1.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
–
The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
2.
National park
–
A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
3.
Riverside County, California
–
Riverside County, California is one of fifty-eight counties in the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,189,641, making it the 4th-most populous county in California, the name was derived from the city of Riverside, which is the county seat. Riverside County is included in the Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area, the county is also included in the Los Angeles-Long Beach, CA Combined Statistical Area. There is a concentration of sprawling tract housing communities around Riverside and along the Interstate 10,15. Roughly rectangle-shaped, Riverside County covers 7,208 square miles in Southern California, geographically, the county is mostly desert in the central and eastern portions, but has a Mediterranean climate in the western portion. Most of Joshua Tree National Park is located in the county, the resort cities of Palm Springs, Palm Desert, Indian Wells, La Quinta, Rancho Mirage, and Desert Hot Springs are all located in the Coachella Valley region of Riverside County. Large numbers of Los Angeles area workers have moved to the county in recent years to take advantage of affordable housing. Along with neighboring San Bernardino County, it was one of the fastest growing regions in the prior to the recent changes in the regional economy. In addition, smaller, but significant, numbers of people have been moving into Southwest Riverside County from the San Diego-Tijuana metropolitan area, the cities of Temecula and Murrieta accounted for 20% of the increase in population of the county between 2000 and 2007. The indigenous peoples of what is now Riverside County are the Luiseño, Cupeño, the Luiseño lived in the Aguanga and Temecula Basins, Elsinore Trough and eastern Santa Ana Mountains and southward into San Diego County. The Cahullia lived to the east and north of the Luiseño in the valleys, Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains. The first European settlement in the county was a Mission San Luis Rey de Francia estancia or farm, grain and grapes were grown here. In 1819, the Mission granted land to Leandro Serrano, mayordomo of San Antonio de Pala Asistencia for the Mission of San Luis Rey for Rancho Temescal, following Mexican independence and the 1833 confiscation of Mission lands, more ranchos were granted. New Mexican colonists founded the town of La Placita on the east side of the Santa Ana River at the extremity of what is now the city of Riverside in 1843. When the initial 27 California counties were established in 1850 the area known as Riverside County was divided between Los Angeles County and San Diego County. In 1853 the eastern part of Los Angeles County was used to create San Bernardino County, between 1891 and 1893 several proposals, and legislative attempts, were put forth to form new counties in Southern California. These proposals included one for a Pomona County and one for a San Jacinto County, none of the proposals were adopted until a measure to create Riverside County was signed by Governor Henry H. Markham on March 11,1893. The new county was created from parts of San Bernardino County, on May 2,1893, seventy percent of voters approved the formation of Riverside County
4.
San Bernardino County, California
–
San Bernardino County, officially the County of San Bernardino, is a county located in the southern portion of the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,035,210, making it the fifth-most populous county in California, the county seat is San Bernardino. With an area of 20,105 square miles, San Bernardino County is the largest county in the United States by area, although some of Alaskas boroughs and census areas are larger. It is larger than each of the nine smallest states, larger than the four smallest states combined, Spanish Missionaries from Mission San Gabriel Arcángel established a church at the village of Politania in 1810. Father Francisco Dumetz named the church San Bernardino on May 20,1810, the Franciscans also gave the name San Bernardino to the snowcapped peak in Southern California, in honor of the saint and it is from him that the county derives its name. In 1819, they established the San Bernardino de Sena Estancia, following Mexican independence from Spain in 1821, Mexican citizens were granted land grants to establish ranchos in the area of the county. Rancho Jurupa in 1838, Rancho Cucamonga and El Rincon in 1839, Rancho Santa Ana del Chino in 1841, Rancho San Bernardino in 1842 and Rancho Muscupiabe in 1844. Agua Mansa was the first town in what became San Bernardino County, some of the southern parts of the countys territory were given to Riverside County in 1893. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 20,105 square miles. It is the largest county by area in California and the largest in the United States and it is slightly larger than the states of New Jersey, Connecticut, Delaware and Rhode Island combined. It borders both Nevada and Arizona, the bulk of the population, roughly two million, live in the roughly 480 square miles south of the San Bernardino Mountains adjacent to Riverside and in the San Bernardino Valley. Over 300,000 others live just north of the San Bernardino Mountains, agglomerating around Victorville covering roughly 280 square miles in Victor Valley, roughly another 100,000 people live scattered across the rest of the sprawling county. The Mojave National Preserve covers some of the desert, especially between Interstate 15 and Interstate 40. The desert portion also includes the cities of Needles next to the Colorado River and Barstow at the junction in Interstate 15, trona is at the northwestern part of the county west of Death Valley. This national park, mostly within Inyo County, also has a portion of land within the San Bernardino County. The largest metropolitan area in the Mojave Desert part of the county is Victor Valley, with the localities of Adelanto, Apple Valley, Hesperia. Further south, a portion of Joshua Tree National Park overlaps the county near Twentynine Palms, additional places near and west of Twentynine palms include Yucca Valley, Joshua Tree, and Morongo Valley. The mountains are home to the San Bernardino National Forest, and include the communities of Crestline, Lake Arrowhead, Running Springs, Big Bear City, Forest Falls, the San Bernardino Valley is at the eastern end of the San Gabriel Valley
5.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Yucca Valley, California
–
Yucca Valley is an incorporated town in San Bernardino County, California, United States. The population was 20,700 as of the 2010 census, Yucca Valley is governed by a town council. The communitys mayor is Merl Abel, other town council members are Robert Lombardo, Rick Denison, Jeff Drozd, and Robert Leone. Yucca Valley contracts its police and public safety services from the San Bernardino County Sheriffs Department, Fire suppression and ambulance services are provided by the San Bernardino County Fire Department and Cal Fire. In the California State Legislature, Yucca Valley is in the 16th Senate District, represented by Republican Jean Fuller, in the United States House of Representatives, Yucca Valley is in Californias 8th congressional district, represented by Republican Paul Cook. Public education in Yucca Valley is under the administration of the Morongo Unified School District, Yucca Valley has three neighborhood elementary schools, one middle school, and two high schools. HOPE Academy, a charter school serves children in grades K–12. Adult tutoring is available in Yucca Valley, with tutoring information available at the Yucca Valley Public Library. Yucca Valley has three major means of access, State Route 62 runs east-west and is the main thoroughfare through town, State Route 247 begins in Yucca Valley and extends north through Barstow. Interstate access is southwest 17 miles to I-10 or northwest approximately 55 miles to I-15, the Morongo Basin Transit Authority serves the area with scheduled bus service around town and to the lower desert. Yucca Valley lies in the middle of the Morongo Basin at an elevation of 3,300 feet. Joshua Tree National Park is adjacent to its southern border, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 40.0 square miles. 40.0 square miles of it is land and none of it is covered in water, Yucca Valley is located north of the Joshua Tree National Park, while the Little San Bernardino Mountains and many hills cover a large percentage of city area. This Hi-Desert community has an elevation at 3,224 feet above sea level, snowfall occurs almost annually whenever the snow level drops to elevations under 4,000 feet. The areas terrain is prone to wildfires, resulting from plant growth during the rainy seasons, the plants in the city and among the chaparral in the mountains outside of San Bernardino National Forest wilt and perish from the summer heat, providing ample fuel during a fire. Yucca Valley has experienced high levels of seismic activity, fault lines criss-cross the city and the Morongo basin. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Yucca Valley has a cold desert climates, norman J. Essig was a key player in the late 1950s in working toward establishing Yucca Valley as a place for entertainment celebrities to come and live in privacy. He personally acquired hundreds of acres of land during this time and owned and he helped to put in the main roads that are running throughout the town off of Hwy 62
7.
