With Coventrys industrial base continuing to soar after the end of the Great War a year later, numerous private and council housing developments took place across the city in the 1920s and 1930s. The development of a southern by-pass around the city, starting in the 1930s and being completed in 1940, Coventry suffered severe bomb damage during the Second World War. There was a massive Luftwaffe air raid, part of the Coventry Blitz, firebombing on this date led to severe damage to large areas of the city centre and to Coventrys historic cathedral, leaving only a shell and the spire. More than 4,000 houses were damaged or destroyed, along with three quarters of the citys industrial plants. More than 800 people were killed, with injured and homeless. Aside from London, Hull and Plymouth, Coventry suffered more damage than any other British city during the Luftwaffe attacks, following the raids, the majority of Coventrys historic buildings could not be saved as they were in ruinous states or were deemed unsafe for any future use
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"Paxton, Joseph". Dictionary of National Biography. 1885–1900.
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