1.
Great Cameo of France
–
The Great Cameo of France is a five-layered sardonyx cameo of c.23 AD. It appears to have come to France from the treasury of the Byzantine Empire and it was then known as the Triumph of Joseph at the Court of the Pharaoh. It entered the Cabinet des Médailles on the order of Louis XVI on 1 May 1791, stolen during the French Revolution, it was recovered in Amsterdam but without its original gold frame, which was replaced by a bronze one that in turn was lost until 1912. It now resides in Paris at the Bibliothèque Nationale and it is the largest Roman imperial cameo to have survived. It is engraved with figures, divided into three levels. The general meaning and iconographic intent of the work are debated but generally clear, in the upper level are its deceased or deified members including Divus Augustus, surrounded by Drusus the Younger and Drusus the Elder flying on Pegasus. Agrippina the Youngers hairstyle confirms a date for the cameo between her marriage to Claudius in 49 and the accession of her son Nero as the emperor of Rome in 54. In the lowest level are captive barbarians, catalogue des Camées antiques et modernes de la Bibliothèque Nationale. Paris, E. Leroux,1897, n°264, trésors de la Bibliothèque nationale de France, I, Mémoires et merveilles. Le grand camée de France, Paris,1998 Giuliani, Luca and Gerhard Schmidt, das Geheimnis des großen Kameo, Verlag C. H. Beck, Munich 2010. Jucker, HNA Der Grosse Pariser Kameo, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts 91 211-50,1789, Le Patrimoine libéré,200 trésors entrés à la Bibliothèque nationale de 1789 à1799. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale,1989, n°83
Great Cameo of France
–
Contents
2.
Julio-Claudian dynasty
–
The term Julio-Claudian dynasty refers to the first five Roman emperors—Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—or the family to which they belonged. They ruled the Roman Empire from its formation under Augustus in the half of the 1st century BC, until AD68 when the last of the line, Nero. Primogeniture is notably absent in the history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, adoption ultimately became a tool that most Julio-Claudian emperors utilized in order to promote their chosen heir to the front of the succession. Augustus, himself a son of his great-uncle, the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, adopted his stepson and son-in-law Tiberius as his son. Tiberius was, in turn, required to adopt his nephew Germanicus, the ancient historians who dealt with this period—chiefly Suetonius and Tacitus —write in generally negative terms about their reign. The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, Julius and Claudius were two Roman family names, in classical Latin, they came second. Roman family names were inherited from father to son, but a Roman aristocrat could – either during his life or in his will – adopt an heir if he lacked a natural son. In accordance with Roman naming conventions, the son would replace his original family name with the name of his adopted family. A famous example of this custom is Julius Caesars adoption of his great-nephew, Augustus, as Caesars adopted son and heir, discarded the family name of his natural father and initially renamed himself Gaius Julius Caesar after his adoptive father. It was also customary for the son to acknowledge his original family by adding an extra name at the end of his new name. As such, Augustus adopted name would have been Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, however, there is no evidence that he ever used the name Octavianus. Following Augustus ascension as the first emperor of the Roman Empire in 27 BC, his became an de facto royal house. For various reasons, the Julio-Claudians followed in the example of Julius Caesar, the next four emperors were closely related through a combination of blood relation, marriage and adoption. Tiberius, a Claudian by birth, became Augustus stepson after the marriage to Livia. Tiberius connection to the Julian side of the Imperial family grew closer when he married Augustus only daughter and he ultimately succeeded Augustus as emperor in AD14 after becoming his stepfathers adopted son and heir. Caligula was born into the Julian and Claudian branches of the Imperial family and his father, Germanicus, was the son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, the son of Livia and the daughter of Octavia Minor respectively. Germanicus was also a great-nephew of Augustus on his mothers side and his wife, Agrippina the Elder, was a granddaughter of Augustus. Through Agrippina, Germanicus children – including Caligula – were Augustus great-grandchildren, when Augustus adopted Tiberius, the latter was required to adopt his brothers eldest son as well, thus allowing Germanicus side of the Imperial family to inherit the Julius nomen
Julio-Claudian dynasty
–
The statue known as the
Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century
Julio-Claudian dynasty
–
This marble statue of a youth on horseback is believed to represent a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
3.
Common Era
–
Common Era or Current Era is a year-numbering system for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i. e. since AD1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era, the Current Era notation system can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD and BC. The two notation systems are equivalent, thus 2017 CE corresponds to AD2017 and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC. The year-numbering system for the Gregorian calendar is the most widespread civil calendar used in the world today. For decades, it has been the standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. The expression has been traced back to Latin usage to 1615, as vulgaris aerae, the term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish academics. He attempted to number years from a reference date, an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, numbering years in this manner became more widespread in Europe with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, in 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The first use of the Latin term vulgaris aerae discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler, Kepler uses it again in a 1616 table of ephemerides, and again in 1617. A1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, a 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,6. A1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, before the beginning of the vulgar æra, a 1796 book uses the term vulgar era of the nativity. The first so-far-discovered usage of Christian Era is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac, a 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of Christian Era. The English phrase common Era appears at least as early as 1708, a 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. The first-so-far found usage of the phrase before the era is in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era, the Catholic Encyclopedia in at least one article reports all three terms being commonly understood by the early 20th century. Thus, the era of the Jews, the common era of the Mahometans, common era of the world
Common Era
–
Key concepts
4.
Family tree
–
A family tree, or pedigree chart, is a chart representing family relationships in a conventional tree structure. The more detailed family trees used in medicine and social work are known as genograms, genealogical data can be represented in several formats, for example as a pedigree or ancestry chart. Family trees are presented with the oldest generations at the top. An ancestry chart, which is a showing the ancestors of an individual, will more closely resemble a tree in shape. In some ancestry charts, a appears on the left. A descendancy chart, which all the descendants of an individual will be narrowest at the top. Family trees can have many themes, one might encompass all direct descendants of a single figure, or all known ancestors of a living person. Another might include all members of a particular surname, yet another approach is to construct a tree including all holders of a certain office, such as kings of Germany. This relies on dynastic marriage to hold together the links between dynasties, the image of the tree probably originated with one in medieval art of the Tree of Jesse, used to illustrate the Genealogy of Christ in terms of a prophecy of Isaiah. Fan charts depict paternal and maternal ancestors, however, because a parent must be born before their child is born, a person cannot be their own ancestor, and thus there are no loops, so ancestry forms a directed acyclic graph. The graphs of matrilineal descent and patrilineal descent are trees however, assuming no common ancestor, an ancestry chart is a perfect binary tree, as each person has exactly one mother and one father, for two parents, these thus have a regular structure. A descendancy chart, on the hand, does not in general have a regular structure, as a person can have any number of children. The longest family tree in the world is that of the Chinese philosopher and educator Confucius, the tree spans more than 80 generations from him, and includes more than 2 million members. An international effort involving more than 450 branches around the world was started in 1998 to retrace, a new edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed in September 2009 by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, to coincide with the 2560th anniversary of the birth of the Chinese thinker. This latest edition is expected to include some 1.3 million living members who are scattered around the world today, the 1999 edition of the Guinness Book of Records recorded the Lurie family in the longest lineage category as oldest-known living family in the world today. In Europe, the pedigree of Niall Noígíallach would be contender for the longest, the author Pete Frame is notable for having produced family trees of rock bands. In this instance, the entries represent membership of certain groups, several books have been produced with his family trees, which in turn have led to a BBC television series about them, including interviews from the bands depicted in the trees
Family tree
–
Example of a family tree, showing three generations of the
Kennedy Family
Family tree
–
Family tree displaying an ancestor chart of
Sigmund Christoph, Graf von Zeil und Trauchburg
Family tree
–
Ahnenblatt family tree
5.