San Bernardino, California
–
San Bernardino /ˈsæn ˌbɜːrnɑːrˈdiːnoʊ/ is a city located in the Riverside-San Bernardino metropolitan area. It serves as the county seat of San Bernardino County, California, as one of the Inland Empires anchor cities, San Bernardino spans 81 square miles on the floor of the San Bernardino Valley and has a population of 209,924 as of the 2010 census. San Bernardino is the 17th-largest city in California and the 100th-largest city in the United States, San Bernardino is home to numerous diplomatic missions for the Inland Empire, being one of four cities in California with numerous consulates. The governments of Guatemala and Mexico have established their consulates in the area of the city. California State University, San Bernardino is located in the part of the city. The university also hosts the Coussoulis Arena, in addition, the city is home to the Inland Empire 66ers baseball team, they play their home games at San Manuel Stadium in downtown San Bernardino. In August 2012, San Bernardino became the largest city to choose to file for protection under Chapter 9 of the U. S. Bankruptcy code, San Bernardinos case was filed on August 1. On December 2,2015, a terrorist attack left 14 people dead and 22 seriously injured, the city of San Bernardino, California, occupies much of the San Bernardino Valley, which indigenous tribespeople originally referred to as The Valley of the Cupped Hand of God. The Tongva Indians also called the San Bernardino area Waaach in their language, upon seeing the immense geological arrowhead-shaped rock formation on the side of the San Bernardino Mountains, they found the hot and cold springs to which the arrowhead seemed to point. Politana was the first Spanish settlement in the San Bernardino Valley, Two years later the settlement was destroyed by superstitious local tribesmen, following the powerful earthquakes that shook the region. Several years later, the Serrano and Mountain Cahuilla rebuilt the Politana rancheria and they did and established the San Bernardino de Sena Estancia. Serrano and Cahuilla people inhabited Politana until long after the 1830s decree of secularization, the city of San Bernardino one of the oldest communities in the state of California, and in its present-day location, was not largely settled until 1851, after California became a state. The first Anglo-American colony was established by pioneers associated with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or Mormons, hardworking Mormon colonists developed irrigated, commercial farming and lumbering, supplying agricultural produce and lumber throughout Southern California. The city was incorporated in the year 1857. Later that year most of the colonists were recalled by Brigham Young in 1857 due to the Utah War, once highly regarded in early California, news of the Mountain Meadows Massacre poisoned attitudes toward the Mormons. They sold these lands to new settlers who came to dominate the culture and politics in the county, many the new land owners unlike the sober Mormons, indulged in drinking at saloons now allowed in the town. Disorder, fighting and violence in the vicinity became common, reaching a climax in the 1859 Ainsworth - Gentry Affair, in 1860 a gold rush began in the mountains nearby with the discovery of gold by William F. Holcomb in Holcomb Valley early 1860. Another strike followed in the reach of Lytle Creek
8.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
National Park Service
–
It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
10.
Landsat program
–
The Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite imagery of Earth. On July 23,1972 the Earth Resources Technology Satellite was launched and this was eventually renamed to Landsat. The most recent, Landsat 8, was launched on February 11,2013, the instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. Landsat 7 data has eight spectral bands with spatial resolutions ranging from 15 to 60 meters, Landsat images are usually divided into scenes for easy downloading. Each Landsat scene is about 115 miles long and 115 miles wide, Hughes Santa Barbara Research Center initiated, designed, and fabricated the first three Multispectral Scanners in 1969, the same year man landed on the moon. The first prototype MSS was completed nine months, in the fall of 1970. It was tested by scanning Half Dome at Yosemite National Park, the program was initially called the Earth Resources Technology Satellites Program, which was used from 1966 to 1975. In 1975, the name was changed to Landsat and this occurred in 1985 when the Earth Observation Satellite Company, a partnership of Hughes Aircraft and RCA, was selected by NOAA to operate the Landsat system with a ten-year contract. EOSAT operated Landsat 4 and Landsat 5, had rights to market Landsat data. In 1989, this transition had not been completed when NOAAs funding for the Landsat program was due to run out. The head of the newly formed National Space Council, Vice President Dan Quayle, noted the situation and arranged emergency funding that allowed the program to continue with the data archives intact. Again in 1990 and 1991, Congress provided only half of the funding to NOAA. In 1992, various efforts were made to procure funding for follow on Landsats and continued operations, Landsat 6 was finally launched on October 5,1993, but was lost in a launch failure. Processing of Landsat 4 and 5 data was resumed by EOSAT in 1994, NASA finally launched Landsat 7 on April 15,1999. Timeline Landsat missions 1 through 5 carried the Landsat Multispectral Scanner and this construct ensured the secondary mirror would simply oscillate about the primary optic axis to maintain focus despite vibration inherent from the 360 mm beryllium scan mirror. This engineering solution allowed the United States to develop LANDSAT at least five years ahead of the French SPOT and this was a direct result of the commercialization efforts begun under the Carter administration, though finally completed under the Reagan administration. This main plate was assembled on a frame, then attached to the magnesium housing with helicoil fasteners. Key to the success of the multi spectral scanner was the scan monitor mounted on the underbelly of the magnesium housing, the beam struck the beryllium scan mirror seven times as it reflected seven times off the flat mirrors
11.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
12.
U.S. National Park
–
The United States has 59 protected areas known as national parks that are operated by the National Park Service, an agency of the Department of the Interior. National parks must be established by an act of the United States Congress. The first national park, Yellowstone, was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1872, followed by Mackinac National Park in 1875, many current National Parks had been previously protected as National Monuments by the President under the Antiquities Act before being upgraded by Congress. Criteria for the selection of National Parks include natural beauty, unique features, unusual ecosystems. National Monuments, on the hand, are frequently chosen for their historical or archaeological significance. Fourteen national parks are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites, while twenty one are designated UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, twenty-seven states have national parks, as do the territories of American Samoa and the United States Virgin Islands. California has the most, followed by Alaska, Utah, the largest national park is Wrangell–St. Elias in Alaska, at over 8 million acres, it is larger than each of the nine smallest states, the next three largest parks are also in Alaska. The smallest park is Hot Springs, Arkansas, at less than 6 thousand acres. The total area protected by national parks is approximately 52.2 million acres, for an average of 885 thousand acres but a median of only 236 thousand acres at Mount Rainier, the 30th largest park. The most-visited national park is Great Smoky Mountains in North Carolina and Tennessee, with over 11.3 million visitors in 2016, followed by Arizonas Grand Canyon, in contrast, only 10,047 people visited the remote Gates of the Arctic in Alaska in the same year. A few former national parks are no longer designated as such, other units of the National Park Service are broadly referred to as national parks, they are listed here. S
13.
United States Congress
–
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
14.
California Desert Protection Act of 1994
–
The Act abolished Death Valley National Monument, established in 1933 and 1937, and incorporated its lands into a new Death Valley National Park administered as part of the National Park System. Grazing of domestic livestock was permitted to continue at no more than the then-current level, the Act also required the Secretary of the Interior to study the suitability of lands within and outside the boundaries of the park as a reservation for the Timbisha Shoshone Tribe. The Act abolished Joshua Tree National Monument, established in 1936, the Act established the Mojave National Preserve, consisting of approximately 1,419,800 acres, and abolished the East Mojave National Scenic Area, which was designated in 1981. The preserve was to be administered in accordance with National Park System laws, hunting, fishing and trapping were permitted as allowed by federal and state laws, with certain exceptions. Mining claims were governed by the National Park System laws, flights by military aircraft over the lands designated by the Act were not restricted or precluded, including overflights that can be seen or heard from these lands. February 7,1986 California Desert Protection Act, Bill S.2061 introduced by Alan Cranston U. S. Senator. January 21,1993 Bill introduced by U. S, october 8,1994 The bill passes the Senate cloture vote, 68-23. October 31,1994 The bill is signed into law by President Bill Clinton, California Desert Protection Act of 2010
15.
