1.
Governor of Alta California
–
This is a list of the Governors of early California, 1769–1850, before its admission as the 31st U. S. state. Founded by Gaspar de Portolá at San Diego and Monterey, the vast country was a sparsely-settled Spanish province for 53 years, a year after Mexicos independence from Spain, Alta California became a federal territory of Mexico. As time went on, Alta Californians began to resent Mexicos neglect and incompetent, beginning with the Tennessean-led revolt of 1824, California resisted Mexican rule, culminating in the revolution of 1836. Two years later, California was admitted as a state by the government in faraway Mexico City. The revolution in November 1836 found success when the Diputación of California declared independence, california-born Juan Alvarado was elected governor, who then gathered support for independence from the whole country, from Sonoma to Los Angeles. Mexico retaliated by propping up Carlos Carillo as puppet-governor in Los Angeles and inciting a brief and that conflict ended in 1838, when the general government of Mexico accepted California as a sovereign state and recognized Alvarado as the real governor. The territorial Diputación became the new states Asambléa, in 1846, the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma declared California an independent republic—the Bear Flag Republic. The government was separated permanently from Mexico, less than a month later, the independent republic came under American protection. Like Texas, the Republic of California never was demoted to a U. S. territory but was admitted directly as the 31st U. S. state on September 9,1850, peter Burnett, the last governor of the republic, became its first governor after admission. For governors of the state after admission in September 1850, see List of Governors of California, Gaspar de Portolá founded the first Spanish settlements in Alta California at San Diego, and at Monterey, the first capital. Californias first revolt against Mexico took place the year as Mexicos first constitution,1824. In 1836, California declared Independence from Mexico and fashioned its own flag, after 1837, the governorship was disputed between popularly elected Alvarado, in the capital, and Mexican puppet Carlos Carrillo, in Los Angeles. This ended when Mexico conceded statehood to California and recognized Alvarado as its legal governor, military governors were appointed during this time, until Burnett. On September 9,1850, California was admitted into the U. S, List of Governors of California List of Texas Governors and Presidents List of Spanish governors of New Mexico Irvine, Leigh H. Vol. I, Chapter III. A History of The New California, Its Resources And People, New York, The Lewis Publishing Company
Governor of Alta California
–
Gaspar de Portolá, first Governor of California
Governor of Alta California
–
José Castro
Governor of Alta California
–
Juan Bautista Alvarado
Governor of Alta California
–
Pío Pico
2.
Manuel Micheltorena
–
José Manuel Micheltorena was a brigadier general of the Mexican Army, adjutant-general of the same, governor, commandant-general and inspector of the department of Alta California, then within Mexico. Micheltorena was the last non-Californian Mexican governor before Californian native son Pío Pico took office, Micheltorena received this appointment by the President of Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna and served from 30 December 1842, until his ouster in 1845. Micheltorena was instrumental in the privatisation of California land by rancho land grants, with his loyalties firmly seated in Mexico City, he faced criticism, opposition, and eventually war from the Californios in Alta California. Micheltorena lost to Juan Bautista Alvarado and the Californios in the 1845 Battle of Providencia, a History Of The New California - Its Resources And People. New York, The Lewis Publishing Company
Manuel Micheltorena
–
Manuel Micheltorena
3.
Monterey, California
–
The City of Monterey in Monterey County is located on the southern edge of Monterey Bay, in the Northern Portion of Californias Central Coast. It stands at an elevation of 26 feet above sea level, the 2010 census recorded a population of 27,810. Monterey was the capital of Alta California under both Spain and Mexico and it was the only port of entry for taxable goods in California. In 1846 the U. S. flag was raised over the Customs House, the city had Californias first theater, public building, public library, publicly funded school, printing press, and newspaper. The city and surrounding area have attracted artists since the late 19th century, until the 1950s, there was an abundant fishery. Among Montereys notable present-day attractions are the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Cannery Row, Fishermans Wharf, long before the arrival of Spanish explorers, the Rumsen Ohlone tribe, one of seven linguistically distinct Ohlone groups in California, inhabited the area now known as Monterey. They subsisted by hunting, fishing and gathering food on and around the biologically rich Monterey Peninsula, researchers have found a number of shell middens in the area and, based on the archaeological evidence, concluded the Ohlones primary marine food consisted at various times of mussels and abalone. A number of sites have been located along about 12 miles of rocky coast on the Monterey Peninsula from the current site of Fishermans Wharf in Monterey to Carmel. In 1602, Spanish maritime explorer Sebastian Vizcaino recorded the name Bahía de Monterrey, Vizcaino landed at the southern end of the bay and described a great port, suitable for use as an anchorage by southbound Manila galleons. Vizcaino also noted and named the Point of Pines, all other uses of the name Monterey derive from Vizcainos name for the bay. Variants of the name are recorded as Monte Rey and Montery. In 1769, the first European land exploration of Alta California, for some reason, the explorers failed to recognize the place when they came to it on October 1,1769. The party continued north as far as San Francisco Bay before turning back, on the return journey, they camped near one of Montereys lagoons on November 27, still not convinced they had found the place Vizcaino had described. Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí noted in his diary, We halted in sight of the Point of Pines and camped near a lagoon which has rather muddy water. Portolá returned by land to Monterey the next year, having concluded that he must have been at Vizcainos Port of Monterey after all, the land party was met at Monterey by Junípero Serra who traveled by sea. Portolá erected the Presidio of Monterey to defend the port and, on June 3,1770, Portolá returned to Mexico, replaced in Monterey by Captain Pedro Fages, who had been third in command on the exploratory expeditions. Fages became the governor of Alta California, serving from 1770 to 1774. Serras missionary aims soon came into conflict with Fages and the soldiers, the existing wood and adobe building became the chapel for the Presidio
Monterey, California
–
Fisherman's Wharf and downtown rooftops, seen from
Monterey Bay
Monterey, California
–
Construction on the
Custom House began in 1814 under Spanish rule. This photo dates from 1936.
Monterey, California
–
Birds along a rock sea wall near the Coast Guard Station, which borders the
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary
Monterey, California
–
Monterey Wharf and Harbor area
4.
