1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
3.
Regions of Brazil
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Brazil is geopolitically divided into five regions by the Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, each region is composed of three or more states. On state level, there are also mesoregion and microregion, There are 137 mesoregions and 558 microregions. Economy, Iron, Energy production, electronic manufacturing, tourism, Highways are scarce and present mainly in the east. Airplanes are commonly used in remote communities and sometimes in the larger cities. Vegetation, Almost the entire region is covered by Amazon Rainforest, except the state of Tocantins, although most of the native vegetation still remains, the region suffers from critical problems due to the growing deforestation of the area. Notable characteristics, Presence of the Amazon Rainforest, which is the dominant in every state. Cities are spread far apart in the region, and it has the lowest population density of the country, There are very few paved highways in the region, as it is almost isolated from the rest of the country. It is also the biggest region of Brazil, being responsible for almost half of the Brazilian territorial extension, economic growth is above national average. Area,1,561,177 km² Population,53,340,945 GDP, R$437 billion / US$273,1 billion Climate, tropical near the coast and semi-arid in the interior, semi-equatorial in the far west of the region. Economy, Tourism, cocoa, machinery manufacturing, textiles, transport, Mainly highways, which are more abundant along the coast, although transport by sea is also important. Vegetation, Mainly desert-like vegetation, with forests along the coast and in the west. Notable characteristics, This region was the first part of Brazil discovered by the Portuguese, and it has the lowest levels in the country in almost all of the social indicators, being considered the most impoverished region in Brazil. However, has been growing above national average since the start of 21st century, area,1,612,077.2 km² Population,13,357,154 GDP, R$279 billion / US$174,3 billion Climate, Savanna climate. States, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, largest Cities, Brasília, Goiânia, Campo Grande, Cuiabá, Aparecida de Goiânia, Anápolis. Transport, Highways where they are present, transport by rivers is common in the north and in the east, airplanes are used in remote, vegetation, Mainly savanna-like vegetation, including the Pantanal, flooded areas in the west, equatorial rainforests in the north. Notable characteristics, With a low density, most of the land in the region is used for grazing instead of agriculture. The region is also the least industrialized in the country, based mainly in food & meat processing. The economical success of this region is a combination of its 4 states. São Paulo state is the most developed in the country, it has a density as high as European Occident
4.
Southeast Region, Brazil
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The Southeast Region of Brazil is composed by the states of Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. It is the richest region of the country, responsible for approximately 60% of the Brazilian GDP, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais are three richest states of Brazil, the top three Brazilian states in terms of GDP. The Southeast of Brazil also has the highest GDP per capita among all Brazilian regions, São Paulo Heart of the largest continued remnant of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, the Ribeira Valley is a Natural Heritage of Humanity, granted heritage as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO. One of the biggest attractions is the biologic and ecosystems diversity, the Alto Ribeira Tourist State Park is paradise for ecotourists, for its enormous diversity in geologic formations, among grottos and caves, rivers and waterfalls. There are currently 454 caves registered by the Brazilian Society of Speleology in the State of São Paulo, the 280 caves located at PETAR represent the biggest concentration of caves in Brazil. Minas Gerais The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls. Minas Gerais is the source of some of the biggest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas dam. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Rio de Janeiro The state is part of the Mata Atlântica biome and its coast is carved by the bays of Guanabara, Sepetiba and Ilha Grande. There are prominent slopes near the ocean, featuring also diverse environments, such as vegetation, bays, lagoons. Rio de Janeiro is the smallest state in the Southeast macroregion and it has, however, the third longest coastline in the country, extending 635 kilometers. The main river in the state is the Doce, Espírito Santos climate is tropical along the coast, with dry winters and rainy summers. North of Doce River its generally drier and also hot, in the mountainous regions in the south and south west of the state, the tropical climate is strongly influenced by altitude, and the average temperatures are colder. The state can be divided into two areas, the low lying coastline and the area known as Serra, which is part of the larger Serra do Caparaó. In the map to the right it is in the area in the extreme southwest of the state. São Paulo state is responsible for approximately one-third of Brazilian GDP, the states GDP consists of 550 billion dollars, making it also the second biggest economy of South America after Brazil and the biggest subdivision economy in Latin America. Its economy is based on machinery, the automobile and aviation industries, services, financial companies, commerce, textiles, orange growing, sugar cane, Minas Gerais is a growing state. Vehicles,36,030,943, Telephones,23,878,000, portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools
5.
States of Brazil
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The Federative Republic of Brazil is a union of 27 Federative Units,26 states and one federal district, where the federal capital, Brasília, is located. The states are based on historical, conventional borders which have developed over time. The Federal District is not formally a state, but shares some characteristics of a state as well as some of a municipality, the codes given below are defined in ISO 3166-2, BR. The first administrative divisions of Brazil were the hereditary captaincies, stretches of land granted by the Portuguese Crown to noblemen or merchants with a charter to colonize the land, as the map shows, these divisions generally followed lines of latitude. Each of the holders of these captaincies was referred to as a captain donatary and these captaincies were to be passed from father to son, but the Crown retained the power to revoke them, which the King indeed did in the 16th century. In 1549, the Portuguese Crown appointed Tomé de Sousa as the first governor-general of the vast Portuguese dominion in South America and this dominion overall became known as the State of Brazil. In several periods of history, the half of the dominion was detached from the State of Brazil. Unlike Spanish America, the territory remained united under a single governor-general. This arrangement later helped to keep Brazil as a unified nation-state, in 1759, the heritability of the captaincies was totally abolished by the government of the Marquis of Pombal, with all captains becoming appointed by the Crown. The captaincies were officially renamed provinces on 28 February 1821, with independence, in 1822, the former captaincies became provinces of the Empire of Brazil. Most internal boundaries were unchanged from the colonial period, generally following natural features such as rivers. Minor changes were made to domestic politics, as well as additions resulting from diplomatic settlement of territorial disputes by the end of the 19th century. When Brazil became a republic in 1889, all provinces immediately became states, after the war, the first four territories became states, with Rio Branco and Guaporé being renamed Roraima and Rondônia, respectively, whilst Ponta Porã and Iguaçu remained as territories. In 1960, the square-shaped Distrito Federal was carved out of Goiás in preparation for the new capital, Brasília. The previous federal district became Guanabara State, but in 1975 it was merged with Rio de Janeiro State, retaining its name, in 1977, Mato Grosso was split into two states. The northern area retained the name Mato Grosso while the area became the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. The new Mato Grosso do Sul incorporated the territory of Ponta Porã, central Iguaçu went to Paraná, and southern Iguaçu went to Santa Catarina. In 1988, the portion of Goiás became the state of Tocantins
6.