National Monument (United States)
–
Historically, some national monuments were managed by the War Department. National monuments can be so designated through the power of the Antiquities Act of 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt used the act to declare Devils Tower in Wyoming as the first national monument. The Antiquities Act of 1906 resulted from concerns about protecting mostly prehistoric Native American ruins, the Act authorized permits for legitimate archaeological investigations and penalties for taking or destroying antiquities without permission. Among the next three monuments he proclaimed in 1906 was Petrified Forest in Arizona, another natural feature, in 1908, Roosevelt used the act to proclaim more than 800,000 acres of the Grand Canyon as a national monument. In 1918, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed Katmai National Monument in Alaska, Katmai was later enlarged to nearly 2,800,000 acres by subsequent Antiquities Act proclamations and for many years was the largest national park system unit. Petrified Forest, Grand Canyon, and Katmai were among the national monuments later converted to national parks by Congress. Substantial opposition did not materialize until 1943, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt proclaimed Jackson Hole National Monument in Wyoming. He did this to accept a donation of lands acquired by John D. Rockefeller, roosevelts proclamation unleashed a storm of criticism about use of the Antiquities Act to circumvent Congress. A bill abolishing Jackson Hole National Monument passed Congress but was vetoed by Roosevelt, the proclamation authority was not used again anywhere until 1996, when President Bill Clinton proclaimed the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument in Utah. This action was unpopular in Utah, and bills were introduced to further restrict the presidents authority. To date, none of them have been enacted, presidents have used the Antiquities Acts proclamation authority not only to create new national monuments but to enlarge existing ones. For example, Franklin D. Roosevelt significantly enlarged Dinosaur National Monument in 1938, lyndon B. Johnson added Ellis Island to Statue of Liberty National Monument in 1965, and Jimmy Carter made major additions to Glacier Bay and Katmai National Monuments in 1978. Marine National Monument List of U. S. National Forests List of areas in the National Park System of the United States List of U. S
16.
Yucca brevifolia
–
Yucca brevifolia is a plant species belonging to the genus Yucca. It is tree-like in habit, which is reflected in its names, Joshua tree, yucca palm, tree yucca. It thrives in the grasslands of Queen Valley and Lost Horse Valley in Joshua Tree National Park. The name Joshua tree was given by a group of Mormon settlers crossing the Mojave Desert in the mid-19th century, the trees unique shape reminded them of a Biblical story in which Joshua reaches his hands up to the sky in prayer. Ranchers and miners who were contemporary with the Mormon immigrants used the trunks and branches as fencing and it is also called izote de desierto. It was first formally described in the literature as Yucca brevifolia by George Engelmann in 1871 as part of the Geological Exploration of the 100th meridian or Wheeler Survey. In addition to the autonymic subspecies Yucca brevifolia subsp, brevifolia, two other subspecies have been described, Yucca brevifolia subsp. Herbertii, though both are treated as varieties or forms. Joshua trees are fast growers for the desert, new seedlings may grow at a rate of 7.6 cm per year in their first ten years. The trunk consists of thousands of small fibers and lacks annual growth rings and this tree has a top-heavy branch system, but also what has been described as a deep and extensive root system, with roots reaching up to 11 m. If it survives the rigors of the desert, it can live for hundreds of years, the tallest trees reach about 15 m. New plants can grow from seed, but in some populations, the leaf margins are white and serrate. Flowers appear from February to late April, in panicles 30–55 cm tall and 30–38 cm broad, the tepals are lanceolate and are fused to the middle. The fused pistils are 3 cm tall and the cavity is surrounded by lobes. The semi-fleshy fruit that is produced is green-brown, elliptical, Joshua trees usually do not branch until after they bloom, and they do not bloom every year. Like most desert plants, their blooming depends on rainfall at the proper time and they also need a winter freeze before they bloom. Once they bloom, the trees are pollinated by the yucca moth, the moth larvae feed on the seeds of the tree, but enough seeds are left behind to produce more trees. The Joshua tree is able to actively abort ovaries in which too many eggs have been laid
17.
Rhode Island
–
Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island
18.
Desert
–
A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation, about one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the regions where little precipitation occurs. Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation falls, by the temperature that prevails. Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces, although rain seldom occurs in deserts, there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods. Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and this picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms. Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface, rocks are smoothed down, and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits. The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes, other deserts are flat, stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones. These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place, other desert features include rock outcrops, exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water. Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate, there may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers. Where these are found, oases can occur, plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment. Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves, water-resistant cuticles, some annual plants germinate, bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long-lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture. Animals need to cool and find enough food and water to survive. Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day and they tend to be efficient at conserving water, extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine. Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods and they then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy. People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding lands for millennia. Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available, the cultivation of semi-arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification. Many trade routes have been forged across deserts, especially across the Sahara Desert, large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara
19.
Ecosystem
–
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles, as ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun and it generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have different characteristics simply because they contain different species. The introduction of species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present, although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate. Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance, classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this. The term ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley, Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment. Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates, Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. G. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the driver of the ecosystem. Most mineral nutrients, on the hand, are recycled within ecosystems. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, external factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem
20.
Mojave Desert
–
The Mojave Desert is an arid rain-shadow desert and the driest desert in North America. It is located in the southwestern United States, primarily within southeastern California and southern Nevada, very small areas also extend into Utah and Arizona. The central part of the desert is sparsely populated, while its peripheries support large communities such as Las Vegas, Lancaster, Palmdale, Victorville, the Mojave Desert is bordered by the Great Basin Desert to its north and the Sonoran Desert to its south and east. Topographical boundaries include the Tehachapi Mountains to the west, and the San Gabriel Mountains, the mountain boundaries are distinct because they are outlined by the two largest faults in California – the San Andreas and Garlock faults. The Mojave Desert displays typical basin and range topography and it occupies less than 50,000 sq mi, making it the smallest of the North American deserts. The Mojave Desert is often referred to as the desert, in contrast to the low desert. However, the Mojave Desert is generally lower than the Great Basin Desert to the north, the spelling Mojave originates from the Spanish language while the spelling Mohave comes from modern English. The Mojave Desert receives less than 13 in of rain a year and is generally between 2,000 and 5,000 feet in elevation, zion National Park in Utah lies at the junction of the Mojave, the Great Basin Desert, and the Colorado Plateau. Despite its aridity, the Mojave has long been a center of production, fed by irrigation coming from groundwater. The Mojave is a desert of temperature extremes and two distinct seasons, winter months bring comfortable daytime temperatures, which dip precipitously to around 20 °F on valley floors, and below 0 °F at higher elevations. Storms moving from the Pacific Northwest can bring rain and in places even snow. More often, the shadow created by the Sierra Nevada as well as mountain ranges within the desert such as the Spring Mountains, bring only clouds. By early June, it is rare for another Pacific storm to have a significant impact on the regions weather, summer weather is dominated by heat. Temperatures on valley floors can soar above 120 °F and above 130 °F at the lowest elevations, low humidity, high temperatures, and low pressure, draw in moisture from the Gulf of Mexico creating thunderstorms across the desert southwest known as the North American monsoon. Autumn is generally pleasant, with one to two Pacific storm systems creating regional rain events, october is one of the driest and sunniest months in the Mojave, and temperatures usually remain between 70 °F and 90 °F on the valley floors. After temperature, wind is the most significant weather phenomenon in the Mojave, during the June Gloom, cooler air can be pushed out into the desert from Southern California. In Santa Ana wind events, hot air from the desert blows out into the Los Angeles basin, wind farms in these areas generate power from these winds. The other major factor in the region is elevation
21.