Gens Julia
–
The gens Julia or Iulia was one of the most ancient patrician families at Ancient Rome. Members of the gens attained the highest dignities of the state in the earliest times of the Republic, the first of the family to obtain the consulship was Gaius Julius Iulus in 489 BC. The nomen Julius became very common in times, as the descendants of persons enrolled as citizens under the early emperors began to make their mark in history. The Julii were without doubt of Alban origin, and it is mentioned as one of the leading Alban houses and it is not impossible that some of the Julii may have settled at Bovillae after the fall of Alba Longa. Aeneas was, in turn, the son of Venus and Anchises, in order to prove the identity of Ascanius and Iulus, recourse was had to etymology, some specimens of which the reader curious in such matters will find in Servius. Other traditions held that Iulus was the son of Aeneas by his Trojan wife, Creusa, while Ascanius was the son of Aeneas and Lavinia, daughter of Latinus. Though it would seem that the Julii first came to Rome in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, in the later Empire, the distinction between praenomen, nomen, and cognomen was gradually lost, and Julius was treated much like a personal name, which it ultimately became. The Latin form is common in languages, but other familiar forms exist, including Giulio, Julio, Jules, Júlio, Iuliu. The Julii of the Republic used the praenomina Lucius, Gaius, there are also instances of Vopiscus and Spurius in the early generations of the family. The earliest of the Julii appearing in legend bore the praenomen Proculus, in the later Republic and imperial times, Vopiscus and Proculus were generally used as personal cognomina. The name was revived as a praenomen by Marcus Antonius, the triumvir. Classical Latin did not distinguish between the letters I and J, which were written with I, and for this reason the name is sometimes written Julus, just as Julius is also written Iulius. The many Julii of imperial times, who were not descended from the gens Julia, on coins the only names which we find are Caesar and Bursio, the latter of which does not occur in ancient writers. Iulus, also written as Iullus and Julus, was the surname of the eldest branch of the Julii to appear in Roman history, the gens claimed descent from Iulus, who was in some manner connected with Aeneas, although the traditions differed with respect to the details. In some accounts, Iulus was the son of Aeneas and Creüsa, in others, Ascanius was the son of Creüsa, while Iulus was the son of Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, the king of Latium with whom Aeneas made peace after landing in Italy. In still different accounts, Iulus was the son not of Aeneas, perhaps an indigenous origin of the name is suggested by De Origo Gentis Romanae, in which Iulus and Ascanius are identical. Described as the son of Jupiter, he was known as Jobus. This calls to mind the use of Jove for Jupiter, and the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology suggests that Iulus might be a diminutive of Dius, furthermore, Livy reports that after his death Aeneas was worshiped as Jupiter Indiges, the local Jove
Gens Julia
–
Denarius issued under Augustus from the mint at
Lugdunum (present-day Lyon, France), showing Gaius and Lucius Caesar standing facing on the reverse (ca. 2 BC–14 AD)
6.
Gens Claudia
–
The gens Claudia, sometimes written Clodia, was one of the most prominent patrician houses at Rome. The gens traced its origin to the earliest days of the Roman Republic, plebeian Claudii are found fairly early in Romes history. Some may have descended from members of the family who had passed over to the plebeians. Writing several decades after the fall of the so-called Julio-Claudian dynasty, the patrician Claudii were noted for their pride and arrogance, and intense hatred of the commonalty. In his History of Rome, Niebuhr writes, That house during the course of centuries produced several very eminent, few great men, in all ages it distinguished itself alike by a spirit of haughty defiance, by disdain for the laws, and iron hardness of heart. According to legend, the first of the Claudii was a Sabine, by the name of Attius Clausus, who came to Rome with his retainers in 504 BC, the sixth year of the Republic. At this time, the fledgling Republic was engaged in warfare with the Sabines. When his efforts failed, he defected to the Romans, bringing with him no fewer than five hundred men able to bear arms, according to Dionysius. Clausus, who exchanged his Sabine name for the Latin Appius Claudius, was enrolled among the patricians, the emperor Claudius is said to have referred to these traditions in a speech made before the Roman Senate, in which he argued in favor of admitting Gauls to that body. My ancestors, the most ancient of whom was made at once a citizen, by imperial times, the influence of the Claudii was so great that the poet Virgil flattered them by a deliberate anachronism. In his Aeneid, he makes Attius Clausus a contemporary of Aeneas, to whose side he rallies with a host of quirites, the nomen Claudius, originally Clausus, is usually said to be derived from the Latin adjective claudus, meaning lame. As a cognomen, Claudus is occasionally found in other gentes, however, since there is no tradition that any of the early Claudii were lame, the nomen might refer to some ancestor of Attius Clausus. It could also have been metaphorical, or ironic, and the possibility remains that this derivation is erroneous. The metathesis of Clausus into Claudius, and its common by-form, Clodius, involves the alternation of o and au, which seems to have been common in words of Sabine origin. The alternation of s and d occurs in words borrowed from Greek, Latin rosa from Greek rhodos, the name could have come from Greek settlers in Latium, but there is no evidence in favor of this hypothesis. The early Claudii favored the praenomina Appius, Gaius, and Publius and these names were used by the patrician Claudii throughout their history. Tiberius was used by the family of the Claudii Nerones, while Marcus, the plebeian Claudii seem to have used all of the praenomina that the patrician Claudii used, as well as Quintus, Sextus, and at least occasionally Lucius. The praenomen Appius is often said to have unique to the Claudii
Gens Claudia
–
Tiberius Claudius Nero, Second Roman Emperor
Gens Claudia
–
Claudius, Fourth Roman Emperor
7.