Minas Gerais
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Minas Gerais is a state in the north of Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product, Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of Brazilian presidents. With an area of 586,528 square kilometres —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. In the south, the tourist points are the mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde. The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazils most famous caverns are located there, in recent years, the state has emerged as one of the largest economic forces of Brazil, exploring its great economic potential. Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais and it comes from Minas dos Matos Gerais, the former name of the colonial province. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history, the region of the mines, and these corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access from the mining spots. The confusion comes from the fact that the term Gerais is taken as an adjective to Minas in the first version, Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeastern subdivision of Brasil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and it also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal. Minas Gerais is situated between 14°1358 and 22°5400 S latitude and between 39°5132 and 51°0235 W longitude and it is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain. Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds. Each region of the state has a character, geographically. The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining, recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. Vale do Aços largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo, now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching
7.
Municipal corporation
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A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located, often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter. A city charter or town charter is a document establishing a municipality such as a city or town. The concept developed in Europe during the Middle Ages and is considered to be a version of a constitution. Traditionally the granting of a charter gave a settlement and its inhabitants the right to town privileges under the feudal system, townspeople who lived in chartered towns were burghers, as opposed to serfs who lived in villages. Towns were often free, in the sense that they were protected by the king or emperor. Today the process for granting charters is determined by the type of government of the state in question, in monarchies, charters are still often a royal charter given by the Crown or the state authorities acting on behalf of the Crown. In federations, the granting of charters may be within the jurisdiction of the level of government such as a state or province. In Brazil, municipal corporations are called municípios and are created by means of legislation at the state level. All municipal corporations must also abide by a municipal law which is passed and amended at the municipal level. In Canada charters are granted by provincial authorities, in Germany, municipal corporations existed since antiquity and through medieval times, until they became out of favour during the absolutism. In order to strengthen the spirit, the city law of Prussia dated 19 November 1808 picked up this concept. It is the basis of municipal law. In India, a Municipal Corporation is a local government body. This standard varies from state to state, according to laws passed by state legislatures, the Corporation of Chennai was the first Municipal Corporation in India. It was established on 29 September 1688 by the British East India Company, the second was Hyderabad Municipal Corporation established in 1869 by the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad State. The third was the Calcutta Municipal Corporation, established in 1876, the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1888 by the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act. The Delhi Municipal Council was established in 1911 during the Delhi Durbar when New Delhi was proclaimed to be the new Capital of India and it was elevated to Municipal Corporation level on 7 April 1958 by an Act of Parliament which established the Municipal Corporation of Delhi
8.
Brazilian Social Democracy Party
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The Brazilian Social Democracy Party is a centrist political party in Brazil. The third largest party in the National Congress, PSDB has been the opposition against the administrations of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. Its mascot is a blue and yellow colored toucan, party members are called tucanos for this reason. Famous tucanos include Mário Covas, Geraldo Alckmin, Tasso Jereissati, Aécio Neves, former president Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Franco Montoro, Aloysio Nunes, Yeda Crusius, and José Serra. With the imminent collapse of the dictatorship in the early 1980s. Some of them attempted to work with the movement, led by Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva. PSDB was founded on June 25,1988 by members of the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party linked to the European social democratic movement as an attempt to clarify their ideals and its manifesto preached democracy as a fundamental value and social justice as an aim to be reached. In its foundation, the party attempted to unite political groups as diverse as social democrats, social liberals, Christian democrats and this period when PSDB was created was a very significant moment in the history of Brazilian politics. On April 21,1985, the Brazilian people witnessed the death of Tancredo Neves, with the formation of new parties, including PSDB, a National Constitutional Assembly was created which drafted the current, democratic constitution, in 1988. A high proportion of the first members of PSDB came from the so-called historic PMDB and this was and still is a very large party with many internal conflicts. The founders of PSDB were dissatisfied with the results of the Constitutional Assembly, as their manifesto states, the new party was created away from the official benefits, but close to the pulsing of the streets. Some of the members were José Serra, Mário Covas, André Franco Montoro, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Aécio Neves. PSDB is one of the largest and most significant political parties in Brazil and its official program states its policies as being social democratic and often associated with the Third Way movement, although the party is also regarded as being influenced by neoliberalism. The partys program states that it reject populism and authoritarianism, as well as both fundamentalist neoliberalism and obsolete national-statism, despite its name, the PSDB is not a member of the Socialist International which draws together social democratic parties worldwide. A mere six years after its creation, PSDB was able to win the Presidency of the Republic and it grew faster than any other party in Brazilian history, with an astonishingly good performance in elections at all levels. President Fernando Henrique Cardoso enjoyed eight years of stability in his tenure as president. Accordingly, its 1980 honorary president, a summary of the PSDBs stated program is. 2) the state at a minimally needed size, 4) sustainable economic growth with wealth distribution
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
11.