Little San Bernardino Mountains
–
The Little San Bernardino Mountains are a short mountain range of the Transverse Ranges, located in southern California in the United States. They extend for approximately 40 mi southeast from the San Bernardino Mountains through San Bernardino and Riverside Counties to near the northeast edge of the Salton Sink, the community of Palm Springs looks north and northeast across the Coachella Valley to the range. The range transitions the separation from the Coachella Valley in the Colorado Desert on the south to the Mojave Desert on the north, the peaks vary in height from approximately 4, 000–5,000 ft. The range highpoint is Quail Mountain, elevation 5,813, much of the eastern end of the range is within Joshua Tree National Park. Big Morongo Canyon Preserve is also located in the Little San Bernardino Mountains, the oasis here contains one of the ten largest cottonwood and red willow Riparian zone habitats in California. It was identified as an area of concern by the Bureau of Land Management in 1982 and it also has the only native palm to California, Washingtonia filifera, or the Desert fan palm which is now common in artificial landscaping. The Colorado River Aqueduct, which water for Los Angeles, San Bernardino
22.
Serrano people
–
The Serrano are an indigenous people of California. They use the autonyms of Taaqtam, meaning people, Maarengayam, people from Morongo, today the Maarengayam are enrolled in the Morongo Band of Mission Indians, and the Yuhaviatam are enrolled in the San Manuel Band of Mission Indians. Additionally, some Serrano people are enrolled in the Soboba Band of Luiseno Indians, the Serrano historically lived in the San Bernardino Mountains and other Transverse Ranges, and in the southern Mojave Desert, within Southern California. The Serrano language is part of the Takic subset of the large Uto-Aztecan languages group of people of North America. The language family historically extended from Mexico along the West Coast and into the Great Basin and they were a branch of the Takic languages speaking people who arrived in Southern California around 2,500 years ago. Serrano means highlander or mountaineer in Spanish, the Spanish founded Mission San Gabriel Arcangel in 1771, south of the San Gabriel Mountains and southwest of the San Bernardino Mountains. With the Cahuilla and Quechan tribes, in 1812 the Serrano revolted against it, in 1834 the Mexican Alta California government forcibly relocated many Serrano to the missions. They suffered devastating smallpox outbreaks in 1840 and 1860, as they had no immunity to the Eurasian disease, in 1867 the Yuhaviatam band of Serrano were the victims of a massacre conducted by American settlers of the San Bernardino Valley, during a 32-day campaign at Chimney Rock. The massacre was a response to a raid, probably carried out by Chemehuevi Southern Paiutes, on a settlement at Lake Arrowhead. Three American ranch hands were killed at a ranch called Los Flores in Summit Valley, tribal leader Santos Manuel led the survivors from the mountains to the valley, where they established permanent residence adjacent to the hot springs near present-day Highland. In 1891 the United States established the San Manuel Reservation for the Serrano people, the Serrano populated the San Bernardino Mountains and extended northwest into the Mojave River area of the Mojave Desert and west into the Tejon Creek watershed in the Tehachapi Mountains. The Serrano populations along Tejon Creek were identified as the Cuahajai or Cuabajay, mountain camps were used for hunting. One such encampment was accidentally unearthed by the U. S. Forest Service fighting a wildfire in 2003 near Baldwin Lake, uncovered were artifacts of non-local jasper and obsidian, ash and charcoal, grinding stones, and fire pits possibly dating back 1,000 years. Their society was divided into two exogamous moieties and their villages had from 25 to a hundred people. Their dwellings were large and communal, framed with willow branches and covered over with woven mats, the lodges were made with fireplaces inside for each family. The men did not wear clothing and the women wore deerskin, otter, the Serrano who inhabited the San Bernardino Mountains would go to the milder areas of Apple Valley and Lucerne Valley during the winter, and the area in and around Big Bear Lake during the summer. They hunted small game such as rabbits, using traps along with bows and arrows and they did not hunt the grizzly bears, which they believed were reincarnations of their ancestors spirits. They were skilled craftsmen and experts in basketweaving, which created in a variety of sizes and shapes for different purposes, such as storage, carrying
23.
Cahuilla
–
The ʔívil̃uqaletem are Native Americans of the inland areas of southern California. Their original territory included an area of about 2,400 square miles, the traditional Cahuilla territory was near the geographic center of Southern California. The Cahuilla language is in the Uto-Aztecan family, a 1990 census revealed 35 speakers in an ethnic population of 800. It is critically endangered, since most speakers are middle-aged or older, in their own language, their autonym is ʔívil̃uqaletem, and the name of their language is ʔívil̃uʔat, however they also call themselves táxliswet meaning person. Cahuilla is an exonym applied to the group after mission secularization in the Ranchos of California, the word Cahuilla is probably from the Ivilyuat word kawia, meaning master. Oral legends suggest that when the Cahuilla first moved into the Coachella Valley, fed by the Colorado River, it dried up sometime before 1700, following one of the repeated shifts in the rivers course. In 1905 a break in a created the much smaller Salton Sea in the same location. The Cahuilla lived from the land by using native plants, a notable tree whose fruits they harvested is the California fan palm. The Cahuilla also used palm leaves for basketry of many shapes, sizes and purposes, sandals, the Cahuilla lived in smaller groups than some other tribes. The first encounter with Europeans was in 1774, when Juan Bautista de Anza was looking for a route between Sonora and Monterey in Alta California. Living far inland, the Cahuilla had little contact with Spanish soldiers, priests, many of the Europeans viewed the desert as having little or no value, but rather a place to avoid. The Cahuilla learned of Spanish missions and their culture from Indians living close to missions in San Gabriel and San Diego. The Cahuilla provided the vaqueros that worked for the owners of the Rancho San Bernardino, the Cahuilla did not encounter Anglo-Americans until the 1840s. Chief Juan Antonio, leader of the Cahuilla Mountain Band, gave traveler Daniel Sexton access to areas near the San Gorgonio Pass in 1842. The Mountain Band also lent support to a U. S. Army expedition led by Lieutenant Edward Fitzgerald Beale, defending the party against attacks by Wakara and his band of Ute warriors. During the Mexican-American War, Chief Juan Antonio led his warriors to join Californios led by José del Carmen Lugo in attacking their traditional enemy, Lugo led this action in retaliation for the Pauma Massacre, in which the Luiseno had killed 11 Californios. The combined forces staged an ambush and killed 33–40 of the Luiseno warriors, in the treaty ending the war with Mexico, the US promised to honor Mexican land grants and policies. These included recognition of Native American rights to certain lands
24.