Julii Caesares
–
The Julii Caesares were the most illustrious family of the patrician gens Julia. The family first appears in history during the Second Punic War, having been granted dictatorial power by the Roman Senate and instituting a number of political and social reforms, he was assassinated in 44 BC. The first of the Julii Caesares to appear in history was Sextus Julius Caesar, praetor in Sicily in 208 BC. From the filiation of his son, Sextus, Sex. f. L. n. we know that his father was named Lucius, but precisely who this Lucius was and whether he bore the surname Caesar is uncertain. On the assumption that the Caesares were descended from earlier notable families of the Julia gens, some scholars have suggested that he was the son of Lucius Julius Libo, the origin of the name is equally uncertain. Of these opinions the third, which is given by Festus. The second opinion, which seems to have been the most popular one with the ancient writers, an inquiry into the etymology of this name is of some interest, as no other name has ever obtained such celebrity — clarum et duraturum cum aeternitate mundi nomen. It was assumed by Augustus as the son of the dictator. Outside of the Imperial family, the last of the Julii known to have borne the surname of Caesar was Lucius Julius Caesar, who had been consul in 64 BC, and who was still living in BC40. Although other members of the family may have lived after this time, the genealogy of the Julii Caesares was studied by Wilhelm Drumann in his monumental history of Rome, and the following tables are based largely on his reconstruction of the family. While chronology suggested that the tribune might be the son of the Sextus who had been praetor in 208 BC, the consuls filiation indicated that his grandfathers name was Lucius. It is therefore Sextus, the praetor of BC208, rather than an otherwise unknown Lucius Julius Caesar, who was the father of Lucius Julius Caesar, praetor in 183 BC, and Sextus, the consul of 157. These sons provide the first two branches of the family, but the branch, representing the ancestors of Gaius Julius Caesar. We know that Caesars grandfather was also named Gaius, and that he married a woman of the Marcia gens, Drumann supposed that he might have been the son of a senator named Gaius Julius, who wrote a Roman history in Greek about BC143. This Gaius, he proposed, might have been a brother of Sextus Julius Caesar, the consul of 157, and therefore a son of the Sextus who was military tribune in 181. Since the two Sexti were in fact the man, this would probably make the senator Gaius a third son of Sextus Julius Caesar. The rest of the genealogy is well-known, the table below reflects known and probable relationships, with speculative descent indicated by a question mark. The male line of the family, showing natural and adoptive lineage through the Julio-Claudian emperors
Julii Caesares
–
Julius Caesar, a.k.a. Gaius Julius Caesar IV, the best known of the Julii Caesares
Julii Caesares
–
Emperor
Caligula and his three sisters (
Agrippina the Younger,
Julia Drusilla and
Julia Livilla), Julii Caesares after adoption of their father
Germanicus by
Tiberius
Julii Caesares
–
Germanicus, descendant of
Lucius Julius Caesar III through his mother
Antonia Minor, became one of the Julii Caesares himself after adoption by
Tiberius, adopted into the Julii Caesares by
Augustus, the posthumously adopted son of
Julius Caesar
Julii Caesares
–
Julia Caesaris, daughter of
Julius Caesar
8.
Dynasty
–
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
Dynasty
–
Charles I of England and his son, the future
James II
9.
Roman emperor
–
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period. The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history, often when a given Roman is described as becoming emperor in English, it reflects his taking of the title Augustus or Caesar. Another title often used was imperator, originally a military honorific, early Emperors also used the title princeps. Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably Princeps Senatus, Consul, the first emperors reigned alone, later emperors would sometimes rule with co-Emperors and divide administration of the Empire between them. The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king, the first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically republican, his successor, Tiberius, nonetheless, for the first three hundred years of Roman Emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, a great effort was made to emphasize that the Emperors were the leaders of a Republic. Elements of the Republican institutional framework were preserved until the end of the Western Empire. The Eastern emperors ultimately adopted the title of Basileus, which had meant king in Greek, but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor, other kings were then referred to as rēgas. In addition to their office, some emperors were given divine status after death. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century, Romulus Augustulus is often considered to be the last emperor of the west after his forced abdication in 476, although Julius Nepos maintained a claim to the title until his death in 480. Constantine XI was the last Byzantine Roman emperor in Constantinople, dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, a Byzantine group of claimant Roman Emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461. In western Europe the title of Roman Emperor was revived by Germanic rulers, the Holy Roman Emperors, in 800, at the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, however, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so without the Senates vote and approval. Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of four times and dictator five times, was appointed dictator in perpetuity in 45 BC and had been pontifex maximus for a long period. He gained these positions by senatorial consent, by the time of his assassination, he was the most powerful man in the Roman world. In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir, a decade after Caesars death, Octavians victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavians supremacy. His restoration of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his auctoritas, some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus death, the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor, the Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps
Roman emperor
–
Augustus
Roman emperor
–
Vexillum
Roman emperor
–
Statue of
Augustus, c. 30 BC–20 BC; this statue is located in the
Louvre
Roman emperor
–
Imaginary portrait of
Constantine XI, the last Roman emperor
10.
Claudii
–
The gens Claudia, sometimes written Clodia, was one of the most prominent patrician houses at Rome. The gens traced its origin to the earliest days of the Roman Republic, plebeian Claudii are found fairly early in Romes history. Some may have descended from members of the family who had passed over to the plebeians. Writing several decades after the fall of the so-called Julio-Claudian dynasty, the patrician Claudii were noted for their pride and arrogance, and intense hatred of the commonalty. In his History of Rome, Niebuhr writes, That house during the course of centuries produced several very eminent, few great men, in all ages it distinguished itself alike by a spirit of haughty defiance, by disdain for the laws, and iron hardness of heart. According to legend, the first of the Claudii was a Sabine, by the name of Attius Clausus, who came to Rome with his retainers in 504 BC, the sixth year of the Republic. At this time, the fledgling Republic was engaged in warfare with the Sabines. When his efforts failed, he defected to the Romans, bringing with him no fewer than five hundred men able to bear arms, according to Dionysius. Clausus, who exchanged his Sabine name for the Latin Appius Claudius, was enrolled among the patricians, the emperor Claudius is said to have referred to these traditions in a speech made before the Roman Senate, in which he argued in favor of admitting Gauls to that body. My ancestors, the most ancient of whom was made at once a citizen, by imperial times, the influence of the Claudii was so great that the poet Virgil flattered them by a deliberate anachronism. In his Aeneid, he makes Attius Clausus a contemporary of Aeneas, to whose side he rallies with a host of quirites, the nomen Claudius, originally Clausus, is usually said to be derived from the Latin adjective claudus, meaning lame. As a cognomen, Claudus is occasionally found in other gentes, however, since there is no tradition that any of the early Claudii were lame, the nomen might refer to some ancestor of Attius Clausus. It could also have been metaphorical, or ironic, and the possibility remains that this derivation is erroneous. The metathesis of Clausus into Claudius, and its common by-form, Clodius, involves the alternation of o and au, which seems to have been common in words of Sabine origin. The alternation of s and d occurs in words borrowed from Greek, Latin rosa from Greek rhodos, the name could have come from Greek settlers in Latium, but there is no evidence in favor of this hypothesis. The early Claudii favored the praenomina Appius, Gaius, and Publius and these names were used by the patrician Claudii throughout their history. Tiberius was used by the family of the Claudii Nerones, while Marcus, the plebeian Claudii seem to have used all of the praenomina that the patrician Claudii used, as well as Quintus, Sextus, and at least occasionally Lucius. The praenomen Appius is often said to have unique to the Claudii
Claudii
–
Tiberius Claudius Nero, Second Roman Emperor
Claudii
–
Claudius, Fourth Roman Emperor
11.
Roman Republic
–
It was during this period that Romes control expanded from the citys immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, by the following century, it included North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar. The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation, Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. Over time, the laws that gave exclusive rights to Romes highest offices were repealed or weakened. The leaders of the Republic developed a tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military. Many of Romes legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states, the exact causes and motivations for Romes military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism and they argue that Romes expansion was driven by short-term defensive and inter-state factors, and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, with some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened and thus able to resist Romanizing influences. It was also able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome and this growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance-seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city-states seeking membership within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this, it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire and this shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal. In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance-seeking, in the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance-seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. This had some important similarities to the events in Italy centuries earlier, with some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city-states and kingdoms until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control
Roman Republic
–
Route of Pyrrhus of Epirus
Roman Republic
–
Roman consul accompanied by two
lictors
Roman Republic
–
Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the
Plebeian Council
Roman Republic
–
A Roman
denarius struck in 56 BC showing on one side the bust of the
Goddess Diana, and on the reverse the Roman general
Lucius Cornelius Sulla is offered an olive branch by his ally
Bocchus I as the captive
Jugurtha kneels beside Sulla with his hands bound.