San Pablo, California
–
San Pablo is a city in Contra Costa County, California, United States. The city of Richmond surrounds nearly the whole city, the population was 29,139 at the 2010 census. The current Mayor is Rich Kinney, and the current Vice Mayor is Paul V. Morris, current Council members include Cecilia Valdez, Kathy Chao Rothberg, and Rich Kinney. The area in which todays San Pablo is situated was originally occupied by the Cuchiyun band of the Ohlone indigenous people, the area was claimed for the king of Spain in the late 18th century and was granted for grazing purposes to the Mission Dolores located in todays San Francisco. The grant was given the name Rancho San Pablo, thus originating the name for todays city as well as for one of the East Bays oldest principal roads, todays San Pablo Avenue. Upon Gabriélas death in 1851, it was inherited by her daughter, Martina Castro de Alvarado, wife of Juan Bautista Alvarado, the Alvarado Adobe was demolished in the mid-20th century to make way for a motel. A reproduction was built later in the century which is located in the San Pablo Civic Center on the northwest corner of San Pablo Avenue and Church Lane. A single beam from the structure is incorporated into the roof of the replacement structure. The first post office was established in 1854, since the middle of the 20th Century College Center at El Portal has been the backbone of the communitys retail economy. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.6 square miles. San Pablo lies on a plain between the northern end of the Berkeley Hills and San Pablo Bay, although the city limits do not extend to the bayshore. The city is traversed by two creeks, Wildcat Creek and San Pablo Creek, both of which originate in the ranges to its southeast. The minor Rheem Creek also runs through the city and it is also traversed along its northeast limits by the Hayward Fault, a major branch of the San Andreas Fault which lies to the west. Interstate 80 passes through San Pablo, there are several communities to the north of the City and separated from the City, but which have San Pablo, California mailing addresses. These include the areas of Tara Hills, Bayview. According to the Citys 2010 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are, the 2010 United States Census reported that San Pablo had a population of 29,139. The population density was 11,063.4 people per square mile. The racial makeup of San Pablo was 9,391 White,4,600 African American,244 Native American,4,353 Asian,172 Pacific Islander,8,812 from other races, Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16,462 persons
San Pablo, California
–
Bodies of water
San Pablo, California
–
Location in
Contra Costa County and the state of
California
5.
Alta California
–
Alta California, founded in 1769 by Gaspar de Portolà, was a polity of New Spain and after the Mexican War of Independence in 1822, a territory of Mexico. The region included all of the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Large areas east of the Sierra Nevada and San Gabriel Mountains were claimed to be part of Alta California, to the southeast, beyond the deserts and the Colorado River, lay the Spanish settlements in Arizona. The areas formerly comprising Alta California were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican–American War in 1848, two years later, California joined the union as the 31st state. Other parts of Alta California became all or part of the later U. S. states of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The Spanish explored the area of Alta California by sea beginning in the 16th century. During the following two centuries there were plans to settle the area, none of which were effectively carried out. Ultimately, New Spain did not have the resources nor population to settle such a far northern outpost. To ascertain the Russian threat a number of Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest were launched, the Spanish Crown funded the construction and subsidized the operation of the missions, with the goal that the relocation, conversion and enforced labor of Native people would bolster Spanish rule. The first Alta California mission and presidio were established by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra, the following year,1770, the second mission and presidio were founded in Monterey. In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu, the missionary effort coincided with the construction of presidios and pueblos, which were to be manned and populated by Hispanic people. The first pueblo founded was San José in 1777, followed by Los Ángeles in 1781, by law, mission land and property were to pass to the indigenous population after a period of about ten years, when the natives would become Spanish subjects. In the interim period, the Franciscans were to act as mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Native residents, the transfer of property never occurred under the Franciscans. As the number of Spanish settlers grew in Alta California, the boundaries, conflicts between the Crown and the Church and between Natives and settlers arose. State and ecclesiastical bureaucrats debated over authority of the missions and they advocated that the Natives owned property and had the right to defend it. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta and Baja Californias official borders, Mexico won independence in 1822, and Alta California became a territory of Mexico. The Spanish and later Mexican governments rewarded retired soldados de cuera with large grants, known as ranchos, for the raising of cattle. Hides and tallow from the livestock were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century, the construction, ranching and domestic work on these vast estates was primarily done by Native Americans, who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses
Alta California
–
Map of N. America showing California when it was part of New Spain. Map dated 1789 from
Dobson's Encyclopedia.
Alta California
–
Mexico in 1838. From Britannica 7th edition
Alta California
–
Map of Mexico. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847. New California is depicted with a north-eastern border at the meridian leading north of the
Rio Grande headwaters.
6.
Cavalry
–
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the most mobile of the combat arms, an individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations such as cavalryman, horseman, dragoon or trooper. The designation of cavalry was not usually given to any military forces that used animals, such as camels. Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a man fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. In Europe cavalry became increasingly armoured, and eventually became known for the mounted knights, in the period between the World Wars, many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops. Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, modern usage of the term generally refers to specialist units equipped with tanks or aircraft. The shock role, traditionally filled by heavy cavalry, is filled by units with the armored designation. Before the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots, the chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, Cavalry techniques were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Central Asian and Iranian steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Persian Parthians and Sarmatians. The photograph above left shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC, at this time, the men had no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs, the reins of the archer were controlled by his neighbours hand. Even at this time, cavalry used swords, shields. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist, Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. As early as 490 BC a breed of horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour. However, chariots remained in use for purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph. The southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC, the last mention of chariot use in battle was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius, in 84 AD. During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to citizens who could afford expensive war-horses
Cavalry
–
French 4th Hussars at the
battle of Friedland, 1807
Cavalry
–
African horseman of
Baguirmi in full
padded armour suit
Cavalry
–
Assyrian cavalry
Cavalry
–
Parthian horseman, now on display at the
Palazzo Madama, Turin.
7.
General
–
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
General
–
Shang Jiang (
Republic of China Army)
General
–
General de Exército (
Brazilian Army)
General
–
Kenraali (collar and sleeve) (
Finnish Army)
General
–
Heneral (
Philippine Army)
8.