Chemehuevi
–
The Chemehuevi are an indigenous people of the Great Basin. They are the southernmost branch of Paiute and it is considered to either be a Mojave term meaning those who play with fish, or a Quechan word meaning nose-in-the-air-like-a-roadrunner. The Chemehuevi call themselves Nüwüwü or Tantáwats, meaning Southern Men, the language, Chemehuevi, is a Colorado River Numic language, in the Numic language branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. First transcribed by John P. Harrington and Carobeth Laird in the early 20th century, whose field notes and extensive sound recordings remain available. In 2015, the Siwavaats Junior College in Havasu Lake, California has been established to teach children the language, a Chemehuevi dictionary with 2,500 words is expected to become available in 2016. The Chemehuevi were originally a desert tribe among the Nüwü or Paiute-Shoshone nations, post-contact, they lived primarily in the eastern Mojave Desert and later Cottonwood Island in Nevada and the Chemehuevi Valley along the Colorado River in California. They were a people living in small groups given the sparse resources available in the desert environment. They are most closely identified as among the Great Basin Indians, among others they are cousins of the Kawaiisu. Estimates for the populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. Alfred L. Kroeber estimated the combined 1770 population of the Chemehuevi, Koso, the combined estimate in 1910 dropped to 500. An Indian agent reported the Chemehuevi population in 1875 to be 350, Kroeber estimated U. S. census data put the Chemehuevi population in 1910 as 355. Population as of 2016 is in the 1000s, Chemehuevi traditional narratives Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas Clemmer, Richard O. and Omer C. In Great Basin, edited by Warren L. dAzevedo, pp. 525–557, handbook of North American Indians, William C. Concise Encyclopedia of the American Indian, 3rd ed. Wings Books, New York. Handbook of the Indians of California, bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No.78. In Great Basin, edited by Warren L. dAzevedo, pp. 608–619, handbook of North American Indians, William C. A Native American Encyclopedia, History, Culture, and Peoples, Official Colorado River Indian Tribes website Official Chemehuevi Indian Tribe of the Chemehuevi Reservation website — in San Bernardino County, California. Chemehuevi Language Archive, 1970s Fieldwork and Analysis by Margaret L
25.
Twentynine Palms, California
–
Twentynine Palms is a city in San Bernardino County, California, United States. It was previously called Twenty-Nine Palms, the city is located in the Mojave Desert in Southern California. It lies on the side of the Joshua Tree National Park and includes one of the entrances to the Park. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 59.1 square miles. The city is at an elevation of 1,988 feet, the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms is located there. Temperatures reach 100 °F on 90 days,90 °F on 155 days, extremes range from 10 °F on December 23,1990 to 118 °F on July 11,1961. Twentynine Palms was named for the trees found there in 1852 by Col. Henry Washington while surveying the San Bernardino base line. A post office was established in 1927, nearby is a small Indian reservation belonging to the Twentynine Palms Band of Mission Indians. The Joshua Tree National Park wilderness area lies just alongside to the South of Twentynine Palms was designated a National Monument in 1936. The nearby Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms was founded in 1952 and its population as of July 1,2013 was estimated at 25,768. As of the census of 2010, there were 25,048 people,8,095 households, the population density was 423.5 people per square mile. There were 9,431 housing units at a density of 159.5 per square mile, of which 2,742 were owner-occupied. The homeowner vacancy rate was 3. 6%, the vacancy rate was 9. 2%. 6,876 people lived in owner-occupied housing units and 14,825 people lived in housing units. The racial makeup of the city was 71. 6%, White,8. 2% African American,1. 3% Native American,3. 9% Asian,1. 4% Pacific Islander,6. 7% from other races, and 6. 9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 20. 8% of the population, the Census reported that 21,701 people lived in households, and 3,347 lived in non-institutionalized group quarters. There were 5. 0% unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 1. 6% same-sex married couples or partnerships,21. 1% of households were made up of individuals and 5. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the family size was 3.10
26.
Amphibian
–
Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. They inhabit a variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, the young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs. They are superficially similar to lizards but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are amniotes, the earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia. The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura, Urodela, and Apoda, the number of known amphibian species is approximately 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian in the world is a frog from New Guinea with a length of just 7.7 mm. The largest living amphibian is the 1.8 m Chinese giant salamander, the study of amphibians is called batrachology, while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology. The word amphibian is derived from the Ancient Greek term ἀμφίβιος, the term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes, the numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species is over 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. With the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within groups, like the Temnospondyli or the Lepospondyli. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, all modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade, a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura, Caudata, and Gymnophiona, although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest true frog is Prosalirus bitis, from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona. It is anatomically similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, Eocaecilia micropodia, the earliest salamander is Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China
27.
Mohave people
–
Mohave or Mojave are a Native American people indigenous to the Colorado River in the Mojave Desert. The Fort Mojave Indian Reservation includes territory within the borders of California, Arizona, the Colorado River Indian Reservation includes parts of California and Arizona and is shared by members of the Chemehuevi, Hopi, and Navajo peoples. The original Colorado River and Fort Mojave reservations were established in 1865 and 1870, both reservations include substantial senior water rights in the Colorado River, water is drawn for use in irrigated farming. In the 1930s, George Devereux, a Hungarian-French anthropologist, did fieldwork and he published extensively about their culture and incorporated psychoanalytic thinking in his interpretation of their culture. The Mojave language belongs to the River Yuman branch of the Yuman language family, in 1994 approximately 75 people in total on the Colorado River and Fort Mojave reservations spoke the language, according to linguist Leanne Hinton. The tribe has published language materials, and there are new efforts to teach the language to their children, the Mohave creator is Matevilya, who gave the people their names and their commandments. His son is Mastamho, who gave them the River and taught them how to plant, historically this was an agrarian culture, they planted in the fertile floodplain of the untamed river, following the age-old customs of the Aha macave. They have traditionally used Datura in a religious sacrament, a Mohave who is coming of age must consume the plant in a rite of passage, in order to enter a new state of consciousness. Much of early Mojave history remains unrecorded in writing, since the Mojave language was not written in precolonial times and they depended on oral communication to transmit their history and culture from one generation to the next. Disease, outside cultures and encroachment on their territory disrupted their social organization, together with having to adapt to a majority culture of another language, this resulted in interrupting the Mojave transmission of their stories and songs to the following generations. The tribal name has been spelled in Spanish and English transliteration in more than 50 variations, such as Hamock avi, Amacava, A-mac-ha ves, A-moc-ha-ve, Jamajabs, and Hamakhav. This has led to misinterpretations of the name, also partly traced to a translation error in Frederick W. Hodges 1917 Handbook of the American Indians North of Mexico. This incorrectly defined the name Mohave as being derived from hamock, according to this source, the name refers to the mountain peaks known as The Needles in English, located near the Colorado River. But, the Mojave call these peaks Huqueamp avi, which means where the took place, referring to the battle in which the God-son, Mastamho. As related to contemporary landmarks, their lands began in the north at Hoover Dam and ended about one hundred miles below Parker Dam on the Colorado River and it was intended to protect east-west European-American emigrants from attack by the Mojave. By that time, white immigrants and settlers had begun to encroach on Mojave lands, in competition for scarce resources in the desert, they sometimes got into violent conflict with the indigenous people, who were trying to protect their territory. Hoffman sent couriers among the tribes, warning that the post would be gained by force if they or their allies chose to resist, instead, the army occupied the site without armed conflict. The Mojave warriors withdrew as Hoffmans formidable armada approached, and the expedition posted camp near the future Fort Mojave
28.