Rio de Janeiro (state)
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Rio de Janeiro is one of the 27 states of Brazil. It has the second largest economy of Brazil, with the largest being that of the state of São Paulo, the state of Rio de Janeiro is located within the Brazilian geopolitical region classified as the Southeast. Rio de Janeiro shares borders with all the states in the same Southeast macroregion, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo. It is bounded on the east and south by the Atlantic Ocean, Rio de Janeiro has an area of 43,653 km². The archaic demonym meaning for the Rio de Janeiro State is fluminense, taken from the Latin word flumen, from 1783 and during all the Imperial Regime, carioca remained only as a nickname by which other Brazilians called the inhabitants of Rio. During the first years of the Brazilian Republic, carioca was the given to those who lived in the slums or a pejorative way to refer the bureaucratic elite of the Federal District. Only when the City of Rio lost its status as Federal District and became a Brazilian State when the capital was moved to Brasilia, carioca was made a co-official demonym with guanabarino. In 1975, the Guanabara State was extinct by President Geisel becoming the present City of Rio de Janeiro, nowadays, social movements like Somos Todos Cariocas try to achieve the official recognition of carioca as a co-official demonym of Rio de Janeiro State. Rio de Janeiro is the smallest state in the Southeast macroregion, in the Brazilian flag, the state is represented by the Beta star in the Southern Cross. European presence in Rio de Janeiro is as old as Brazil itself, Rio de Janeiro originated from parts of the captainships of de Tomé and São Vicente. Between 1555 and 1567, the territory was occupied by the French, aiming to prevent the occupation of the Frenchmen, in March 1565, the city of Rio de Janeiro was established by Estácio de Sá. In 1763, Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Colonial Brazil, with the flight of the Portuguese royal family from Portugal to Brazil in 1808, the region soon benefited from urban reforms to house the Portuguese. The following years witnessed the creation of the Jardim Botânico and the Academia Real Militar, during this same time, the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios was founded as well. In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro was transformed into a city, remaining as capital of the state, while the captainships became provinces, with headquarters in Niterói. In 1889, the city became the capital of the Republic, the city became the federal district. In 1894, Petrópolis became the capital of Rio de Janeiro, with the relocation of the federal capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became Guanabara State. Niterói remained the capital for Rio de Janeiro state, while Rio de Janeiro served the same status for Guanabara. In 1975, the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro were merged under the name of Rio de Janeiro, the symbols of the former State of Rio de Janeiro were preserved, while the symbols of Guanabara were kept by the city of Rio de Janeiro
12.
Urban sprawl
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In addition to describing a particular form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. In Continental Europe the term peri-urbanisation is often used to denote similar dynamics and phenomena, There is widespread disagreement about what constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some commentators measure sprawl only with the number of residential units per acre in a given area. But others associate it with decentralization, discontinuity, segregation of uses, the term urban sprawl is highly politicized, and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing environmental degradation, and intensifying segregation and undermining the vitality of existing urban areas, due to the pejorative meaning of the term, few openly support urban sprawl as such. The term has become a cry for managing urban growth. Definitions of sprawl vary, researchers in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision and he argued that a better way to identify sprawl was to use indicators rather than characteristics because this was a more flexible and less arbitrary method. He proposed using accessibility and functional space as indicators. Ewings approach has been criticized for assuming that sprawl is defined by negative characteristics, what constitutes sprawl may be considered a matter of degree and will always be somewhat subjective under many definitions of the term. The following characteristics are associated with sprawl, This refers to a situation where commercial, residential, institutional and industrial areas are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure. The degree to which different land uses are mixed together is used as an indicator of sprawl in studies of the subject. Job sprawl is another land use symptom of urban sprawl and car-dependent communities, spatial mismatch is related to job sprawl and economic environmental justice. Job sprawl has been documented and measured in various ways and it has been shown to be a growing trend in Americas metropolitan areas. The Brookings Institution has published articles on the topic. In 2005, author Michael Stoll defined job sprawl simply as jobs located more than 5-mile radius from the CBD, and measured the concept based on year 2000 U. S. Census data. These two authors used three geographic rings limited to a 35-mile radius around the CBD,3 miles or less,3 to 10 miles and this compares to the year 1998 -23. 3%,34. 2%, and 42. 5% in those respective rings. The study shows CBD employment share shrinking, and job growth focused in the suburban and exurban outer metropolitan rings, Sprawl is often characterized as consisting of low-density development
13.
Rio de Janeiro
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Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazils third-most populous state. Part of the city has designated as a World Heritage Site, named Rio de Janeiro. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese, the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, later, in 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 and this is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, the home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific output according to 2005 data. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the city is divided into 33 administrative regions. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502, by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabrals fleet, allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as observer at the invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. The region of Rio was inhabited by the Tupi, Puri, Botocudo, in 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island, was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon. Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony, Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several, mostly French, pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc, on 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdoms capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, as there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, from the colonial period until the first independent decades, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was an influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro, in 1819. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people, the Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of the Empire and it was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic, until the early years of the 20th century, the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic city centre, on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. Expansion of the city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rios streetcar transit system after 1905, though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960
14.