12.
Imperial Rome
–
Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
Imperial Rome
–
The
Augustus of Prima Porta (early 1st century AD)
Imperial Rome
–
Aureus of
Augustus, the first
Roman Emperor.
Imperial Rome
–
A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England
Imperial Rome
–
A 5th-century
papyrus showing a parallel Latin-Greek text of a speech by
Cicero
13.
Gaius Marius
–
Gaius Marius was a Roman general and statesman. He held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times during his career, Marius defeated the invading Germanic tribes, for which he was called the third founder of Rome. His life and career were significant in Romes transformation from Republic to Empire, Marius was born in 157 BC in the town of Arpinum in southern Latium. The town had been conquered by the Romans in the late 4th century BC and was given Roman citizenship without voting rights, only in 188 BC did the town receive full citizenship. The problems he faced in his career in Rome show the difficulties that faced a new man. Since eagles were considered sacred animals of Jupiter, the god of the Romans. Later, as consul, he decreed that the eagle would be the symbol of the Senate, in 134 BC, he was serving with the army at Numantia and his good services brought him to the attention of Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus. Whether he arrived with Scipio Aemilianus or was already serving in the army that Scipio Aemilianus took over at Numantia is not clear. According to Plutarch, during a conversation after dinner, when the conversation turned to generals, Aemilianus then gently tapped on Marius shoulder, saying, Perhaps this is the man. It would seem that even at this stage in his army career. He ran for election as one of the special military tribunes of the first four legions who were elected. Sallust tells us that he was unknown by sight to the electors but was returned by all the tribes on the basis of his accomplishments, next, he ran for the quaestorship after losing an election for local office in Arpinum. The military tribunate shows that he was interested in Roman politics before the quaestorship. Perhaps he simply ran for office as a means of gaining support back home. Nothing is known of his actions while quaestor, in 120 BC, Marius was returned as plebeian tribune for the following year. He won with the support of Quintus Caecilius Metellus, who was an inherited patronus, the Metelli, though neither ancient nor patrician, were one of the most powerful families in Rome at this time. During his tribunate, Marius pursued a populares line and he passed a law that restricted the interference of the wealthy in elections. In the 130s voting by ballot had been introduced in elections for choosing magistrates, passing laws and deciding legal cases, in the passage of this law, Marius alienated the Metelli, who opposed it
Gaius Marius
–
Bust of Gaius Marius at
Munich Glyptothek
Gaius Marius
–
"Marius Amid the Ruins of Carthage" by
John Vanderlyn
14.
Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder
–
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman senator, a supporter of his brother-in-law, Gaius Marius, and the father of Gaius Julius Caesar, the dictator. Caesar was married to Aurelia Cotta, a member of the Aurelii and Rutilii families and they had two daughters, known as Julia Major and Julia Minor, and a son, Gaius, who was born in 100 BC. He was the brother of Sextus Julius Caesar and the son of Gaius Julius Caesar, caesars progress through the cursus honorum is well known, although the specific dates associated with his offices are controversial. According to two elogia erected in Rome long after his death, Caesar was a commissioner in the colony at Cercina, military tribune, quaestor, praetor, the dates of these offices are unclear. The colony is one of Marius of 103 BC. Broughton dated the praetorship to 92 BC, with the quaestorship falling towards the beginning of the 90s BC, brennan has dated the praetorship to the beginning of the decade. Caesar died suddenly in 85 BC, in Rome, while putting on his shoes one morning, another Caesar, possibly his father, had died similarly in Pisa. His father had seen to his education by one of the best orators of Rome, Marcus Antonius Gnipho. In his will, he left Caesar the bulk of his estate, but after Mariuss faction had been defeated in the war of the 80s BC
Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder
–
Gaius Julius Caesar from "Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum"
15.
Aurelia Cotta
–
Aurelia Cotta or Aurelia was the mother of Roman dictator Gaius Julius Caesar. Aurelia Cotta was a daughter of Rutilia and Lucius Aurelius Cotta or his brother and her father was consul in 119 BC and her paternal grandfather of the same name was consul in 144 BC. The family of the Aurelii Cottae was prominent during the Roman Republican era and her mother Rutilia, was a member of the gens Rutilia. Publius Rutilius Rufus was her maternal uncle, three of her brothers were consuls, Gaius Aurelius Cotta in 75 BC, Marcus Aurelius Cotta in 74 BC and Lucius Aurelius Cotta in 65 BC. Aurelia married a praetor Gaius Julius Caesar and her husband died 85 –84 BC. Their children were, Julia Major, wife of Pinarius and grandmother of Lucius Pinarius, Julia Minor, wife of Marcus Atius and grandmother of emperor Augustus, Gaius Julius Caesar, the historian Tacitus considered her an ideal Roman matron and thought highly of her. Plutarch described her as a strict and respectable woman, highly intelligent, independent and renowned for her beauty and common sense, Aurelia was held in high regard throughout Rome. Aurelia and her family were influential in her son’s upbringing. Her husband, the elder Gaius Caesar, was often away, when the younger Caesar was about 18, he was ordered by the then dictator of Rome, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, to divorce his young wife Cornelia Cinna, Cinnas daughter. Young Caesar firmly refused, and by so doing, put himself at risk from Sulla. Aurelia became involved in the petition to save her son, defending him along with her brother Gaius Cotta, after Cornelias death in childbirth, Aurelia raised her young granddaughter Julia in her stead and presided as mistress over her sons households. Although Caesar himself admitted her possible innocence, he divorced her shortly after stating that his wife must be above suspicion
Aurelia Cotta
–
Image of Aurelia Cotta from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum (1553)
16.
Calpurnia (wife of Caesar)
–
Calpurnia was the third and last wife of Julius Caesar. Born in 75 BC, she was the daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, consul in 58 BC, Calpurnia married Caesar in late 59 BC. Contemporary sources describe her as a humble, often shy woman, no children resulted from their union. Caesars daughter, Julia, was older than her stepmother. According to a tradition reported in ancient sources, Calpurnia had a premonition about her husbands murder. Unaware that praetor Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus was one of the conspirators against her husband, she asked him to send word to the Senate that Caesar was ill, however, Caesar rejected this plan, and Brutus escorted him into the hands of his enemies. In Shakespeares Julius Caesar, Calpurnia has a dream that a statue of Caesar was flowing with blood as many Romans wash their hands in the blood and she also sees in her dream that Julius Caesar would die in her arms. Calpurnia was shown solving a murder in Mist of Prophecies - part of the Roma Sub Rosa series by Steven Saylor and she gets Gordianus the Finder to look into a threat to her husband in a later book in this series, The Triumph of Caesar. She is portrayed as a woman of intelligence and efficiency, utterly devoted to her husbands interests. Calpurnia was portrayed by Haydn Gwynne in HBOs series Rome, in the motion picture The Addams Family, there is a portrait of Calpurnia on the wall of the Addams house
Calpurnia (wife of Caesar)
–
Calpurnia from the 16th-century
Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum
Calpurnia (wife of Caesar)
–
Greer Garson as Calpurnia.