Pedro Fages
–
Fages was born in Guissona, Lérida/Lleida province, Catalonia, Spain. In 1762 he entered the infantry in Catalonia in 1762. In May 1767 Fages, commissioned as a lieutenant in the newly formed Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia, set sail from Cádiz along with a company of light infantry and he and his men served under Domingo Elizondo in Sonora. In 1769, Fages was selected by visitador José de Gálvez to lead the portion of the Gaspar de Portolá-led expedition to found San Diego. Lieutenant Fages sailed from Guaymas to the Baja California port of La Paz, then on January 9,1769, he boarded the galleon San Carlos, captained by Vicente Vila and bound for San Diego. Also on board were Franciscan friar Fernando Parrón, engineer and cartographer Miguel Costansó, surgeon Pedro Prat, after sailing nearly 200 miles beyond San Diego due to cartography errors, the San Carlos doubled back south. It finally arrived in San Diego Bay on April 29, with scurvy-ridden troops, in his letter reporting to Gálvez, Fages observed of the local Kumeyaay Indians, …They appear to be docile and alert. We have made good friends with them and we are never lacking some little rabbits, hares. We give them some glass beads, but they value very highly any kind of cloth — no matter how poor it might be — since in exchange for some that I had, I received some furs and nets. Costansó, while branding the Kumeyaay as lazy idlers, noted that they have bestowed great affection upon Don Pedro Fages and they have invited him at various times to be with their women, an expression of friendship that the rest have not merited. Fages ordered a leather target erected at a practical distance, the Indians fired their arrows, which had only a mild effect on the leather. Fages then ordered his best marksmen to shoot at the same target, upon hearing the noise and seeing the destruction so close at hand, the Indians changed their expressions and some of the more timid ones left, giving very clear signs of their surprise and fear. On July 14,1769, Fages set out from San Diego with a party of 74 men on the Portolá expedition to locate Monterey Bay. The party included Catalonian volunteers, leather-jacketed soldiers, Christian Indians from Baja California, during this time he was promoted to captain. Although the party failed to recognize Monterey Bay as they passed it, the 74 men returned exhausted to San Diego on January 24,1770, having had to slaughter and eat their mules on the return trek south. In March 1770 Felipe de Barri, in Baja California, was governor of both Baja and Alta California. But, since Monterey was far away, Fages had free rein to run Alta as acting governor, taking charge of constructing the Spanish presidio in Monterey, Fages imposed strict discipline on his soldier laborers. He decided the amount of work they had to do in a certain time, heavy rains punctuated the spring and winter of 1770-1, but Fages permitted no let-up in the work
29.
Alta California
–
Alta California, founded in 1769 by Gaspar de Portolà, was a polity of New Spain and after the Mexican War of Independence in 1822, a territory of Mexico. The region included all of the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Large areas east of the Sierra Nevada and San Gabriel Mountains were claimed to be part of Alta California, to the southeast, beyond the deserts and the Colorado River, lay the Spanish settlements in Arizona. The areas formerly comprising Alta California were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican–American War in 1848, two years later, California joined the union as the 31st state. Other parts of Alta California became all or part of the later U. S. states of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The Spanish explored the area of Alta California by sea beginning in the 16th century. During the following two centuries there were plans to settle the area, none of which were effectively carried out. Ultimately, New Spain did not have the resources nor population to settle such a far northern outpost. To ascertain the Russian threat a number of Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest were launched, the Spanish Crown funded the construction and subsidized the operation of the missions, with the goal that the relocation, conversion and enforced labor of Native people would bolster Spanish rule. The first Alta California mission and presidio were established by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra, the following year,1770, the second mission and presidio were founded in Monterey. In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu, the missionary effort coincided with the construction of presidios and pueblos, which were to be manned and populated by Hispanic people. The first pueblo founded was San José in 1777, followed by Los Ángeles in 1781, by law, mission land and property were to pass to the indigenous population after a period of about ten years, when the natives would become Spanish subjects. In the interim period, the Franciscans were to act as mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Native residents, the transfer of property never occurred under the Franciscans. As the number of Spanish settlers grew in Alta California, the boundaries, conflicts between the Crown and the Church and between Natives and settlers arose. State and ecclesiastical bureaucrats debated over authority of the missions and they advocated that the Natives owned property and had the right to defend it. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta and Baja Californias official borders, Mexico won independence in 1822, and Alta California became a territory of Mexico. The Spanish and later Mexican governments rewarded retired soldados de cuera with large grants, known as ranchos, for the raising of cattle. Hides and tallow from the livestock were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century, the construction, ranching and domestic work on these vast estates was primarily done by Native Americans, who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses
30.
Jedediah Smith
–
Jedediah Strong Smith, was a clerk, frontiersman, hunter, trapper, author, cartographer, and explorer of the Rocky Mountains, the North American West, and the Southwest during the early 19th century. Coming from a modest family background, Smith traveled to St. Louis and joined William H. Ashley, Smith led the first documented exploration from the Salt Lake frontier to the Colorado River. From there, Smiths party became the first white Americans to cross the Mojave Desert into California, on the return journey, Smith and his companions were the first United States citizens to explore and eastwardly cross the Sierra Nevada and the treacherous Great Basin Desert. Smith and his companions were also the first white Americans to travel up the California coast to reach the Oregon Country, surviving three Indian massacres and one bear mauling, Jedediah Smiths explorations and documented travels were important resources to later American westward expansion. In March 1831, while in St. Louis, Smith requested of Secretary of War John H, Eaton a federally funded exploration of the West, but to no avail. Smith informed Eaton that he was completing a map of the West derived from his own journeys, in May, Smith and his partners launched a planned para-military trading party to Santa Fe. On May 27, while searching for water in present-day southwest Kansas and it was learned some weeks later that he had been killed during an encounter with the Comanche. After his death, Smiths memory and his accomplishments were mostly forgotten by his countrymen, at the beginning of the 20th century, scholars and historians made efforts to recognize and study his achievements. In 1918, a book by Harrison Clifford Dale was published covering Ashley-Smith western explorations, in 1935, Smiths summary autobiography was finally listed in a biographical dictionary. Smiths first comprehensive biography by Maurice S. Sullivan was published in 1936, a popular Smith biography by Dale Morgan, published in 1953, established Smith as an authentic national hero. Smiths map of the West in 1831 was superimposed by the U. S. Army, Smiths father was a New Hampshire native. Smith received an adequate English instruction, learned some Latin, and was taught how to write decently. Around 1810, Smiths father, who owned a store, was caught up in a legal issue involving counterfeit currency, after which the elder Smith moved his family west to Erie County. At the age of 13, Smith worked as a clerk on a Lake Erie freighter and this work gave Smith an ambition for adventurous wilderness trade. According to Dale L. Morgan, Smiths love of nature and adventure came from his mentor, Dr. Titus G. V. Simons, Smith would provide Clark, who had become Superintendant of Indian Affairs, much information on Smiths expeditions into the West. In 1817, the Smith family moved again, to Ohio. Coming from a family of very modest means, Smith struck out to make his own way and he may have left his family in search of a trade or employment a year prior to their settlement in Green Township. In 1822, Smith was living in St. Louis, the same year Smith responded to an advertisement in the Missouri Gazette placed by Gen. William H. Ashley
31.
Cattle raiding
–
Cattle raiding is the act of stealing cattle. In Australia, such stealing is often referred to as duffing, in North America, especially in cowboy culture, cattle theft is dubbed rustling and an individual who engages in it is a rustler. The act of cattle rustling is quite ancient, historically, the first suspected raids occurred over seven thousand years ago. Cattle raiding is one of the oldest known aspects of Proto-Indo-European culture with a modern legacy, abduction of women and theft of livestock were and are practiced in many pastoral cultures. These myths are often paired with myths of the abduction of women, in the American frontier, rustling was considered a serious offense, and in some cases resulted in vigilantes hanging the thieves. One cause of tensions between Mexico and the United States in the leading up to the Mexican–American War was the frequent raiding of cattle by Native Americans from north of the border. Mexicos military and diplomatic capabilities had declined after it attained independence and left the northern half of the vulnerable to the Apache, Comanche. The Indian raids left thousands of dead and devastated northern Mexico. When American troops entered northern Mexico in 1846 they found a people and little resistance from the civilian population. Mexican rustlers were an issue during the American Civil War. American rustlers also stole Mexican cattle from across the border, failure to brand new calves facilitated theft. Conflict over alleged rustling was an issue in the Johnson County War in the U. S. state of Wyoming. The transition from open range to fenced grazing gradually reduced the practice of rustling in North America, in the 20th century, so called suburban rustling became more common, with rustlers anesthetizing cattle and taking them directly to auction. This often takes place at night, posing problems for law enforcement, the Pokot and Samburu Nilotic populations in northwestern Kenya often raid each other for cattle. Cattle rustling is a problem in rural areas of South Sudan. In the state of Jonglei, cattle raids in August 2011 left around 600 people dead. Once again in January 2012, ethnic clashes related to cattle theft killed between 2,000 and 3,000 people and displaced as many as 34,500 in the area around Pibor. Several indigenous groups and outlaws, such as the Boroano and Ranquel peoples, to prevent the cattle raiding, the Argentine government built a system of trenches called Zanja de Alsina in the 1870s
32.