Belo Horizonte
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Belo Horizonte is the sixth largest city in Brazil, the thirteenth largest city in South America and the eighteenth largest city in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Belo Horizonte metropolitan area, ranked as the third most populous area in Brazil. Belo Horizonte is the capital of the state of Minas Gerais and it is the first planned modern city in Brazil. The region was first settled in the early 18th century, but the city as it is today was planned and constructed in the 1890s. The city features a mixture of contemporary and classical buildings, and is home to several modern Brazilian architectural icons, in planning the city, Aarão Reis and Francisco Bicalho sought inspiration in the urban planning of Washington, D. C. The city has employed notable programs in urban revitalization and food security, the city is built on several hills and is completely surrounded by mountains. There are several parks in the immediate surroundings of Belo Horizonte. The Mangabeiras Park, located 6 km south-east from the city centre in the hills of Curral Ridge, has a view of the city. It has an area of 2.35 km2, of which 0.9 km2 is covered by the native forest, the Jambeiro Woods nature reserve extends over 912 hectares, with vegetation typical of the Atlantic forest. More than one hundred species of birds inhabit the reserve, as well as ten different species of mammals, Belo Horizonte was one of the host cities of the 1950 and the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Additionally, the city shared the host of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the term Grande BH denotes any of various definitions for the metropolitan area of Belo Horizonte. The legally defined Metropolitan Region of Belo Horizonte consists of 34 municipalities in total, the intense process of urbanization that is taking place in the metropolitan region has made some of the political boundaries between municipalities in the region obsolete. Belo Horizonte lies on a region of contact between different geological series of the Proterozoic, the geology largely comprises various crystalline rocks, which give rise to the varied morphology of the landscape. The archean rocks members of Belo Horizonte complex and supracrustal sequences of the Paleoproterozoic is predominant, the metasedimentary rocks has its area of occurrence on the south of Ribeirão Arrudas pipeline, constituting about 30% of the area of Belo Horizonte. The characteristics of this area are lithological diversities and rugged topography, which has its maximum expression in the Serra do Curral, the hills of Belo Horizonte are part of the Espinhaço Mountains and belong to the larger Itacolomi mountain chain. The highest point in the municipality is in the Serra do Curral, Belo Horizontes latitude at 1955South places it in the tropical zone. Yearly temperatures average between 9 and 35 °C, the Köppen climate classification of the region is tropical savanna climate and it borders on a humid subtropical climate. Belo Horizonte is located about 300 kilometres from the sea, even though inter-seasonal differences are not as pronounced as they are in temperate places, there is a contrast between spring and summer, and between fall and winter
15.
Estrada Real
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Estrada Real is a set of colonial-era roads in Brazil. The name refers to the land that Portuguese colonial administrators had chosen to improve communication, settlement, and its royal name reflects the economic ideologies of mercantilism, which proposed that colonies existed for the purpose of supplying the metropole with resources. To protect colonial assets from piracy and smuggling, these became the only authorized paths for the movement of people. Opening other routes constituted a crime of lèse-majesté and it was similar to the Spanish Caminos Reales or the United States Carretera Militar, which ensured the flow of goods and the movement of troops in the colonies. Beginning circa 1697, Portuguese colonists in Brazil began using the labor of enslaved Africans to build the road and this was shortly after gold, diamonds, and other precious minerals were discovered in the present-day state of Minas Gerais. The roads purpose was to facilitate the movement of those minerals from the interior to the coast, later, the distance to Ouro Preto was shortened by the Caminho Novo, which started from Rio de Janeiro. The length of both roads combined is about 1,400 km, transportation along the road was tightly controlled by agents of the Crown to prevent smuggling and unauthorized movement. Goods were transported in mule trains known as tropas, led by tropeiro mule drivers, many of Brazils hearty dishes, such as feijão tropeiro and tutu, were originally prepared by the tropeiros, who needed food that could be transported without spoiling. The towns along the Estrada Real were opulent in the days of gold and diamonds, but by the end of the 18th century, the became more scarce. Recent efforts by governmental and non-governmental organizations are turning the Estrada Real into a route that leads tourists through the cradle of Brazilian culture, the road is still mostly unpaved, and the towns and villages along the way appear much the way they did in the 19th century. Magnificent churches still stand in towns that have been stagnant for over a century. The tourism initiative is educating people to retain their traditional ways and preserve the Baroque architecture of their old churches and government buildings
16.
Ouro Preto
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Ouro Preto is located in one of the main areas of the Brazilian Gold Rush. Officially,800 tons of gold were sent to Portugal in the XVIII century, other gold circulated illegally, and still other gold remained in the colony to adorn churches and for other uses. In the 18th century, Ouro Preto became for a time the most populous city in the New World, at that time, the population of New York was half that number, and the population of São Paulo did not reach 8,000. Population, Data from the 2010 Census Resident population,70,227 Urban area,56,293 Rural area,9,985 Area of the municipality,1,245 km² Temperature, in June and July the temperature can reach -2 degrees Celsius. The highest point is Pico de Itacolomi with 1,722 meters, rivers, sources for the Velhas, Piracicaba, Gualaxo do Norte, Gualaxo do Sul, Mainart e Ribeirão Funil. Per Capita Income, R$23,622 HDI,0, founded at the end of the 17th century, Ouro Preto was originally called Vila Rica, or rich village, the focal point of the gold rush and Brazils golden age in the 18th century under Portuguese rule. The city centre contains well-preserved Portuguese colonial architecture, with few signs of urban development. New construction must keep with the citys historical aesthetic, 18th- and 19th-century churches decorated with gold and the sculptured works of Aleijadinho make Ouro Preto a tourist destination. The tremendous wealth from mining in the 18th century created a city which attracted the intelligentsia of Europe. At that time, Vila Rica was the largest city in Brazil, in 1789, Ouro Preto became the birthplace of the Inconfidência Mineira, a failed attempt to gain independence from Portugal. The leading figure, Tiradentes, was hanged as a threat to any future revolutionaries, in 1876, the Escola de Minas was created. This school established the foundation for several of the mineral discoveries in Brazil. Ouro Preto was capital of Minas Gerais from 1720 until 1897, the state government was moved to the new, planned city of Belo Horizonte. Main economic activities are tourism, transformation industries, and mineral riches such as deposits of iron, bauxite, manganese, talc, minerals of note are, gold, hematite, dolomite, tourmaline, pyrite, muscovite, topaz and imperial topaz. The imperial topaz is a stone found in Ouro Preto. Soapstone handicraft items are a popular souvenir among tourists, and can be found in shops in the town centre. Jewelry made of precious and semi-precious gemstones can also be found in abundance for sale. Ouro Preto is also a university town with a student life
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Zona da Mata (Minas Gerais)
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For other forest zones, see Zona da Mata for Brazil, or the african forest zone. Zona da Mata is a mesoregion of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, situated in the part of the state, along the border of the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro. The region has a lot of hills, and the heights varies from 100 to 1,900 meters, the most important river is the Paraíba do Sul. Because of its geography it produces one of the best coffees of the region, Zona da Mata was the richest region of Minas Gerais from the 1850s to the 1930s due to coffee and milk production. Today - along with farming - textile, furniture, siderurgy, some important roads cross the region, like the BR-116, BR-040 and BR-267. The mesoregion is composed of the following microregions, cataguases Juiz de Fora Manhuaçu Muriaé Ponte Nova Ubá Viçosa The most important and populous city of the region is Juiz de Fora with 500,000 inhabitants, roughly 25% of the Zona da Matas population
18.