Californio
–
The Californio era was from the first Spanish presence established by the Portolá expedition in 1769 until the regions cession to the United States of America in 1848. Non-Spanish-speaking immigrants who 1) became naturalized Mexican citizens, 2) married Californios, such residents, by these actions, became eligible to own land and receive rancho grants from the Mexican government. Most such grants occurred after mission secularization in the 1830s, an even looser definition may include descendants of Californios, especially those who married other Californio descendants. The much larger population of non-Spanish-speaking indigenous peoples of California who lived in the prior to. Many Californios, however, were the California-born children of non-Spanish speakers who married Spanish speakers, such spouses usually also converted to the Catholic faith and, after Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821, often became naturalized Mexican citizens. The military, religious and civil components of pre-1848 Californio society were embodied in the presidios, missions. After secularization, the Mexican authorities divided most of the lands into new ranchos. The Spanish colonial and later Mexican national governments encouraged settlers from the northern and western provinces of Mexico, People from other parts of Latin America did settle in California. However, only a few official colonization efforts were ever undertaken—notably the second expedition of Juan Bautista de Anza, children of those few early settlers and retired soldiers became the first Californios. Sporadic colonization efforts continued under Mexican rule, including the Hijar-Padres group of 1834, One genealogist estimated that, by 2004, between 300,000 and 500,000 Californians were descendants of Californios. Alta California was nominally controlled by a national-government appointed governor, the governors of California were at first appointed by the Viceroy, and after 1821 by the approximate 40 Mexican Presidents from 1821 to 1846. The costs of the minimum Alta California government were paid by means of a roughly 40–100% import tariff collected at the entry port of Monterey. The other center of Spanish power in Alta California was the Franciscan friars who, as heads of the 21 missions, none of the Franciscan friars were Californios, however, and their influence rapidly waned after the secularization of the missions in the 1830s. Governors had little support from far-away Mexico to deal with Alta Californians. Mexico-born governor Manuel Victoria was forced to flee in 1831, after losing a fight against an uprising at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass. As Californios matured to adulthood and increasingly assumed positions of power in the Alta California government, several times, Californio leaders attempted to break away from Mexico, most notably Juan Bautista Alvarado in 1836. Southern regional leaders, led by Pio Pico, made attempts to relocate the capital from Monterey to the more populated Los Angeles. Alvarado recruited a company of Tennessean riflemen, many of them former trappers who had settled in the Monterey Bay area, the company was led by another American, Isaac Graham, the Americans refused to fight against fellow Americans
Californio
–
José Antonio Estudillo
Californio
–
USS Cyane taking San Diego 1846
Californio
–
Juan Bautista Alvarado
Californio
–
The
California state flag flying at
San Francisco City Hall
9.
List of Governors of California before admission
–
This is a list of the Governors of early California, 1769–1850, before its admission as the 31st U. S. state. Founded by Gaspar de Portolá at San Diego and Monterey, the vast country was a sparsely-settled Spanish province for 53 years, a year after Mexicos independence from Spain, Alta California became a federal territory of Mexico. As time went on, Alta Californians began to resent Mexicos neglect and incompetent, beginning with the Tennessean-led revolt of 1824, California resisted Mexican rule, culminating in the revolution of 1836. Two years later, California was admitted as a state by the government in faraway Mexico City. The revolution in November 1836 found success when the Diputación of California declared independence, california-born Juan Alvarado was elected governor, who then gathered support for independence from the whole country, from Sonoma to Los Angeles. Mexico retaliated by propping up Carlos Carillo as puppet-governor in Los Angeles and inciting a brief and that conflict ended in 1838, when the general government of Mexico accepted California as a sovereign state and recognized Alvarado as the real governor. The territorial Diputación became the new states Asambléa, in 1846, the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma declared California an independent republic—the Bear Flag Republic. The government was separated permanently from Mexico, less than a month later, the independent republic came under American protection. Like Texas, the Republic of California never was demoted to a U. S. territory but was admitted directly as the 31st U. S. state on September 9,1850, peter Burnett, the last governor of the republic, became its first governor after admission. For governors of the state after admission in September 1850, see List of Governors of California, Gaspar de Portolá founded the first Spanish settlements in Alta California at San Diego, and at Monterey, the first capital. Californias first revolt against Mexico took place the year as Mexicos first constitution,1824. In 1836, California declared Independence from Mexico and fashioned its own flag, after 1837, the governorship was disputed between popularly elected Alvarado, in the capital, and Mexican puppet Carlos Carrillo, in Los Angeles. This ended when Mexico conceded statehood to California and recognized Alvarado as its legal governor, military governors were appointed during this time, until Burnett. On September 9,1850, California was admitted into the U. S, List of Governors of California List of Texas Governors and Presidents List of Spanish governors of New Mexico Irvine, Leigh H. Vol. I, Chapter III. A History of The New California, Its Resources And People, New York, The Lewis Publishing Company
List of Governors of California before admission
–
Gaspar de Portolá, first Governor of California
List of Governors of California before admission
–
José Castro
List of Governors of California before admission
–
Juan Bautista Alvarado
List of Governors of California before admission
–
Pío Pico
10.
Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo
–
Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo was a Californio military commander, politician, and rancher. He served in the first session of the California State Senate, the city of Vallejo, California is named for him, and the nearby city of Benicia is named for his wife. Mariano Vallejo was born in Monterey, California, the eighth of thirteen children and third son of Ignacio Vicente Ferrer Vallejo, there is controversy over Vallejos exact date of birth. According to Vallejo himself, and his family bible, he was born on 7 July 1807 and his baptismal certificate, however, signed by Fr. Baltasar Carnicer states that he was baptized on 5 July 1807, other sources state a birthdate of 7 July 1808. Vallejos parents were at Santa Barbara Mission February 18,1791 and his paternal grandparents, Gerónimo Vallejo and Antonia Gómez, maternal grandparents, Francisco Lugo and Juana María Rita Martínez. His fathers great grandfather, Pedro Vallejo, was said to have served as viceroy of New Spain, however, these ancestors were probably only a family mythology. Ignacio himself had been a well considered sergeant at the Presidio of Monterey, as a teenager, Mariano, his nephew Juan Bautista Alvarado, and José Castro received special instruction from Governor Pablo Vicente de Solá. The boys received government documents and newspapers from Mexico City, as well as access to the personal library. Vallejo then worked as a clerk for English merchant William Hartnell, who taught Vallejo English, French, Vallejo was serving as the personal secretary to the new Governor of California, Luis Argüello, when news of Mexicos independence reached Monterey. Argüello enrolled Vallejo as a cadet in the Presidio company in 1824, after being promoted to corporal, Argüello appointed Vallejo to the diputación, the territorial legislature. He was promoted to alférez, and in 1829, Vallejo led a group of soldiers against the Miwoks, after a three-day battle, Vallejos troops forced the Miwok to flee to Mission San José, seeking refuge with the padres. In 1831 Vallejo participated in the installation of Pío Pico as acting Governor. Vallejo became the Commander of the Presidio of San Francisco in 1833, Mission San Francisco Solano was taken over by General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo. At first he gave some of the land to the mission workers as ordered. But later he transferred all the land and building to own Rancho Petaluma Adobe of 44,000 acres in the Petaluma Valley, Vallejo laid out the town of Sonoma in 1835. He had a plaza made in front of the old mission chapel. But then he took tiles from the roof and put them on his own house
Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo
–
Mariano Vallejo, ca. 1880-85.
Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo
–
The 1840 rebuilt Mission San Francisco Solano circa 1910, last of the 21 missions
Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo
–
Stylized portrayal of the original Mission San Francisco Solano
Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo
–
A Vallejo reenactor at
Buena Vista Winery in Sonoma, California, in 2015
11.