17.
Pompeia (wife of Julius Caesar)
–
Pompeia was the second wife of Julius Caesar. Her parents were Quintus Pompeius Rufus, a son of a consul, and Cornelia. Caesar married Pompeia in 67 BC, after he had served as quaestor in Hispania, in 63 BC Caesar was elected to the position of Pontifex Maximus, the chief priest of the Roman state religion, which came with an official residence on the Via Sacra. In 62 BC Pompeia hosted the festival of the Bona Dea, however a young patrician named Publius Clodius Pulcher managed to gain admittance disguised as a woman, apparently for the purpose of seducing Pompeia. He was caught and prosecuted for sacrilege, Caesar gave no evidence against Clodius at his trial, and he was acquitted. Nevertheless, Caesar divorced Pompeia, saying that my wife ought not even to be under suspicion and this gave rise to a proverb, sometimes expressed, Caesars wife must be above suspicion
Pompeia (wife of Julius Caesar)
–
Pompeia from "
Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum "
18.
Julius Caesar
–
Gaius Julius Caesar, known as Julius Caesar, was a Roman politician, general, and notable author of Latin prose. He played a role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed an alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate. Caesars victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, extended Romes territory to the English Channel, Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, with the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused the order, and instead marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon with the 13th Legion, leaving his province, Civil war resulted, and Caesars victory in the war put him in an unrivalled position of power and influence. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reforms and he centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed dictator in perpetuity, giving him additional authority. But the underlying political conflicts had not been resolved, and on the Ides of March 44 BC, a new series of civil wars broke out, and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesars adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to power after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began, much of Caesars life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and from other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources, Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. Caesar was born into a family, the gens Julia. The cognomen Caesar originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section. The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations, that the first Caesar had a head of hair, that he had bright grey eyes. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name, despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC. Caesars father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia and his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesars childhood, in 85 BC, Caesars father died suddenly, so Caesar was the head of the family at 16
Julius Caesar
–
The
Tusculum portrait, perhaps the only surviving statue created during Caesar's lifetime.
Julius Caesar
–
Gaius Marius, Caesar's uncle
Julius Caesar
–
Dictator
Lucius Cornelius Sulla stripped Caesar of the priesthood.
Julius Caesar
–
The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar's conquests.
19.
Gaius Octavius (praetor 61 BC)
–
Gaius Octavius was an ancestor to the Roman Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Hailing from Velitrae, he descended from an old, wealthy equestrian branch of the gens Octavia, despite being from a wealthy family, his family was plebeian, rather than patrician. As a novus homo, he would not be of a senatorial family and his grandfather, Gaius Octavius, fought as a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. His father Gaius Octavius was a magistrate who lived to an advanced age. He is a distant relative to Gnaeus Octavius, the consul of 87 BC who led the opposition to Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Octavius first wife was named Ancharia. It is not known how the marriage ended, although it is possible that Ancharia died during child birth and he later married the niece of Julius Caesar, Atia Balba Caesonia. How they met is not known, although Atias family on her fathers side lived close to Velitrae and they had two children, Octavia Minor and the Emperor Augustus, the latter of whom was born in 63 BC. Octavius was elected quaestor, believed to have been in 70 BC, in 61 BC, he was elected praetor. In 60 BC, after his term had ended, he was appointed propraetor, before he left for Macedonia, the senate sent him to put down a slave rebellion at Thurii. These slaves had taken part in the rebellions of Spartacus. Cicero had high regard for his diplomatic dealings, because of his successful term as governor of Macedonia, he won the support necessary to be elected consul. In 59 BC, Octavius sailed to Rome, to stand for election as consul, however, he died in Nola, before arriving in Rome. He supposedly died in the bedroom where his son Augustus would pass away many years later. Octavia Julio-Claudian family tree Suetonius - The Twelve Caesars - Augustus vs. 1-8 Augustus, The Life of Romes First Emperor, by Anthony Everitt
Gaius Octavius (praetor 61 BC)
–
Head of statue, thought to be Gaius Octavius, ca. 60 BC,
Munich Glyptothek
20.
Atia Balba Caesonia
–
The name Atia Balba was also borne by the other two daughters of Julia and her husband praetor Marcus Atius Balbus. They were Atia’s older sister Atia Balba Prima, and her sister was Atia Balba Tertia. As a result, she was referred to as Atia Balba Secunda to differentiate her from her two sisters. In former portrayals of the ancient history the mother of Augustus, religiously and with the utmost delicacy she regulated not only the serious tasks of her youthful charges, but also their recreations and their games. On a sudden a serpent glided up to her and shortly went away, in the tenth month after that Augustus was born and was therefore regarded as the son of Apollo. Atia too, before she gave him birth, dreamed that her vitals were borne up to the stars and spread over the extent of land and sea. Atia was so fearful for her sons safety that she and Philippus urged him to renounce his rights as Caesars heir and she died during her sons first consulship, in August or September 43 BC. Octavian honored her memory with a public funeral, another Philippus, consul suffectus in 38 BC and the son of her second husband from previous marriage, later married one of her sisters. Her first marriage was with Gaius Octavius, the praetor in 61 BC and her family lived close to Velitrae, ancestral home of the Octavii. They had two children, Octavia Minor, born in 69 BC, and the younger Gaius Octavius, Octavius died in 59 BC, when their son Gaius Octavius was four years old. That same year Atia remarried to Lucius Marcius Philippus, consul in 56 BC, many of her childrens descendants became major figures of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, among them were the emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero. A fictionalised Atia of the Julii is portrayed by Polly Walker in the BBC-HBO-RAI television series Rome, there she is portrayed as shrewd, manipulative, sexually uninhibited, and extremely mindful of her familys advancement. Atia A portrait bust of Atia can be seen under the fourth section, Parents
Atia Balba Caesonia
–
Atia Balba Caesonia from "
Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum "
21.
Pompey
–
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, usually known in English as Pompey /ˈpɒmpiː/ or Pompey the Great, was a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic. He came from a wealthy Italian provincial background, and his father had been the first to establish the family among the Roman nobility, Pompeys immense success as a general while still very young enabled him to advance directly to his first consulship without meeting the normal requirements for office. His success as a commander in Sullas Second Civil War resulted in Sulla bestowing the nickname Magnus. He was consul three times and celebrated three triumphs, after the deaths of Julia and Crassus, Pompey sided with the optimates, the conservative faction of the Roman Senate. Pompey and Caesar then contended for the leadership of the Roman state, when Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, he sought refuge in Egypt, where he was assassinated. His career and defeat are significant in Romes subsequent transformation from Republic to Empire, Pompeys family first gained the position of Consul in 141 BC. Pompeys father, Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, was an equestrian from Picenum. He fought the Social War against Romes Italian allies and he supported Sulla, who belonged to the optimates, the pro-aristocracy faction, against Marius, who belonged to the populares, in Sullas first civil war. He died during the siege of Rome by the Marians in 87 BC, either as a casualty of an epidemic and his twenty-year-old son Pompey inherited his estates, and the loyalty of his legions. Pompey had served two years under his fathers command, and had participated in the part of the Social War. When his father died, Pompey was put on due to accusations that his father stole public property. As his father’s heir Pompey could be held to account and he discovered that this was committed by one of his fathers freedmen. Following his preliminary bouts with his accuser, the took a liking to Pompey and offered his daughter. Another civil war broke out between the Marians and Sulla, Cassius Dio added that Pompey had sent a detachment to pursue him, but he outstripped them by crossing the River Phasis. He reached the Maeotis and stayed in the Cimmerian Bosporus and he had his son Machares, who ruled it and gone over to the Romans, killed and recovered that country. Meanwhile, Pompey set up a colony for his soldiers at Nicopolitans in Cappadocia, in Plutarchs account Pompey was invited to invade Armenia by Tigranes’ son, who rebelled against his father. The two men received the submission of several towns, when they got close Artaxata Tigranes, knowing Pompey’s leniency, surrendered and allowed a Roman garrison in his palace. Pompey offered the restitution of the Armenian territories in Syria, Phoenicia, Cilicia, Galatia and he demanded an indemnity and ruled that the son should be king of Sophene
Pompey
–
Pompey the Great in middle age,
marble bust in the
Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek,
Copenhagen,
Denmark.