Estrada de Ferro Central do Brasil
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The Estrada de Ferro Central do Brasil was one of the principal railways of Brazil, uniting the states of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais. It was constituted as the Companhia de Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II, works commenced on 11 June 1855 and on 29 March 1858, the 48 km 1,600 mm gauge section from Rio de Janeiro to Freguesia de Nossa Senhora da Conceição de Marapicu was completed. At this time there were 5 stations, Campo, Engenho Novo, Cascadura, Maxambomba, on 8 November the railway was extended to Belém at the foot of the Serra do Mar. In 1860, the Japeri to Macacos branch was completed, on 12 July 1863 Rodeio was reached and, in 1864 the Paraíba do Sul. The first passenger train ran to Barra do Piraí on 9 August 1864, in Entre Rios, the EF Dom Pedro II connected with the Estrada de Rodagem União e Indústria which went from Petrópolis to Juiz de Fora. From there it went on to municipalities of Minas Gerais. When the Brazilian republic was proclaimed in 1889 the Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II was renamed Estrada de Ferro Central do Brasil, in 1895 the Minas Gerais tracks arrived at General Carneiro and split in the directions of Belo Horizonte and Sete Lagoas. The city of São Paulo had been reached in 1890 after the incorporation of the São Paulo, at the close of the 20th century, the EF Central do Brasil was still being extended, mainly by the incorporation of existing lines. However, some of the lines were loss making, often prejudicing the profitability of the main lines. On March 16,1957 the company came under the control of Rede Ferroviária Federal S. A, in 1990 services between Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo and between São Paulo and Belo Horizonte had all but ceased. A sparse service continued until 1996 but these ceased with the privatization of the RFFSA, nowadays, the suburban lines of São Paulo are run by Companhia Paulista de Trens Metropolitanos and those of Rio de Janeiro by Supervia. The rest of the network was divided up between 1,600 mm broad gauge and the 1,000 mm metre gauge, the name Central do Brasil now only exists in the terminal station of SuperVia in Rio de Janeiro. This station was the setting for the film Central Station which was nominated for the best foreign language film Oscar in 1998
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Marmelos Zero Power Plant
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The Marmelos Zero Power Plant is a decommissioned hydroelectric power plant on the Paraibuna River in Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Inaugurated in 1889, plant was the first major power plant constructed in South America. It was purchased by CEMIG in 1980 and now serves as a museum, the Marmelos IA and II downstream are still in operation and are serviced by the original dam. Bernardo Mascarenhas became a resident of Juiz de Fora and as an adult became interested in providing electricity for the city, in February 1889, construction on the power plant began and by August, it began to produce initial electricity. The plant was inaugurated on September 5,1889, the power plant was supported by a 51-metre long and 2. 4-metre high dam which diverts water into a canal on the rivers southern bank that supplies the power station downstream. At first, the plant utilized two 125 kW generators which operated single-phase alternators at a frequency of 60 hertz. In the next year, the plant powered 180 light-bulbs, in the following years, a third generator was added to the plant and it powered over 700 light-bulbs and contributed to industrial and public use in the city. By 1896, the plant was decommissioned as new and improved plants such as the Marmelos I, IA. Marmelos I is also decommissioned while IA and II continue operations with a capacity of 4 MW, in 1980, CEMIG purchased the power plant and renovated it. It became licensed as a museum in 1983 and as of 2000 it is maintained by Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora under an agreement with CEMIG
20.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
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Federal University of Juiz de Fora
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The Federal University of Juiz de Fora is a university in Brazil. UFJF was established in 1960 by an act of Brazilian President Juscelino Kubitscheck, at that time, colleges functioning in the city of Juiz de Fora were officially integrated by the government to constitute a university. In the earlier years, the courses offered were Medicine, Engineering, Economic Science, Law, Pharmacy, later, the courses of Geography, Languages & Literature, Philosophy, Biological Sciences, Social Science and History were also opened. The campus was built in 1969 and the courses offered under licensure were distributed among different campus units, the Social Communication course was created and became part of the Law Faculty departments. Later, these institutes also offered a range of postgraduate courses, recent years have seen significant increases in external research funding, research staff, and graduates at these University Institutes. The UFJF Historical Archive was founded in 1985 and represents an important source for local, regional and national research, functioning as a documentation. Two years later, the UFJF Press was established and its academic publishing includes journals and books in a wide variety of fields. In 2001, a UFJF Junior Enterprise was granted an ISO9001 Certificate, in 1999, a new academic unit was established, the Health Sciences Center, which comprises the School of Medicine, the School of Physiotherapy, the School of Nursing and the School of Dentistry. Several major hospitals are affiliated with the CCS, in the same year, two other units were created, the Arts and Design Institute and the Faculty of Languages and Literature. ufjf. br/cri-eng/ufjf/
22.