William Edward Petty Hartnell
–
Don Guillermo Arnel was a prominent early immigrant to Alta California who played a vital role in the history of Monterey County, California as well as the history of California. William Hartnell was born to a family in Backbarrow, near Ulverston, Lancashire, England in 1798. He went to Chile in 1819 to work in the Santiago branch of John Begg & Co. a firm where his uncle, while in Lima, he met Hugh McCulloch, a Scottish merchant, who persuaded him to become partners in a rawhide and tallow trade in California. They established a new trading company in 1822 called McCulloch and Hartnell and it was at this time that he adopted the named Arnel, as it was easier for the Spanish-speaking residents to pronounce. The pair arrived in Monterey in 1822 and, with funding from the company, proceeded to contract with the missions, Hartnell was personable and successfully persuaded Governor Pablo Vicente de Solá to permit the British subjects to do business and live in Alta California. Governor Luis Antonio Argüello granted them the right to do business in any port in Alta California, whereas other foreigners were restricted to Monterey and their business did well, but McCulloch soon returned to South America, leaving Hartnell in charge. During this time, he served as a tutor to prominent families in the area, with Juan Bautista Alvarado. A Catholic priest, Father Luis Martinez, helped him through these times and he was baptized on October 13,1824, and at the same time he added his uncles name to his own. On April 30,1825, Hartnell married 16-year-old Maria Teresa de la Guerra and she was the daughter of Don José de la Guerra y Noriega, the richest and most influential man in the Santa Barbara area at the time. They moved to Monterey in June, during twenty-five years of marriage the Hartnells had 19 children and adopted five additional children. The hide and tallow business continued to prosper, despite Governor José María de Echeandías revoking of his port usage rights and he was able to do this and save his business thanks to his father-in-law. In 1830 Hartnell became a Mexican citizen and was now able to own land, by May 1833, his hide and tallow business had gone under and he was looking for a new venture. He entered into partnership with Feliciano and Mariano Soberanes, taking control of Rancho El Alisal in December,1833, the adobe house he built was said to be the first house in the area to have glass windows. There was also a mine on Hartnells property which was the first mine discovered in California. He was moderately successful at ranching, but he preferred to do something else, on December 10,1833, he announced he was opening a school named El Seminario del Patrocinio de San Jose or Colegio de San Jose, hoping to make a living as a schoolmaster. This school was supported by the Governor of Alta California. The focus of the school was to prepare students for university study, classes were initially held in Hartnells house, but later moved to other buildings on Rancho El Alisal. Following this, Hartnell was appointed to several county posts by his former pupil-turned-governor Alvarado, including tax collector, treasurer, and customs administrator
William Edward Petty Hartnell
–
William Edward Petty Hartnell
12.
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
The Mexican secularization act of 1833 was passed twelve years after Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821. Mexico feared Spain would continue to have influence and power in California because most of the Spanish missions in California remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church in Spain, as the new Mexican republic matured, calls for the secularization of the missions increased. The missions were part of the first major effort by Europeans to colonize the Pacific Coast region, the settlers introduced European fruits, vegetables, cattle, horses, ranching and technology into the Alta California region and to the Mission Indians. The El Camino Real road connected the missions from San Diego to Mission San Francisco Solano, in Sonoma, between 1683 and 1834, Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries established a series of religious outposts from todays Baja California and Baja California Sur into present-day California. José María de Echeandía, the first Mexican-born elected Governor of Alta California issued a Proclamation of Emancipation on July 25,1826. All Indians within the districts of San Diego, Santa Barbara. Those who wished to remain under mission tutelage were exempted from most forms of corporal punishment. In 1831, the number of Indians under missionary control in all of Upper-Alta California was about 18,683 and about 4,342 of garrison soldiers, free settlers, to that end, he appointed a number of comisionados to oversee the emancipation of the Indians. The Mexican government passed legislation on December 20,1827 that mandated the expulsion of all Spaniards younger than sixty years of age from Mexican territories, Spaniards could pose a threat to Mexico because Spain did not recognize Mexican independence and attempted to regain control over its former colony. Governor Echeandía nevertheless intervened on behalf of some Franciscans in order to prevent their deportation once the law took effect in California, in response, Father-Presidente Narciso Durán transferred the headquarters of the Alta California Mission System to Mission Santa Bárbara, where it remained until 1846. Governor Figueroa issued a regulation on August 9,1834 outlining the requirements for the distribution of property to each mission’s neophytes, among the provisions were that 5. To each head of a family and to all over 20 years old, plus 6. pro rata. one-half of the livestock and 7. Half or less of the chattels, tools, and seed. The ranchos made of former mission lands were divided into large land grants. This meant that the missions would hold only to the worship chapel, the residences of the priests. In some missions all of the buildings were lost and some mission buildings were divided. As the four to six soldiers assigned to guard each Mission were dismissed, Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to have land taken way, on August 9,1834 Governor Figueroa issued his Decree of Confiscation. Nine other settlements followed, with six more in 1835, San Buenaventura and Mission San Francisco de Asís were among the last to have land taken way, in June and December 1836
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
A map produced in 1920 shows the route of "El Camino Real" (not accurate in all segments), along with the 21
Alta California Franciscan missions.
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
The ruins of Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad circa 1900.
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
The original Mission San Francisco de Asís adobe structure is the smaller building at left, while the larger structure is a basilica completed in 1918 (the architectural style was influenced by designs exhibited at San Diego's
Panama-California Exposition in 1915).
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
Mission San Juan Capistrano
13.
Spanish missions in California
–
The missions were part of a major effort by the Spanish Empire to extend colonization into the most northern and western parts of Spains North American claims. Following a long-term secular and religious policy of Spain in Latin America, Mexico achieved independence in 1821, taking Alta California along with it, but the missions maintained authority over native neophytes and control of vast land holdings until the 1830s. At the peak of its development in 1832, the mission system controlled an area equal to approximately one-sixth of Alta California. The Alta California government secularized the missions after the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833 and this divided the mission lands into land grants, which became many of the Ranchos of California. In the end, the missions had mixed results in their objectives, to convert, educate, today, the surviving mission buildings are the states oldest structures, and its most-visited historic monuments. Prior to 1754, grants of lands were made directly by the Spanish Crown. The missions were to be interconnected by a route which later became known as the Camino Real. The detailed planning and direction of the missions was to be carried out by Friar Junípero Serra, work on the coastal mission chain was concluded in 1823, completed after Serras death in 1784. Plans to build a mission in Santa Rosa in 1827 were canceled. The Santa Ysabel Asistencia had been founded in 1818 as a mother mission, in addition to the presidio and pueblo, the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish sovereign to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories. Each frontier station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, to sustain a mission, the padres required converted Native Americans, called neophytes, to cultivate crops and tend livestock in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the missionaries to employ simple building materials, although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish hierarchy, the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of priestly whim. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their military escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes and it was these simple huts that ultimately gave way to the stone and adobe buildings that exist to the present. The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the church, once the spot for the church had been selected, its position was marked and the remainder of the mission complex was laid out. The cuadrángulo was rarely a perfect square because the missionaries had no surveying instruments at their disposal and it was a doctrine established in 1531, which based the Spanish states right over the land and persons of the Indies on the Papal charge to evangelize them. It was employed wherever the indigenous populations were not already concentrated in native pueblos, the civilized and disciplined culture of the natives, developed over 8,000 year, was not considered. A total of 146 Friars Minor, mostly Spaniards by birth, were ordained as priests, sixty-seven missionaries died at their posts, while the remainder returned to Europe due to illness, or upon completing their ten-year service commitment
Spanish missions in California
–
A view of
Mission San Juan Capistrano in. At left is the façade of the first adobe church with its added espadaña; behind the campanario, or "bell wall" is the "Sacred Garden." The Mission has earned a reputation as the "Loveliest of the Franciscan Ruins."