Pompey
–
Roman statue of Pompey, at the Villa Arconati a Castellazzo di Bollate (Milan, Italy). It was brought there from Rome in 1627 by Galeazzo Arconati.
Pompey
–
Bust of Pompey in the
Residenz, Munich
Pompey
–
Pompey
22.
Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)
–
Julia, c.76 BC–54 BC, was the daughter of Roman dictator Julius Caesar, by his first wife, Cornelia, and his only child in marriage. Julia became the wife of Pompey the Great and was renowned for her beauty. Julia was probably born around 76 BC, after her mother died in 69 BC, she was raised by her paternal grandmother Aurelia Cotta. Caesar broke off this engagement and married her to Pompey in April 59 BC, Pompey was supposedly infatuated with his bride. A rumor suggested that the conqueror was losing interest in politics in favor of domestic life with his young wife. Julia died before a breach between her husband and father had become inevitable, at the election of aediles in 55 BC, Pompey was surrounded by a tumultuous mob, and his gown was sprinkled with blood of the rioters. A slave carried the stained toga to his house on the Carinae and was seen by Julia, imagining that her husband was slain, she fell into premature labor, and her constitution received an irreparable shock. In August of the year,54 BC, she died in child birth, and her infant—a son, according to some writers. Caesar was in Britain, according to Seneca, when he received the tidings of Julias death, Pompey wished her ashes to repose in his favourite Alban villa, but the Roman people, who loved Julia, determined they should rest in the field of Mars. But the popular will prevailed, and, after listening to a funeral oration in the forum, after Julia’s death, Pompey and Caesar’s alliance began to fade, which resulted in Caesars civil war. It was allegedly remarked, as an omen, that on the day Augustus entered Rome as Caesars adoptive son. Caesar himself vowed a ceremony to her manes, which he exhibited in 46 BC as extensive funeral games including gladiatorial combats. The date of the ceremony was chosen to coincide with the ludi Veneris Genetricis on September 26, the festival in honor of Venus Genetrix, the divine ancestress of the Julians. In Dante Alighieris epic poem The Divine Comedy, Julia was encountered by Dante in the first circle of Hell, I knew, who in that Limbo were suspended. Lucretia, Julia, Marcia, and Cornelia, The Italian Renaissance poet Carlo Marsuppini wrote a eulogy about Piccarda Bueri and he names her as an example of great marital devotion. In Julius Caesar, the role of young Julia is played by Alexandra Morris, Julias death is portrayed in the premiere episode of HBOs 2005 television series Rome. However, Julia actually died in childbirth in 54 BC, at least 2 years before the events of this episode, plutarch, Parallel Lives Life of Caesar. Augustine of Hippo, The city of God, valerius Maximus, Factorum et dictorum memorabilium libri iv.6.4 This entry incorporates public domain text originally from, William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology,1870
Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)
–
Julia from
Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum. The inscription reads: "Julia Caesaris; Caesar's daughter; Pompey's wife."
23.
Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor
–
Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor was a Roman Senator who served as Consul in 50 BC. He was a member of the distinguished Claudius family and he was a friend to Roman Senator Cicero and an early opponent of Julius Caesar. He was also noteworthy for marrying the sister of the future emperor Augustus, Octavia the Younger, with whom he fathered M. Marcellus and he is termed Minor in order to distinguish him from his cousin and namesake, C. Claudius Marcellus Maior, the consul of 49 BC and he was a direct descendant of consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus. His grandfather was also named Marcus, his father was Gaius, from his first unnamed wife, Marcellus had a daughter who married the Roman Senator, Sextus Quinctilius Varus who served as a Quaestor in 49 BC. He was a grandfather to the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus and he married in an arranged ceremony Octavia the Younger, a great-niece of Julius Caesar and sister of Octavian. Octavia bore Marcellus three children a son, Marcus and two daughters, both named Claudia Marcella born in Rome. In 54 BC the great-uncle of Octavia, Julius Caesar was said to be anxious for Octavia to divorce Marcellus so that she could marry Pompey, his rival, failing this, he called unsuccessfully upon Caesar to resign. He also obstructed Caesar from standing for a consulship in absentia, insisting that he should return to Rome to stand. When Caesar finally invaded Italy in 49 BC, Marcellus, unlike his brother and nephew, Gaius died in May 40 BC, five months later, his wife, Octavia, married the Roman Triumvir Mark Antony. Roman coinage of Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor
Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor
–
Roman Republic in 50 BC
24.
Octavia Minor
–
Octavia the Younger, also known as Octavia Minor or simply Octavia, was the elder sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus, the half-sister of Octavia the Elder, and the fourth wife of Mark Antony. One of the most prominent women in Roman history, Octavia was respected and admired by contemporaries for her loyalty, nobility and humanity, full sister to Augustus, Octavia was the only daughter born of Gaius Octavius second marriage to Atia Balba Caesonia, niece of Julius Caesar. Octavia was born in Nola, Italy, her father, a Roman governor and senator and her mother later remarried, to the consul Lucius Marcius Philippus. Octavia spent much of her travelling with her parents. Marcius was in charge of educating Octavia and her brother Augustus, before 54 BC her stepfather arranged for her to marry Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor. Marcellus was a man of rank, a man who was considered worthy of her and was consul in 50 BC. He was also a member of the influential Claudian family and descended from Marcus Claudius Marcellus, in 54 BC, her great uncle Caesar is said to have been anxious for her to divorce her husband so that she could marry Pompey who had just lost his wife Julia. The couple did not want to get a divorce so instead Pompey declined the proposal, so Octavias husband continued to oppose Julius Caesar including in the crucial year of his consulship 50 BC. Civil war broke out when Caesar in Gaul invaded Italy in 49 BC, in 47 BC he was able to intercede with Caesar for his cousin and namesake, also a former consul, then living in exile. Presumably, Octavia continued to live with her husband from the time of their marriage to her husbands death when she was about 29 and they had three children, Claudia Marcella Major, Claudia Marcella Minor and Marcus Claudius Marcellus. All three were born in Italy and her husband Marcellus died in May 40 BC. By a Senatorial decree, Octavia married Mark Antony in October 40 BC, between 40 and 36 BC, she travelled with Antony to various provinces and lived with him in his Athenian mansion. There she raised her children by Marcellus as well as Antonys two sons, the two daughters of her marriage to Antony, Antonia Major and Antonia Minor, were born there. The alliance was severely tested by Antonys abandonment of Octavia and their children in favor of his former lover Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, after 36 BC, Octavia returned to Rome with the daughters of her second marriage. On several occasions she acted as an advisor and negotiator between her husband and brother. Mark Antony divorced Octavia in 32 BC, after she had supplied him with men and troops, in 35 BC, Augustus adored, but never adopted, her son Marcellus. When Marcellus died of illness in 23 BC unexpectedly, Augustus was thunderstruck, revived only with difficulty, she sent Vergil ten-thousand sesterces for each of the verses. She may have never recovered from the death of her son and retired from public life
Octavia Minor
–
Octavia Minor
Octavia Minor
–
Mark Antony and Octavia
Octavia Minor
–
Virgil reading Aeneid, Book VI, to Augustus and Octavia, by
Taillasson
Octavia Minor
–
Today's appearance of the
Porticus Octaviae.