Humid subtropical climate
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A humid subtropical climate is a zone of climate characterised by hot, usually humid summers and mild to cool winters. It normally lies on the southeast side of all continents, generally between latitudes 25° and 40° and it tends to be located at coastal or near coastal locations. However, in cases it extends inland, most notably in China. Under the Köppen climate classification, subtropical climates are found in the warmest parts of his Warm Temperate climates or Cfa and this climate features mean temperatures in the coldest month between 0 °C and 18 °C and mean temperatures in the warmest month 22 °C or higher. However, while some climatologists have opted to describe this type as a humid subtropical climate Köppen himself never used this term. The humid subtropical climate classification was created under the Trewartha Climate classification. The Trewartha system was a 1966 update of the Köppen climate classification and this was seen to effectively separate temperate climates like London or New York City from true subtropical locations like Brisbane or Savannah for example. Rainfall often shows a peak, especially where monsoons are well developed, as in Southeast Asia. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms that build up due to the surface heating and strong subtropical sun angle. Weak tropical lows that move in from adjacent warm tropical oceans, winter rainfall is often associated with large storms in the westerlies that have fronts that reach down into subtropical latitudes. However, many subtropical climates such as southeast Asia or Florida have very dry winters, with frequent brush fires, in Africa, the humid subtropical climates are found in two separate areas on the southern hemisphere of the continent. The Cwa climate is found over a portion of the interior of the Middle. Some lower portions of the Ethiopian Highlands also have this climate, the climate is also found in the narrow coastal sections of southern and eastern South Africa, primarily in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape provinces. South Africas version of this climate features heavy oceanic influences resulting in milder temperatures. This is particularly evident in its winters when temperatures do not drop as low as in other regions within the humid subtropical category. Locations in Asia with a subtropical climate differ from those in other continents in that they often have marked seasonal differences in precipitation. Cities near the boundary of this zone include Hong Kong, Hanoi. At Hainan Island and in Taiwan, the transitions from subtropical into fully tropical
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Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
24.
Relative humidity
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Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest and it requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures, more water vapour is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air. Humans are sensitive to high humidity because the body uses evaporative cooling, enabled by perspiration. Perspiration evaporates from the more slowly under humid conditions than under arid. For example, if the air temperature is 24 °C and the humidity is zero percent. If the relative humidity is 100 percent at the air temperature. In other words, if the air is 24 °C and contains saturated water vapor, then the human body cools itself at the rate as it would if it were 27 °C. The heat index and the humidex are indices that reflect the effect of temperature. In cold climates, the temperature causes lower capacity for water vapour to flow about. Dry cracked skin can result from dry air, low humidity causes tissue lining nasal passages to dry, crack and become more susceptible to penetration of Rhinovirus cold viruses. Low humidity is a cause of nosebleeds. The use of a humidifier in homes, especially bedrooms, can help with these symptoms, indoor relative humidities should be kept above 30% to reduce the likelihood of the occupants nasal passages drying out. Humans can be comfortable within a range of humidities depending on the temperature—from thirty to seventy percent—but ideally between 50% and 60%. Very low humidity can create discomfort, respiratory problems, and aggravate allergies in some individuals, in the winter, it is advisable to maintain relative humidity at 30 percent or above. Extremely low relative humidities may also cause eye irritation, wooden furniture can shrink, causing the paint that covers these surfaces to fracture. When the temperature is low and the humidity is high. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can occur on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, condensation can pose a safety risk as it can promote the growth of mold and wood rot as well as possibly freezing emergency exits shut. The basic principles for buildings, above, also apply to vehicles, in addition, there may be safety considerations
25.
Mercedes-Benz
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Mercedes-Benz is a global automobile manufacturer and a division of the German company Daimler AG. The brand is known for vehicles, buses, coaches. The headquarters is in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, the slogan for the brand is the best or nothing and Mercedes-Benz was one of the top growing brands in 2014 with 18% growth. The Mercedes automobile was first marketed in 1901 by Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft, emil Jellinek, an Austrian automobile entrepreneur who worked with DMG created the trademark in 1902, naming the 1901 Mercedes 35 hp after his daughter Mercedes Jellinek. The first Mercedes-Benz brand name vehicles were produced in 1926, following the merger of Karl Benzs, on 28 June 1926, Mercedes Benz was formed with the merger of Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimlers two companies. Gottlieb Daimler was born on 17 March 1834 in Schorndorf, after training as a gunsmith and working in France, he attended the Polytechnic School in Stuttgart from 1857 to 1859. After completing various activities in France and England, he started work as a draftsman in Geislingen in 1862. At the end of 1863, he was appointed inspector in a machine tool factory in Reutlingen. Throughout the 1930s, Mercedes-Benz produced the 770 model, a car that was popular during Germanys Nazi period, Adolf Hitler was known to have driven these cars during his time in power, with bulletproof windshields. Most of the models have been sold at auctions to private buyers. One of them is currently on display at the War Museum in Ottawa, the pontiffs Popemobile has often been sourced from Mercedes-Benz. In 1944,46,000 forced laborers were used in Daimler-Benzs factories to bolster Nazi war efforts, the company later paid $12 million in reparations to the laborers families. Mercedes-Benz has introduced many technological and safety innovations that became common in other vehicles. Mercedes-Benz is one of the best-known and established automotive brands in the world, for information relating to the famous three-pointed star, see under the title Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft including the merger into Daimler-Benz. As part of the Daimler AG company, the Mercedes-Benz Cars division includes Mercedes-Benz, mercedes-AMG became a majority owned division of Mercedes-Benz in 1999. The company was integrated into DaimlerChrysler in 1999, and became Mercedes-Benz AMG beginning on 1 January 1999, Daimlers ultra-luxury brand Maybach was under Mercedes-Benz cars division until 2013, when the production stopped due to poor sales volumes. It now exists under the Mercedes-Maybach name, with the models being ultra-luxury versions of Mercedes cars, Daimler coorporates with BYD Auto to make and sell a battery-electric car called Denza in China. In 2016, Daimler announced plans to sell Mercedes-Benz branded all-electric battery cars in China, beside its native Germany, Mercedes-Benz vehicles are also manufactured or assembled in, Since its inception, Mercedes-Benz had maintained a reputation for its quality and durability
26.