Spanish missions in California
Spanish missions in California
–
The Missionaries as They Came and Went. Franciscans of the California missions donned gray
habits, in contrast to the brown that is typically worn today.
Spanish missions in California
–
The first recorded baptisms in Alta California were performed in "The Canyon of the Little Christians."
14.
Manuel Victoria
–
Manuel Victoria was governor of the Mexican-ruled territory of Alta California from January 1831 to December 6,1831. He was appointed governor on March 8,1830 by Lucas Alamán, the revolt, called Battle of Cahuenga Pass, against his governorship lead to his abbreviated twelve-month tenure, and subsequent exile. The Battle left one man dead on either side, although the rebels against governor retreated to the pueblo, they were victorious in defeat, the wounded governor resigned and returned to Mexico. He was not popular with the Californios, santiago Argüello was lieutenant of the San Diego Company, and commandant from 1830 to 1835. From 1831 to 1835, Argüello was captain of the company and took part, with his brother-in-law Agustín V. Zamorano, Jose Maria Avila of the Avila family of California also helped lead the revolt. He and fifty other Los Angeles leaders were imprisoned by Alcalde Vicente Sanchez for plotting against Victoria, an army of 150 men raised in San Diego by Jose Antonio Carrillo and Pio Pico marched into the pueblo and released all prisoners. Victoria led a force from Monterey to stop the insurrection in Los Angeles, the two armies clashed at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass and Jose Maria Avila was killed. Andrés Ybarra of the Rancho Las Encinitas took part in the revolt, José López with the Rancho San Isidro Ajajolojol also join the revolt. Governor Manuel Victoria was severely wounded fighting rebellious locals at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass, joseph John Chapman was called on to dress his wounds, which he apparently did well enough that Victoria survived. That same year, Chapman was naturalized as a Mexican citizen, after Victoria rescinded the order and wanted Juan Bautista Alvarado and José Castro arrested. The pair fled and were hidden by their old friend Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, pío Pico first briefly replaced Manuel Victoria as governor. Then Agustín V. Zamorano in the north, and José María de Echeandía in the south, Governor José Figueroa arrived from Mexico in 1833, resolving the north-south political struggle. Secularization and Mexican land grants resumed with Governor Figueroa, List of pre-statehood governors of California List of Ranchos of California Rancho Tularcitos legal advisor to Governor Manuel Victoria
Manuel Victoria
–
Colony (1768–1822)
15.
Adjutant
–
Adjutant is a military rank or appointment. An adjutant general is commander of an armys administrative services, Adjutant comes from the Latin adjutans, present participle of the verb adjuvare, to help, the Romans actually used adiutor for the noun. In various uniformed hierarchies, the term is used for number of functions, a regimental adjutant, garrison adjutant etc. is a staff officer, who assists the commanding officer of a regiment, battalion or garrison in the details of regimental, garrison or similar duty. In United States Army squadrons, the adjutant is often the officer-in-charge of the administrative platoon, in the British Army, an Adjutant is usually a senior captain. Until the 1970s the adjutant was also the operations officer. In the British Army adjutants are given field rank and as such are senior by appointment to all other captains, unlike the RAO, the adjutant is a member of the corps or regiment of which their unit is a part. The adjutants job is not solely a backroom one, since he usually accompanies the colonel - Captain David Wood, normally, in a British Infantry battalion, the adjutant controls the battle whilst the CO commands it. As such, the adjutant is usually a man of significant influence within his battalion, in the Foot Guards, the adjutant of the unit in charge of Trooping the Colour is one of three officers on horseback. In many Commonwealth armies, the adjutant performs much the role as in the British Army. There is no RAO position within the Australian Army, where an adjutant performs the role with the assistance of a Chief Clerk. In the US Army, historically the adjutant was generally a member of the branch or regiment of the parent unit. The adjutant general at the battalion-level is generally a captain or senior first lieutenant and, in conjunction with the S-1 section. There is a call announcing the adjutant that is still used in military ceremonies today. In the USMC, the adjutant serves as the administrator for their unit. Per the USMC MOS handbook, Adjutants coordinate administrative matters for Marine Corps staff sections and they ensure that every Marine in their command has administrative resources both for day-to-day tasks and long-term career progression. Adjutants supervise the execution of administrative policies and they receive and route correspondence, preparing responses to any special correspondence. They also manage their units legal matters and monitor fitness reports, in some armies, adjutant is a rank similar to a commonwealth staff sergeant or warrant officer. In the Belgian Army and Luxembourg Army, the ranks are Adjudant, Adjudant-Chef, in Dutch, they are collectively known as Keuronderofficier
Adjutant
–
Gustaf Mannerheim as
regent of
Finland (sitting) and his adjutants (from the left) Lt.Col.
Lilius, Cap. Kekoni, Lt.
Gallen-Kallela, Ensign
Rosenbröijer
Adjutant
–
President of Austria
Rudolf Kirchschläger and commander
Karl von Wohlgemuth. The president's adjutant in the background
16.