25.
Mark Antony
–
Antony was a supporter of Julius Caesar, and served as one of his generals during the conquest of Gaul and the Civil War. Antony was appointed administrator of Italy while Caesar eliminated political opponents in Greece, North Africa, the Triumvirs defeated Caesars murderers, the Liberatores, at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, and divided the government of the Republic between themselves. Antony was assigned Romes eastern provinces, including the client kingdom of Egypt, then ruled by Cleopatra VII Philopator, relations among the Triumvirs were strained as the various members sought greater political power. Civil war between Antony and Octavian was averted in 40 BC, when Antony married Octavians sister, Octavia, despite this marriage, Antony carried on a love affair with Cleopatra, who bore him three children, further straining Antonys relations with Octavian. Lepidus was expelled from the association in 36 BC, and in 33 BC disagreements between Antony and Octavian caused a split between the remaining Triumvirs. Their ongoing hostility erupted into war in 31 BC, as the Roman Senate, at Octavians direction, declared war on Cleopatra. Later that year, Antony was defeated by Octavians forces at the Battle of Actium, Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt, where they committed suicide. With Antony dead, Octavian was the master of the Roman world. In 27 BC, Octavian was granted the title of Augustus, marking the stage in the transformation of the Roman Republic into an empire. A member of the plebeian Antonia gens, Antony was born in Rome on January 14,83 BC. His father and namesake was Marcus Antonius Creticus, son of the noted orator by the name who had been murdered during the Marian Terror of the winter of 87–86 BC. His mother was Julia Antonia, a distant cousin of Julius Caesar, Antony was an infant at the time of Lucius Cornelius Sullas march on Rome in 82 BC. According to the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, Antonys father was incompetent and corrupt, in 74 BC he was given military command to defeat the pirates of the Mediterranean, but he died in Crete in 71 BC without making any significant progress. Lentulus, despite exploiting his political success for financial gain, was constantly in debt due to the extravagance of his lifestyle and he was a major figure in the Second Catilinarian Conspiracy and was summarily executed on the orders of the Consul Cicero in 63 BC for his involvement. His death resulted in a feud between the Antonia and the famous orator, Antonys early life was characterized by a lack of proper parental guidance. According to the historian Plutarch, he spent his teenage years wandering through Rome with his brothers and friends gambling, drinking, Antonys contemporary and enemy, Cicero, claimed he had a homosexual relationship with Gaius Scribonius Curio. There is little information on his political activity as a young man, although it is known that he was an associate of Publius Clodius Pulcher. He may also have involved in the Lupercal cult as he was referred to as a priest of this order later in life
Mark Antony
–
Antony's brother Lucius, on a coin issued at
Ephesus during his consulship in 41 BC
Mark Antony
–
Bust of Mark Antony in
Vatican City
Mark Antony
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Bust of Pharaoh
Ptolemy XII Auletes.
Mark Antony
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Cato the Younger, a member of the
Optimates faction, was one of the chief architects of the decree which provoked Caesar into civil war.
26.
Scribonia
–
Scribonia was the second wife of the Roman Emperor Augustus and the mother of his only natural child, Julia the Elder. Scribonia was the daughter of a Lucius Scribonius Libo, probably the praetor of that name of 80 BC and her brother of the same name was consul in 34 BC. The name of her mother was Sentia, according to Suetonius, Scribonias first two marriages were to former consuls. He may have died young and is ignored by historians and her second husband was a Publius Cornelius Scipio, a supporter of Pompey. They had a daughter Cornelia Scipio who married the censor Lucius Aemilius Paullus, Scribonia may have also been the mother to Publius Cornelius Scipio, consul in 16 BC. In 40 BC Scribonia was forced to divorce her husband and marry Octavian, Octavian in turn divorced his wife Clodia Pulchra, marrying Scribonia to cement a political alliance with her nieces husband Sextus Pompey. Their daughter Julia the Elder was born in 39 BC, probably in October and their marriage had not been a happy one, Octavian felt she nagged him too much. Cassius Dio and Marcus Velleius Paterculus says that when her youngest child, Julia, was sent into exile for adultery and treason, when Emperor Tiberius came into power, he separated Scribonia from her daughter, and allegedly starved Julia to death. It is mainly placed two years after Julia and Augustus, Scribonias image as a shrew is probably the product of propaganda to divert the potentially scandalous circumstances of her divorce from Augustus. Seneca describes her as a gravis femina, gravis meaning “dignified”, Sextus Propertius praises her motherhood referring to her as sweet mother Scribonia in Cornelia Scipios funeral elegy in 16 BC. Scribonia is mentioned in Robert Gravess novel I, Claudius when he recalls Julias birth and he describes her as a good, moderate and generally kind Roman matron. She is forbidden to see Julia and is allowed to be with her once she is exiled. Livia convinces Augustus that Scribonia has been unfaithful to him causing him to divorce her faster than he cared to, evidently Augustus believed she was innocent, as he kept Julia. Graves places Scribonias death at least two prior to when it is traditionally placed. Scribonia appears several times in Augustus by Allan Massie, Allan Massie portrays her stereotypically, being ugly, gap-toothed and fat. The novel suggests that Julia got her personality from Scribonia rather than Augustus as historians tend to claim, Scribonia plays a major role in the novel Caesars Daughter by Edward Burton, trying to aid Julia in her daily life. She is a politically aware woman, with detailed information gathering and she plays patroness to many poets such as Horace. Despite their differences, Augustus respects her, Scribonia is mentioned in I Loved Tiberius by Elisabeth Dored
Scribonia
–
Scribonia from "Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum "
27.