BR-040
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BR-040 is a federal highway of Brazil. The 1,178.7 kilometres road connects Brasilia to Rio de Janeiro, the starting point of the highway is in Brasília at the junction with the BR-450 and BR-251. The road ends at Praça Mauá at the Port of Rio de Janeiro, the BR-040 traverses Distrito Federal and the states of Goiás, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro. It is the road link between these parts of the country. In September 2009, the stretch of highway between Brasília and Petrópolis was named President Juscelino Kubitschek Highway, the initial draft saw the highway planned from Brasília to São João da Barra. With the revision, the stretch between Belo Horizonte and São João da Barra became part of the BR-356 as part of the Rio stretch of the BR-040 and this was originally part of the BR-135. Until 1964, the stretch between Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte was called the BR-3, two stretches of the BR-040 are important to the history of Brazilian roads. The stretch between Petrópolis and Juiz de Fora included the Estrada União e Indústria, the first Brazilian highway and this stretch was replaced by the actual Rio de Janeiro-Juiz de Fora road in 1980. In 1931, the concrete road was the first of its kind in the country. This stretch of the BR-040 between Juiz de Fora and Rio de Janeiro has been managed by the Companhia de Concessão Rodoviária Juiz de Fora-Rio de Janeiro since 1996. A significant urban stretch of the BR-040 in Rio de Janeiro is made up of the Avenida Brasil along with the BR-101, after crossing the Rio Meriti and passing by Duque de Caxias, the highway ends at Praça Mauá. In the year 1926 President of the Republic Washington Luís declared to the nation that governing means openning roads, by 1927, Brazil had 93,682 cars and 38,075 trucks. The Federal District and the State of Rio de Janeiro counted 13,252 cars and 5,452 trucks, one of the priorities was the Rio-Petrópolis highway, especially since the national press had heavily criticised the abandonment of the road to the Imperial City. Nevertheless, torrential rain poured down for two summers, washing away the sand and gravel required to surface the road, impassable ruts formed on the tarmac. One newspaper commented on the delays, at a time when coupés, cabriolets, the tools of the day were the pick, shovel, hoe and donkey cart. An outbreak of malaria occurred in the lowlands, while in the mountains of Petrópolis workers were forced to live in makeshift accommodation, President Washington Luís, alongside his ministers and regional authorities, inaugurated the Rio-Petrópolis highway on the 25th of August 1928. The road measured eight metres wide, the next day was a Sunday. No less than 1,783 cars took to the road, causing a reporter to compare the long, just two days later, many road users admitted to being frightened by the sheer height of the trucks
27.
Congonhas
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Congonhas is a historical Brazilian city located in the state of Minas Gerais. It is situated 90 kilometres south from Belo Horizonte, the capital of state of Minas Gerais, the city has a population of 50,000. It was created by Aleijadinho, one of the best artists in the style in the world. The twelve sculptures of old testament prophets around the terrace are considered one of his finest works, in 1985 the Sanctuary was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. List of municipalities in Minas Gerais Media related to Congonhas do Campo at Wikimedia Commons Congonhas travel guide from Wikivoyage World Heritage profile
28.
Barbacena
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Barbacena is a municipality in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. As of 2013, the municipality had 132,980 inhabitants, the total area of the municipality is 788 km2. It is in the foothills of the Serra da Mantiqueira south of the state capital Belo Horizonte at an elevation of 1,136 m, making it one of the ten highest cities in Brazil. Located on the important BR-040 highway, which links Brasília to Rio de Janeiro, Barbacena has a humid tropical climate with cool summers due to the elevation. Summer averages are 24 °C and winter averages 13 °C, the cool climate and abundant rainfall have made Barbacena a center for flower production — the city is the biggest producer of flowers in Minas Gerais, and is nicknamed City of Roses. Cattle raising and the industry are quite developed and the city is a big producer of milk products. Barbacena is also the home of the Preparatory School of Air Cadets and of a Medical School, the city is also famous for the Hospital Colônia de Barbacena, a mental hospital founded in 1903, which was known for its abusive treatment of patients. According to sources, 70% of the patients did not have mental illness and it ceased operations in the mid-1980s. It has been compared to a Nazi concentration camp, Barbacena was the birthplace of the human rights activist and lawyer Heráclito Fontoura Sobral Pinto. Barbacena was a station on the Estrada de Ferro Oeste de Minas, Barbacena was founded on 14 August 1791. In the 19th century, Barbacena was a distribution center for the mining districts of Minas Gerais. Barbacena has one city, as designated by Sister Cities International, Burlington, Iowa
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Alberto Santos-Dumont
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Alberto Santos-Dumont was a Brazilian aviation pioneer, one of the very few people to have contributed significantly to the development of both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air aircraft. The heir of a family of coffee producers, Santos-Dumont dedicated himself to aeronautical study and experimentation in Paris. His conviction that aviation would usher in an era of peace and prosperity led him to freely publish his designs. Santos-Dumont is a hero in Brazil, where it is popularly held that he preceded the Wright brothers in demonstrating a practical airplane. Countless roads, plazas, schools, monuments, and airports in Brazil are dedicated to him and he was a member of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1931 until his suicide in 1932. Santos-Dumont was born on 20 July 1873 in Cabangu in the Brazilian town of Palmira in the state of Minas Gerais in southeast Brazil and he was youngest of the seven children born to Henrique Dumont, an engineer of French