Canyon
–
A canyon or gorge is a deep cleft between escarpments or cliffs resulting from the erosive activity of a river over geologic timescales. A canyon may also refer to a rift between two peaks, such as those in ranges including the Rocky Mountains, the Alps. Usually a river or stream and erosion carve out such splits between mountains, examples of mountain-type canyons are Provo Canyon in Utah or Yosemite National Park in Californias Sierra Nevada. Canyons within mountains, or gorges that have an opening on one side are called box canyons. Slot canyons are very narrow canyons, often with smooth walls, steep-sided valleys in the seabed of the continental slope underwater are referred to as submarine canyons. Unlike canyons on land, submarine canyons are thought to be formed by turbidity currents, the word canyon is Spanish in origin, with the same meaning. The word canyon is used in North America while the words gorge and ravine are used in Europe and Oceania, though gorge. In the United States, place names generally use canyon in the southwest and gorge in the northeast, in Canada, a gorge is usually narrow while a ravine is more open and often wooded. The military-derived word defile is occasionally used in the United Kingdom, most canyons were formed by a process of long-time erosion from a plateau or table-land level. The cliffs form because harder rock strata that are resistant to erosion, Canyons are much more common in arid than in wet areas because physical weathering has a more localized effect in arid zones. The wind and water from the combine to erode and cut away less resistant materials such as shales. The freezing and expansion of water also serves to help form canyons, water seeps into cracks between the rocks and freezes, pushing the rocks apart and eventually causing large chunks to break off the canyon walls, in a process known as frost wedging. Canyon walls are formed of resistant sandstones or granite. Sometimes large rivers run through canyons as the result of geological uplift. These are called entrenched rivers, because they are unable to alter their course. In the United States, the Colorado River in the Southwest, Canyons often form in areas of limestone rock. As limestone is soluble to an extent, cave systems form in the rock. When these collapse, a canyon is left, as in the Mendip Hills in Somerset and Yorkshire Dales in Yorkshire, England
33.
Cow Camp
–
Cow Camp, located in Joshua Tree National Park, was associated with cattle rustling in the 1880s and 1890s. It was then used as a line camp for cattle ranching. A stone chimney, two dams, watering troughs and a well remain. One dam was built by local rancher and character William F. Keys, the camp was first established by the McHaney Gang in the late 1880s. Cattle rustlers used the camp into the 1890s, jim McHaney reputedly murdered the discoverer of the Desert Queen Mine before losing it to a bank, then sold Cow Camp in 1894 to George Myers. McHaney eventually was convicted of counterfeiting $20 gold pieces in gold-plated lead and was sentenced to seventeen years in jail, in the 1920s Bill Keys, who had inherited McHaneys holdings, took over Cow Camp as part of his ranching operation. Keys Desert Queen Ranch Wall Street Mill
34.
Barker Dam (California)
–
Barker Dam, also known as the Big Horn Dam, is a water-storage facility located in Joshua Tree National Park in California. The dam was constructed by early cattlemen, including CO Barker and it was raised in 1949 by rancher William F. Keys. It is situated between Queen Valley and the Wonderland of Rocks near the Wall Street Mill and it is a gathering place for desert wildlife, including many species of birds and Desert Bighorn Sheep. Visitors can reach the dam via a trail from a nearby parking lot. There is also good bouldering on side trails near the dam, the park offers a Barker Dam Nature Hike led by a ranger. The lowest nine feet of the dam, the original portion, was constructed of concrete surfaced with stone on the downstream side, the height of the dam was raised an additional six feet with concrete in 1949-1950. An inscription at top reads, Big Horn Dam Built by Willis Keys, the Barker Dam Loop trail is 1.5 miles round trip and has little elevation gain. It goes from the lot at Barker Dam, past the dam and several good boulder climbing areas. The trail offers good birding near the lake and at several spots along the trail that are surrounded by brush and it is a popular trail and is crowded midday. As of February 2013 the dam was closed to access due to numerous instances of graffiti and carvings on the dam itself. Barker Dam is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, list of lakes in California U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Barker Dam
35.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
36.
Stamp mill
–
A stamp mill is a type of mill machine that crushes material by pounding rather than grinding, either for further processing or for extraction of metallic ores. Breaking material down is a type of unit operation, a stamp mill consists of a set of heavy steel stamps, loosely held vertically in a frame, in which the stamps can slide up and down. They are lifted by cams on a rotating shaft. As the cam moves from under the stamp, the stamp falls onto the ore below, crushing the rock, and the lifting process is repeated at the next pass of the cam. Each one frame and stamp set is called a battery or, confusingly. They usually are arranged linearly, but when a mill is enlarged, abandoned mill sites will usually have linear rows of foundation sets as their most prominent visible feature as the overall apparatus can exceed 20 feet in height, requiring large foundations. Stamps are usually arranged in sets of five, some ore processing applications used large quantities of water so some stamp mills are located near natural or artificial bodies of water. For example, the Redridge Steel Dam was built to supply stamp mills with process water, the main components for water-powered stamp mills – water wheels, cams, and hammers – were already known by the Greeks in Hellenistic times. Ancient cams are in evidence in early water-powered automata from the third century BC and these trip-hammers were used for the pounding and hulling of grain. Apart from agricultural processing, archaeological evidence also suggests the existence of trip hammers in Roman metal working. In Ickham in Kent, a large metal hammer-head with mechanical deformations was excavated in an area where several Roman water-mills and metal waste dumps have also been traced. The widest application of stamp mills, however, seems to have occurred in Roman mining, here, the regularity and spacing of large indentations on stone anvils indicate the use of cam-operated ore stamps, much like the devices of later medieval mining. Stamp mills were used by miners in Samarkand as early as 973 and they were used in medieval Persia to crush mineral ores. By the 11th century, stamp mills were in use throughout the medieval Islamic world, from Islamic Spain. Water-powered and mechanised trip hammers reappeared in medieval Europe by the 12th century and their use was described in medieval written sources of Styria, written in 1135 and another in 1175 AD. Both texts mentioned the use of vertical stamp mills for ore-crushing, medieval French sources of the years 1116 and 1249 both record the use of mechanised trip hammers used in the forging of wrought iron. Medieval European trip hammers by the 15th century were most often in the shape of the vertical pestle stamp-mill, the well-known Renaissance artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci often sketched trip hammers for use in forges and even file-cutting machinery, those of the vertical pestle stamp-mill type. The oldest depicted European illustration of a martinet forge-hammer is perhaps the Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus of Olaus Magnus, in this woodcut image, there is the scene of three martinets and a waterwheel working wood and leather bellows of an osmund bloomery furnace
37.