Presidio of San Francisco
–
It had been a fortified location since September 17,1776, when New Spain established it to gain a foothold on Alta California and the San Francisco Bay. It passed to Mexico, which in turn passed it to the United States in 1848. As part of a 1989 military reduction program under the Base Realignment, on October 1,1994, it was transferred to the National Park Service, ending 219 years of military use and beginning its next phase of mixed commercial and public use. In 1996, the United States Congress created the Presidio Trust to oversee and manage the interior 80% of the parks lands, with the National Park Service managing the coastal 20%. In a first-of-its-kind structure, Congress mandated that the Presidio Trust make the Presidio financially self-sufficient by 2013, the park is characterized by many wooded areas, hills, and scenic vistas overlooking the Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean. It was recognized as a California Historical Landmark in 1933 and as a National Historic Landmark in 1962, battery Chamberlin, seacoast defense museum and artillery display at Baker Beach built in 1904. Fort Point,1861 brick and granite fortification located under the Golden Gate Bridge, the visitor center, open on Friday, Saturday and Sunday, offers video orientations, guided tours, self-guiding materials, exhibits, and a bookstore. Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary Visitor Center, This center offers hands-on marine-life exhibits, the building was used by the Coast Guard from 1890 to 1990. Golden Gate Bridge Pavilion, opened May 2012 for the 75th anniversary of the Golden Gate Bridge and it is located just east of the southern end of the bridge. Crissy Field Center is an environmental education center with programs for schools, public workshops, after-school programs, summer camps. The Center is operated by the Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy, the facilities include interactive environmental exhibits, a media lab, resource library, arts workshop, science lab, gathering room, teaching kitchen, café and bookstore. The landscape of Crissy Field was designed by George Hargreaves, the project restored a naturally functioning and sustaining tidal wetland as a habitat for flora and fauna, which were previously not in evidence on the site. It also restored a historic grass airfield that functioned as a significant military airfield between 1919 and 1936. The park at Crissy Field expanded and widened the recreational opportunities of the existing 1 1⁄2-mile San Francisco shore to a number of Presidio residents. 1776, Spanish Captain Juan Bautista de Anza led 193 soldiers, women,1794, Castillo de San Joaquin, an artillery emplacement was built above present-day Fort Point, San Francisco, complete with iron or bronze cannon. Six cannons may be seen in the Presidio today, 1776–1821, The Presidio was a simple fort made of adobe, brush and wood. It often was damaged by earthquakes or heavy rains, in 1783, its company was only 33 men. Presidio soldiers duties were to support Mission Dolores by controlling Indian workers in the Mission, and also farming, ranching, support from Spanish authorities in Mexico was very limited
Presidio of San Francisco
–
A map of the Presidio
Presidio of San Francisco
–
Welcome sign
Presidio of San Francisco
–
California Historical Landmark marker for the Presidio
Presidio of San Francisco
–
The Presidio in 1817
17.
Mariano Chico
–
Colonel Mariano Chico served one of the briefest terms as Alta California governor from April 1836 to July 1836. He was both preceded and succeeded by the equally unpopular Lieutenant Colonel Nicolas Gutierrez, who joined him in exile in Mexico on November 5,1836, San Diego, The San Diego Union
Mariano Chico
–
Colony (1768–1822)
18.
Flag of California
–
The Bear Flag is the official flag of the state of California. The precursor of the flag was first flown during the 1846 Bear Flag Revolt and was known as the Bear Flag. The first official version of the Bear Flag was adopted by the California State Legislature, the 1911 statute stated, The bear flag is hereby selected and adopted as the state flag of California. In 1953, the design and specifications for the flag were standardized in a bill signed by Governor Earl Warren. He shall, periodically, compile the laws and regulations regarding the State Flag, copies of the compilation shall be printed and made available to the public at cost by the Department of General Services. When the flag is displayed vertically, it is rotated 90 degrees clockwise such that the bear and star face upward, the flag is also used as the state ensign. The modern state flag is white with a red strip along the bottom. There is a red star in the left corner and a grizzly bear facing left in the center. The size of the bear is 2/3 the size of the hoist width and has a ratio of 2 by 1, the grass plot has a ratio of 11 to 1. The five-point star is taken from the California Lone Star Flag of 1836, the bear on the current flag of California is claimed to have been modeled on the last Californian grizzly bear in captivity. The bear, named Monarch, was captured in 1889 by newspaper reporter Allen Kelley, the bear was subsequently moved to Woodwards Gardens in San Francisco, and then to the zoo at Golden Gate Park. After the bears death in 1911, it was mounted and preserved at the Academy of Sciences at Golden Gate Park, the 1953 law includes an official black and white rendering of the bear as well as the plot of grass and brown tufts. This drawing and other specifications that define the flags colors and dimensions are identified as 54-J-03. In 2001, the North American Vexillological Association surveyed its members on the designs of the 72 U. S. state, U. S. territorial, and Canadian provincial flags and ranked the flag of California 13th. The 1953 legislation defined the shades of the Californian flag with a total of five colors relative to the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card of America. It is one of only four US state flags that does not contain the color blue, Seal is used for the dark shading of the bear, the 12 darker tufts in the plot of grass, the border of the plot and the lettering CALIFORNIA REPUBLIC. Old Glory Red is used for the star, the bears tongue, irish Green is used for the grass plot. The bears claws are also accented with white, the left front and rear paws have four white claws while the right rear claw displays three
Flag of California
–
"Monarch" the bear
Flag of California
–
California
Flag of California
–
Bear Flag monument on the
Sonoma Plaza
Flag of California
–
Todd's original Bear Flag, photographed in 1890
19.
Pueblo de Los Angeles
–
Official settlements in Alta California were of three types, presidio, mission and pueblo. The Pueblo de los Ángeles was the second pueblo created during the Spanish colonization of California. El Pueblo de la Reina de los Ángeles—The Town of the Queen of Angels was founded twelve years after the first presidio and mission, the Presidio of San Diego, the original settlement consisted of forty-four people in eleven families, recruited mostly from Estado de Occidente. In 1542 Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, with a commission from Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, was the first European to sail along, although he claimed all he saw as territory of the Spanish Empire, no efforts at colonization were made for over two hundred years. Concerned about colonizing efforts by the Russians and French, Spain set plans in motion in the 1760s to establish a presence, the Spanish settlement did not reach Alta California until 1769, when explorer Gaspar de Portolà reached the San Diego area via the first land route from Mexico. Accompanying him were two Franciscan Padres, Junípero Serra and Juan Crespí, who recorded the expedition, as they came through todays Elysian Park, they were awed by a river that flowed from the northwest, past their point and on southward. Crespí named the river El Río de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles de Porciúncula, meaning, in Spanish, the river that was called the Porciuncula is todays Los Angeles River. During the expedition, Father Crespí observed a location along the river that would be good for a settlement or mission, the missionaries encountered resistance from the Tongva to their attempts to resettle the Natives on the mission. The first Spanish governor of Las Californias, Felipe de Neve had, as well, recommended to Viceroy Bucareli Father Crespís location on the Río Porciúncula for a mission. Instead, in 1781, King Charles III mandated that a pueblo be built on the site instead, which would be the second town in Alta California, after San José de Guadalupe in 1777. The priests at the missions ignored the royal mandate and continued their ranching, trading and production of tallow, soap, hides, but gathering the pobladores-settlers was a little more difficult. In reality, several of the families were already working on their plots of land as early as late July. Governor de Neve gave the new town the name El Pueblo de la Reina de los Ángeles-The Town of the Queen of the Angels, the streets, however, were laid out at forty-five degrees from the cardinal directions, a plan which is still preserved in Downtown Los Angeles. The old town limits are marked by Hoover and Indiana Streets in the west and east respectively. In 1784 an asistencia or sub-mission of the San Gabriel Mission was established on the central plaza, the pueblo came under the jurisdiction of the Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. As a pueblo, Los Angeles was granted a cabildo, the first municipal officers, the regidores and alcalde, were appointed by Governor de Neve. Subsequent ones were elected annually by the settlers, the vecinos pobladores, the first commisionado was José Vicente Feliz, one of the soldiers who accompanied the original 44 settlers to the pueblo. The first recorded alcalde was José Vanegas, who served in 1786 and 1796, Vanegas was first listed as an Indian in the original 1781 padrón but then as a Mestizo in the 1790 census
Pueblo de Los Angeles
–
La Plaza, as seen from the
Pico House, c.1869. The "
Old Plaza Church " is to the left, the brick reservoir on the right, in the center of the plaza, was the original terminus of the
Zanja Madre.