descent, and Francisca de Paula Santos. Santos-Dumonts father managed a plantation on land owned by his wifes family. His extensive use of labor-saving inventions earned him a fortune, Santos-Dumont was fascinated by machinery, and while still a child he learned to drive the plantations steam tractors and locomotives. He also read a great deal of the works of Jules Verne and he wrote in his autobiography that the dream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil from the plantation. In 1891 Santos-Dumonts father was paralyzed by a fall from a horse. He sold the plantation and went to Europe with his wife, in Paris, Santos-Dumont contacted a balloonist with the intention of making an ascent. The price quoted was 1,200 francs for a flight, plus payment for any damage caused. This was a sum of money, and Santos-Dumont decided not to make the flight. If it is bad the money will be lost, If it is good I shall want to repeat it and I shall not have the means. After this he bought a Peugeot automobile, which he took him when he returned to Brazil with his parents at the end of the year. In 1892 the family returned to Europe, but Henriques felt too ill to continue on to Paris from Lisbon and his fathers health deteriorated and he decided to return to Brazil, where he died on 30 August 1892. For the next four years Alberto lived in Paris, studying physics, chemistry, mechanics, and electricity with the help of a private tutor, during this period he sold his Peugeot, replacing it with a more powerful and faster De Dion motor-tricycle. In 1896 he returned to Brazil for a period, but began to miss Paris
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Sete Lagoas
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Sete Lagoas is a city in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. The municipal area is 537 km² while the population was 217,506 in 2007, Sete Lagoas is situated about 70 kilometres from Belo Horizonte, the capital of Minas Gerais. The BR040 motorway connects Sete Lagoas with Belo Horizonte and the national capital Brasília, the altitude is 761 metres above sea level. It is surrounded by the municipalities, Araçaí, Funilândia, Prudente de Morais, Capim Branco, Esmeraldas, Inhaúma, Paraopeba. According to data from the station of the municipality, the average temperature of the city between the years 1961 to 1990 was 20.9 °C. The coldest month had an average of 17.5 °C while the hottest month had an average of 23.0 °C, according to a table, the weather station in the municipality already registered a temperature of 0.6 °C. Tres Marias,181 km Governador Valadares,263 km, in 2000 the population of this area was 341,568 inhabitants in a total area of 8,560.40 km². The economy is based on services, industry and some agriculture, the GDP in 2005 was R$2 billion 800 million, with 1 billion 120 million from services,1 billion 250 thousand from industry, and 17 million from agriculture. There were 824 transformation industries in 2005 with 15,000 workers, heavy industry was important with 23 factories producing mainly pig iron. There is an Iveco-Fiat plant, which opened in 2001, that produces trucks, in 2005 there were 51 public and 53 private health clinics. There were 5 hospitals with 315 beds, educational needs were met by 86 primary schools,30 middle schools, and 56 pre-primary schools. Evidence of pre-Columbian presence has found in the Gruta Rei do Mato. From around 1700, colonists entered Minas Gerais in search of gold, gems, nowadays, the Santa Luzia quarter is unofficially still called o garimpo. Between 1780 and 1867, the name Sete Lagoas was used for several types of administrations. The municipality of Sete Lagoas was founded in 1867, although Sete Lagoas means Seven Lakes, there are currently more than seven lakes in Sete Lagoas. Some were dug out while others became part of the town when the town expanded, there are, however,7 official lakes according to a municipal law from 1989. These are, Lagoa da Boa Vista, Lagoa da Catarina, Lagoa da Chácara, Lagoa do Cercadinho, Lagoa José Felix, Lagoa do Matadouro, food is an important element of the culture of Minas Gerais. In Sete Lagoas, two dishes can be found that are found elsewhere, Galopé and Muchacho
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Leopoldina, Minas Gerais
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Leopoldina is a municipality in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. As of 2010, it has a population of 51,136 and it is situated in the southeastern Zona da Mata mesoregion of the state. The municipality contains the 368.7 hectares Lapinha Biological Reserve, the city is also the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Leopoldina
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Bicas
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Bicas is a Brazilian municipality in the state of Minas Gerais. As of 2004 its population is estimated to be 13.590 inhabitants, initially a breakpoint for salesmen in the 18th century, Bicas obtained its independence from the city of Guarará in 1923. It was a point for Italian immigrants and also other nationalities. Until the 1970s, Bicas had a train station and an active RFFSA branch for repairing wagons. Unfortunately, all this structure was dismantled and today the station exists only as a historic site. Currently, Bicas has an economy based on commerce, agriculture, list of municipalities in Minas Gerais
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Lima Duarte (city)
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Lima Duarte is a municipality in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It has a population of 16166 inhabitants and a area of 848 square kilometres and lies at an elevation of 860 metres in the foothills of the Mantiqueira Mountains. It was given city status in 1881 and it is 330 kilometres from the state capital, Belo Horizonte, and is part of the Zona da Mata, a region whose economic and cultural center is Juiz de Fora. It is connected with city by highway BR-267. Ibitipoca state park is situated within the municipality about 25 kilometres from the city center, Average maximum temperature,28 °C, Average minimum temperature,10 °C Most of the municipality is drained by the Paraíba do Sul River. The most important river is the Rio do Peixe, a tributary of the Paraibuna, the citys economy is mainly based on tourism and the dairy industry
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