Desert Queen Mine
–
The Desert Queen Mine was one of the more successful and long-lived mines of the high desert in San Bernardino County, California. The abandoned mine is located in Joshua Tree National Park, the mine is associated with Jim McHaney, a local cattle rustler, and Bill Keys, a noted rancher. The mine facilities are largely ruinous, the mine was not spectacularly successful but was sufficiently productive to remain in operation for nearly seventy-five years. The mine itself consisted of vertical and horizontal shafts, of which four vertical shafts, five inclined shafts. Tailings piles appear in places, with quantities of machinery scattered about the site. The mine was established by a man named Frank L. James in the early 1890s, the rich ore initially found prompted local outlaw gang leader and cattle rustler Jim McHaney to take over the mine. McHaney sent two of his men, Charley Martin and a man named Myers, to demand the mine from James, James refused, and Martin shot and killed him with a gun borrowed from Myers, after forcing James to sign over the property. Martin was acquitted of charges on grounds of self-defense. McHaney initially prospered but borrowed heavily to expand and fell behind on payments to the bank, the mine passed into the hands of William F. Keys around 1917, who operated the mine until 1961. Cow Camp, home of the McHaney Gang Keys Desert Queen Ranch Wall Street Mill
38.
Keys Desert Queen Ranch
–
The Keys Ranch is the prime example of early settlement in the Joshua Tree National Park area. Bill Keys was the leading character, and his ranch is a symbol of the resourcefulness of early settlers. The ranch is a complex of small frame buildings built between 1910 and Keys death in 1969. Keys pursued both ranching and mining to make a living in the desert, william F. Keys was born at Palisade, Nebraska in 1879. After working as a hand and smelter worker, he was a deputy sheriff in Mohave County. During a time in Death Valley, he befriended Death Valley Scotty and he arrived in the Twentynine Palms, California area in 1910. In the area that became Joshua Tree National Park, he acquainted with local outlaw and cattle rustler Jim McHaney. Keys eventually took over McHaneys properties after McHaneys death, gradually expanding what became the Desert Queen, Keys married Francis M. Lawton in 1918, and they had seven children together, three of whom died and were buried at the ranch. During a dispute over the Wall Street Mill, Keys shot, Keys was convicted of murder and went to San Quentin Prison, where Keys educated himself in the library. Keys was paroled in 1950 and was pardoned in 1956 through the efforts of Erle Stanley Gardner, mining equipment at the ranch includes an arrastra and a stamp mill for ore processing. Other buildings include a barn, a schoolhouse, a tack shed, machine shed, cemetery. Park rangers provide guided walking tours of the ranch from October through May, tours are limited in size and should be booked in advance. CA-2347, Desert Queen Ranch, Twentynine Palms vicinity, San Bernardino, cA-2347-A, Desert Queen Ranch, Keys Ranch House HABS No. CA-2347-B, Desert Queen Ranch, Storehouse HABS No, cA-2347-C, Desert Queen Ranch, Guest House HABS No. CA-2347-D, Desert Queen Ranch, Schoolhouse HABS No, cA-2347-E, Desert Queen Ranch, North House HABS No. CA-2347-F, Desert Queen Ranch, Tack House HABS No, cA-2347-G, Desert Queen Ranch, South House HABS No. CA-2347-H, Desert Queen Ranch, Machine Shop Historic American Engineering Record No, cA-111-A, Desert Queen Ranch, One Stamp Gold Mill HAER No. CA-111-B, Desert Queen Ranch, Huntington Mill Desert USA article about Keys Desert Queen Ranch Digital Desert 360 immersive image of the Desert Queen Ranch
39.
Wall Street Mill
–
The Wall Street Mill in Joshua Tree National Park was a complete and operable gold ore crushing mill featuring late-19th Century two-stamp mill machinery. Consequently the significance encompasses the mill machinery, the building which houses it, the well which supplied water for the operation. It is the gold ore crushing mill in the region that retains integrity. The stamp mill building is framed with timber and built on a downward sloping hillside to take advantage of gravity in the milling process. The roof and some of the walls are covered with corrugated sheet metal. A gasoline engine powered the mill, it was built by the Western Gas Engine Company of Los Angeles, a Myer concentrating table was used in separating the gold from the ore. The complex included the mill, a well, a bunkhouse, the supporting buildings are largely ruinous. The mill was built by Bill Keys, a rancher, miner and character. In the 1940s, Keys was involved in a dispute with Worth Bagley over access to the Wall Street Mill. Keys shot and killed Bagley in 1943 and placed a stone commemorating the event with the inscription, Here is where Worth Bagley bit the dust at the hand of W. F. Keys, the marker is not a part of the Wall Street Mill historic district. Keys Desert Queen Ranch Desert Queen Mine Cow Camp Barker Dam Historic American Engineering Record No, cA-110, Wall Street Gold Mill, Twentynine Palms vicinity, San Bernardino County, CA
40.
Minerva Hamilton Hoyt
–
Minerva Hamilton Hoyt was an early American activist who worked to preserve California desert areas, including Joshua Tree National Park. Minerva Hamilton was born on March 27,1866 on a plantation near Durant, after marrying Dr. Albert Sherman Hoyt, she moved with him to Pasadena, California. In Pasadena, she was a socialite and civic activist, working for a variety of civic causes. Hoyt became interested in Southern Californias desert plants through her interest in gardening, particularly cactus, after the death of her husband in 1918, she became concerned that increased automobile traffic in the desert was threatening the area. She began to desert plants across the country, to educate people about their qualities. She later exhibited as far as London, in 1930, Hoyt founded the International Desert Conservation League. Throughout the 1930s she worked to encourage the state of California to create three parks, including Joshua Tree, Death Valley, and Anza-Borrego Desert and she also persuaded the Mexican government to set aside 10,000 acres for cactus preservation. In 1936, her efforts persuaded the administration of President Roosevelt to designate more than 800,000 acres in the area as the Joshua Tree National Monument. In 1931, a species of Mexican cactus was named after Hoyt In 2013, the Joshua Tree National Park Association annually honors notable achievement on behalf of the deserts of California with a Minerva Hoyt Award
41.
Antiquities Act
–
The Antiquities Act of 1906, is an act passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by Theodore Roosevelt on June 8,1906. The Act has been used over a hundred times since its passage and its use occasionally creates significant controversy. Removal of artifacts from these lands by private collectors – pot hunters and his findings, supported by an exhaustive report by Hewett to Congress detailing the archaeological resources of the region, provided the necessary impetus for the passage of the legislation. The Act was intended to allow the President to set aside certain valuable public natural areas as park, the 1906 act stated that it was intended for. The protection of objects of historic and scientific interest and these areas are given the title of National Monuments. It also allows the President to reserve or accept private lands for that purpose, the aim is to protect all historic and prehistoric sites on United States federal lands and to prohibit excavation or destruction of these antiquities. With this act, this can be much more quickly than going through the Congressional process of creating a National Park. The Act states that areas of the monuments are to be confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper care, some areas designated as National Monuments have later been converted into National Parks, or incorporated into existing National Parks. The first use of the Act protected a large geographic feature – President Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower National Monument on September 24,1906, President Roosevelt also used it to create the Grand Canyon National Monument – the first step in protecting that place of great historic and scientific interest. At 583,000 square miles, Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument is the largest protected area proclaimed, the smallest, Father Millet Cross National Monument, was a mere 0.0074 acres. For any excavation, the Act requires that a permit be obtained from the Secretary of the department which has jurisdiction over those lands, presidential powers under the Act have been reduced twice. The first time followed the proclamation of Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943. The second time followed Jimmy Carters use of the Act to create fifty-six million acres of National Monuments in Alaska, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act requires Congressional ratification of the use of the Antiquities Act in Alaska for withdrawals of greater than 5,000 acres. However, the episode states that the President can declare a National Park instead of a National Monument
.jpg)
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service.
Proclamation 2193: Joshua Tree National Monument, California, lands set apart.. Wikisource. 1936-08-10.
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Geographic data related to Joshua Tree National Park at OpenStreetMap
Geographic data related to 