Pueblo de Los Angeles
–
Monument commemorating origin of Pueblo de Los Angeles
Pueblo de Los Angeles
–
People gather in the original Plaza in front of the "
Old Plaza Church ", circa 1890-1900.
20.
Carlos Antonio Carrillo
–
Carlos Antonio Carrillo, was Governor of Alta California from 1837 to 1838. He took his oath as Governor in Pueblo de Los Angeles, present day Los Angeles and he was also the great-grandfather of actor Leo Carillo. Carrillo was a Californio, one of the first children born at the Presidio of Santa Barbara and his father, José Raimundo Carrillo, was a soldier who came north with the Portolá expedition in 1769 and served at the Presidio of Santa Barbara for twelve years. From 1797 to 1825 Carlos Antonio served in the military at Monterey, as Alta Californias delegate to the Mexican Congress of the Union, Carrillo pursued Alta California judicial reform, but his ideas were rejected. In 1836, Carrillo joined the rebellious Juan Bautista Alvarado in demanding a more autonomous Alta California, in 1837, Carlos was appointed to replace Alvarado as governor, but Alvarado was able to reclaim the Governorship a year later. Governor Manuel Micheltorena gave a Mexican land grant of Santa Rosa Island, in the Channel Islands of California, to Carlos and they later gave the island to Carlos daughters, Manuela Carrillo Jones and Francisca Carrillo Thompson. Brother of José Antonio Carrillo Father of Maria Josefa Carrillo, who married Captain William Goodwin Dana Father of Maria Encarnation Carrillo, Father of Maria Tomasa Carrillo 1827-1851 who married Luis T Burton 1812-1839 Father of Maria Edwiges Carrillo 1829-Unknown
Carlos Antonio Carrillo
–
Colony (1768–1822)
21.
Santa Clara, California
–
Santa Clara is a city in Santa Clara County, California, named after the Spanish mission that was established there in 1777. The citys population was 116,468 at the 2010 United States Census, located 45 miles southeast of San Francisco, the city was founded in 1777 and incorporated in 1852. The city is the site of the eighth of 21 California missions, Mission Santa Clara de Asís, the Mission and Mission Gardens are located on the grounds of Santa Clara University. Saint Clare is the saint of Santa Clara. Santa Clara is located in the center of Silicon Valley and is home to the headquarters of several companies such as Intel. It is also home to Santa Clara University, the oldest institution of learning in the state of California. It is bordered by San Jose, Sunnyvale, and Cupertino, the first European to visit the valley was José Francisco Ortega in 1769. He found the area inhabited by Native Americans, whom the Spanish called the Costanos, coast people, the Spanish began to colonize California with 21 missions and the Mission Santa Clara de Asis was founded in 1777. In 1846, the American flag was raised over Monterey and symbolized the transfer of the sovereignty of the California Republic over to the United States of America, in 1851, Santa Clara College was established on the grounds of the original Mission. In 1852, Santa Clara was incorporated as a town, it became state-chartered by 1862, for the next century the economy centered on agriculture since orchards and vegetables were thriving in the fertile soil. By the beginning of the 20th century, the population had reached 5,000, in 1905, the first public high-altitude flights by humans were made over Santa Clara in gliders designed by John J. Montgomery. The semiconductor industry, which sprouted around 1960, changed the city and surrounding Valley of Hearts Delight, Santa Claras first medical hospital was built in 1963. This structure, on Kiely Boulevard, was replaced in 2007 with the new Kaiser Permanente medical center located on Lawrence Expressway at Homestead Road, Santa Clara was also home to a major mental health facility, Agnews State Hospital. According to the National Park Service, more than 100 persons were killed at this site in the 1906 earthquake, the site is the former home to Sun Microsystems and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Santa Clara is drained by three creeks, all of which empty into the southern portion of San Francisco Bay, these creeks are San Tomas Aquino Creek, Saratoga Creek. This owl uses burrows created by ground squirrels and prefers generally level grasslands, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city covers an area of 18.4 square miles, all of it land. The average daily temperatures in July range from 82 °F to 53 °F, winters are mild, with the mean daily temperatures in January ranging from 58 °F to 38 °F. Most of the rainfall comes in the winter months, the summer months are generally rainless
Santa Clara, California
–
The Santa Clara Convention Center in July 2007
Santa Clara, California
–
Santa Clara's Main Street, circa 1910.
Santa Clara, California
–
A housing development.
Santa Clara, California
–
McAfee headquarters
22.
Californios
–
The Californio era was from the first Spanish presence established by the Portolá expedition in 1769 until the regions cession to the United States of America in 1848. Non-Spanish-speaking immigrants who 1) became naturalized Mexican citizens, 2) married Californios, such residents, by these actions, became eligible to own land and receive rancho grants from the Mexican government. Most such grants occurred after mission secularization in the 1830s, an even looser definition may include descendants of Californios, especially those who married other Californio descendants. The much larger population of non-Spanish-speaking indigenous peoples of California who lived in the prior to. Many Californios, however, were the California-born children of non-Spanish speakers who married Spanish speakers, such spouses usually also converted to the Catholic faith and, after Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821, often became naturalized Mexican citizens. The military, religious and civil components of pre-1848 Californio society were embodied in the presidios, missions. After secularization, the Mexican authorities divided most of the lands into new ranchos. The Spanish colonial and later Mexican national governments encouraged settlers from the northern and western provinces of Mexico, People from other parts of Latin America did settle in California. However, only a few official colonization efforts were ever undertaken—notably the second expedition of Juan Bautista de Anza, children of those few early settlers and retired soldiers became the first Californios. Sporadic colonization efforts continued under Mexican rule, including the Hijar-Padres group of 1834, One genealogist estimated that, by 2004, between 300,000 and 500,000 Californians were descendants of Californios. Alta California was nominally controlled by a national-government appointed governor, the governors of California were at first appointed by the Viceroy, and after 1821 by the approximate 40 Mexican Presidents from 1821 to 1846. The costs of the minimum Alta California government were paid by means of a roughly 40–100% import tariff collected at the entry port of Monterey. The other center of Spanish power in Alta California was the Franciscan friars who, as heads of the 21 missions, none of the Franciscan friars were Californios, however, and their influence rapidly waned after the secularization of the missions in the 1830s. Governors had little support from far-away Mexico to deal with Alta Californians. Mexico-born governor Manuel Victoria was forced to flee in 1831, after losing a fight against an uprising at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass. As Californios matured to adulthood and increasingly assumed positions of power in the Alta California government, several times, Californio leaders attempted to break away from Mexico, most notably Juan Bautista Alvarado in 1836. Southern regional leaders, led by Pio Pico, made attempts to relocate the capital from Monterey to the more populated Los Angeles. Alvarado recruited a company of Tennessean riflemen, many of them former trappers who had settled in the Monterey Bay area, the company was led by another American, Isaac Graham, the Americans refused to fight against fellow Americans
Californios
–
José Antonio Estudillo
Californios
–
Juan Bautista Alvarado
Californios
–
USS Cyane taking San Diego 1846
Californios
–
The
California state flag flying at
San Francisco City Hall
23.
Salinas, California
–
Salinas /səˈliːnəs/ is the county seat and largest municipality of Monterey County, California. Salinas is located just outside the portion of the greater Bay Area and 10 miles east-southeast of the mouth of the Salinas River. The population was 155,662 as of 2013, the city is located at the mouth of the Salinas Valley roughly eight miles from the Pacific Ocean and has a climate more influenced by the ocean than the hot-summer interior. The marine climate is ideal for the industry, grape vineyards. Salinas is known for its vibrant and large industry and as the hometown of writer and Nobel Prize in Literature laureate John Steinbeck. The land currently occupied by the city of Salinas is thought to have settled by Native Americans known as the Esselen prior to 200 AD. Between 200 and 500 AD, they were displaced by the Rumsen group of Ohlone speaking people, before this time, Monterey was the capital of California and had been under military rule after the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo at the end of the Mexican-American war. In the 1850s a junction of two main stage coach routes was located 18 miles east of Monterey and along the big bend of what is referred to as the Alisal Slough. Soon thereafter, in 1856, an inn called the Halfway House was opened at that junction in Salinas. The streets of Salinas were laid out in 1867, and the town was incorporated in 1874. The conversion of grazing land to crops and the coming of the road in 1868 to transport goods and people was a major turning point in the history. Dry farming of wheat, barley, and other grains as well as potatoes, irrigation changed farming in Salinas to mainly row crops of root vegetables, grapes and sugar beets. Many major vegetable producers placed their headquarters in Salinas, the camp opened on April 27,1942 and held a total of 3,608 people before closing two months later on July 4. Following World War II major urban and suburban development converted much farmland to city, the city experienced two particularly strong growth spurts in the 1950s and 1960s, and again in the 1990s and early 2000s. The Harden Ranch, Creekbridge and Williams Ranch neighborhoods constituting much of the citys North-East were built almost exclusively between 1990 and 2004, Salinas was also the birthplace of writer and Nobel Prize laureate John Steinbeck. The historic downtown, known as Oldtown Salinas, features much fine Victorian architecture, and is home to the National Steinbeck Center, the Steinbeck House, major development took place in the 1990s, with the construction of Creekbridge, Williams Ranch, and Harden Ranch. When annexed in 1963, Alisal was described as a large Mexican-American enclave, hispanic immigration peaked from the 1980s through the early 2000s. Mostly European-American neighborhoods in North Salinas, an expansion of the city built mostly in the 1950s and 60s
Salinas, California
–
Main Street in downtown Salinas, 2006
Salinas, California
–
Seal
Salinas, California
–
First Mayors House circa 1868
Salinas, California
–
Sargent House Historic Victorian Home on Central Avenue
24.
Manifest Destiny
–
In the 19th century, manifest destiny was a widely held belief in the United States that its settlers were destined to expand across North America. Generated by the potentialities of a new earth for building a new heaven, historians have emphasized that manifest destiny was a contested concept—pre-civil war Democrats endorsed the idea but many prominent Americans rejected it. Historian Daniel Walker Howe writes, American imperialism did not represent an American consensus, Whigs saw Americas moral mission as one of democratic example rather than one of conquest. The term was used by Democrats in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico, but manifest destiny always limped along because of its internal limitations and the issue of slavery, says Merk. It never became a national priority, Merk concluded, From the outset Manifest Destiny—vast in program, in its sense of continentalism—was slight in support. It lacked national, sectional, or party following commensurate with its magnitude, the reason was it did not reflect the national spirit. The thesis that it embodied nationalism, found in historical writing, is backed by little real supporting evidence. There was never a set of principles defining manifest destiny, therefore it was always a general rather than a specific policy made with a motto. Andrew Jackson, who spoke of extending the area of freedom, typified the conflation of Americas potential greatness, the nations budding sense of Romantic self-identity, yet Jackson would not be the only president to elaborate on the principles underlying manifest destiny. Owing in part to the lack of a definitive narrative outlining its rationale, while many writers focused primarily upon American expansionism, be it into Mexico or across the Pacific, others saw the term as a call to example. Without an agreed upon interpretation, much less a political philosophy. This variety of possible meanings was summed up by Ernest Lee Tuveson, A vast complex of ideas, policies and they are not, as we should expect, all compatible, nor do they come from any one source. This destiny was not explicitly territorial, but OSullivan predicted that the United States would be one of a Union of many Republics sharing those values. Six years later, in 1845, OSullivan wrote another essay titled Annexation in the Democratic Review, in this article he urged the U. S. Overcoming Whig opposition, Democrats annexed Texas in 1845, OSullivans first usage of the phrase manifest destiny attracted little attention. OSullivans second use of the phrase became extremely influential, on December 27,1845, in his newspaper the New York Morning News, OSullivan addressed the ongoing boundary dispute with Britain. That is, OSullivan believed that Providence had given the United States a mission to spread republican democracy, because Britain would not spread democracy, thought OSullivan, British claims to the territory should be overruled. OSullivan believed that manifest destiny was an ideal that superseded other considerations
Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny
–
John L. O'Sullivan, sketched in 1874, was an influential columnist as a young man, but he is now generally remembered only for his use of the phrase "manifest destiny" to advocate the annexation of Texas and Oregon.
Manifest Destiny
–
John Quincy Adams, painted above in 1816 by
Charles Robert Leslie, was an early proponent of continentalism. Late in life he came to regret his role in helping U.S. slavery to expand, and became a leading opponent of the annexation of Texas.
Manifest Destiny
–
The first
Fort Laramie as it looked prior to 1840. Painting from memory by Alfred Jacob Miller
24th Governor of Alta California.gif){kind=small}
Cavalry
General