Augustus
–
Augustus was the founder of the Roman Principate and considered the first Roman emperor, controlling the Roman Empire from 27 BC until his death in AD14. He was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian gens Octavia and his maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavius was named in Caesars will as his adopted son and heir, then known as Octavianus. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar, following their victory at the Battle of Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators. The Triumvate was eventually torn apart by the ambitions of its members. Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, in reality, however, he retained his autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command, and it took several years for Augustus to develop the framework within which a formally republican state could be led under his sole rule. He rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself Princeps Civitatis, the resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire. The reign of Augustus initiated an era of peace known as the Pax Romana. Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, expanding into Germania, beyond the frontiers, he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. Augustus died in AD14 at the age of 75 and he probably died from natural causes, although there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son Tiberius, Augustus was known by many names throughout his life, At birth, he was named Gaius Octavius after his biological father. Historians typically refer to him simply as Octavius between his birth in 63 until his adoption by Julius Caesar in 44 BC, upon his adoption, he took Caesars name and became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in accordance with Roman adoption naming standards. He quickly dropped Octavianus from his name, and his contemporaries referred to him as Caesar during this period, historians. In 27 BC, following his defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra and it is the events of 27 BC from which he obtained his traditional name of Augustus, which historians use in reference to him from 27 BC until his death in AD14. While his paternal family was from the town of Velletri, approximately 40 kilometres from Rome and he was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his cognomen possibly commemorating his fathers victory at Thurii over a band of slaves. Due to the nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his fathers home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavius only mentions his fathers equestrian family briefly in his memoirs and his paternal great-grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War
Augustus
–
The statue known as the
Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century
Augustus
–
The Death of Caesar, by
Jean-Léon Gérôme (1867). On 15 March 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by
Marcus Junius Brutus and
Gaius Cassius Longinus.
Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore.
Augustus
–
A statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated ca. 30 BC
Augustus
–
Bust of Augustus in
Musei Capitolini, Rome
28.
Livia Drusilla Augusta
–
Livia Drusilla, also known as Julia Augusta after her formal adoption into the Julian family in AD14, was the wife of the Roman emperor Augustus throughout his reign, as well as his adviser. She was the mother of the emperor Tiberius, paternal grandmother of the emperor Claudius, paternal great-grandmother of the emperor Caligula and she was deified by Claudius who acknowledged her title of Augusta. She was born on 30 January 59 or 58 BC as the daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus by his wife Aufidia, the diminutive Drusilla often found in her name suggests that she was a second daughter. Marcus Livius Drusus Libo was her adopted brother and she was probably married in 43 BC. Her father married her to Tiberius Claudius Nero, her cousin of patrician status who was fighting him on the side of Julius Caesars assassins against Octavian. Her first child, the future Emperor Tiberius, was born in 42 BC, later, Livia, her husband Tiberius Nero and their two-year-old son, Tiberius, moved on to Greece. At this time, Livia already had a son, the future emperor Tiberius, legend said that Octavian fell immediately in love with her, despite the fact that he was still married to Scribonia. Octavian divorced Scribonia in 39 BC, on the day that she gave birth to his daughter Julia the Elder. Seemingly around that time, when Livia was six months pregnant, on 14 January, the child was born. Augustus and Livia married on 17 January, waiving the traditional waiting period, Tiberius Claudius Nero was present at the wedding, giving her in marriage just as a father would. The importance of the patrician Claudii to Octavians cause, and the survival of the Claudii Nerones are probably more rational explanations for the tempestuous union. Nevertheless, Livia and Augustus remained married for the next 51 years, after Mark Antonys suicide following the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian had removed all obstacles to his power and henceforth ruled as Emperor, from 27 BC on, under the honorary title Augustus. He and Livia formed the model for Roman households. Despite their wealth and power, Augustuss family continued to live modestly in their house on the Palatine Hill, Livia would set the pattern for the noble Roman matrona. She wore neither excessive jewelry nor pretentious costumes, she took care of the household and her husband, always faithful, in 35 BC Octavian gave Livia the unprecedented honour of ruling her own finances and dedicated a public statue to her. She had her own circle of clients and pushed many protégés into political offices, including the grandfathers of the later emperors Galba and Otho. With Augustus being the father of one daughter, Livia revealed herself to be an ambitious mother and soon started to push her own sons Tiberius. Drusus was a general and married Augustuss favourite niece, Antonia Minor
Livia Drusilla Augusta
–
Livia Drusilla
Livia Drusilla Augusta
–
A cult statue of Livia represented as
Ops, with sheaf of wheat and
cornucopia, 1st century
Livia Drusilla Augusta
–
Portrait of Livia in
Egyptian basalt, c. 31 BC,
Louvre
Livia Drusilla Augusta
–
Sardonyx cameo of Livia with the bust of the Divus Augustus (Vienna)
29.
Tiberius Claudius Nero (praetor 42 BC)
–
Tiberius Claudius Nero, often known as Tiberius Nero and Nero was a politician who lived in the last century of the Roman Republic. He was the father of the second Roman emperor Tiberius, who became the stepson of the emperor Augustus and was adopted by Augustus as his heir. Nero was a member of the republican Claudian family of Rome and he was a descendant of the first named Tiberius Claudius Nero, a consul and great-grandson of Appius Claudius Caecus. Nero was the son of Drusus and his mother was a descendant of the Claudian family and his father Drusus served under Pompey in 67 BC, battling the pirate menace. Drusus was famous for recommending that the members of the Second Catilinarian Conspiracy be confined, Nero had a sister called Claudia, who married the prefect Quintus Volusius. Nero had served as a quaestor to Julius Caesar in 48 BC, having achieved victory over the Egyptian navy, he was rewarded with a priesthood. Julius Caesar had sent Nero to create Roman colonies in Gaul, despite his service with Julius Caesar, Nero was an Optimate at heart. After the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, when it seemed that the assassins were triumphant, however, due to his previous alliance with the Roman dictator, Nero was allowed to be elected praetor in 42 BC. Around this time Nero married his relative Livia Drusilla, whose father Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus was from the same gens and his son of the same name was born November 16,42 BC, at Fondi Italy. Shortly afterwards, the Second Triumvirate began to break down, causing a dangerous situation in Rome as the triumvirs went to battle each other. Nero was forced to choose sides and in his distrust of Octavian, in 41 BC, he fled Rome with Livia and Tiberius in tow, joining Antonys brother Lucius in Perusia. Perusia was besieged by Octavians men by the time Nero arrived, and when the fell in 40 BC, he was forced to flee first to Praeneste. In 40 BC, Octavian and Mark Antony finally reconciled, in Naples, Nero tried in vain to raise a slave battalion against Octavian and then took refuge with Sextus Pompey, who was then acting as a pirate leader in Sicily. Nero with his family joined Mark Antony soon after in Achaea, after three years of fleeing from Octavian, Nero returned to Rome with Livia and the younger Tiberius, aged 3. Octavian immediately after catching sight of Livia, fell in love with her, Octavian was married to Scribonia, with whom he had a daughter called Julia, now known as Julia the Elder. Around this time Livia was also pregnant and despite this, Nero was persuaded or forced by Octavian to divorce Livia, Nero and Livia’s second son was born in early 38 BC and he was named Decimus Claudius Drusus, which was later changed to Nero Claudius Drusus. Octavian and Livia married on January 17, waiving the traditional waiting period, Nero was present at their wedding, giving Livia away just as a father would. As agreed, Nero took his sons to his home, where they were raised and educated, after his death, his sons went to live with their mother and stepfather
Tiberius Claudius Nero (praetor 42 BC)
–
Tiberius Nero from
Guillaume Rouillé 's Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum
30.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)
–
Marcus Claudius Marcellus was the eldest son of Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, a former Roman consul, and of Octavia Minor, sister of Caesar Augustus, and hence was Augustus nephew. He married the emperors daughter Julia two years prior to his death, and served in that year,25 BC. He was given preference and so was elected at an young age as a curule aedile, a magistrates office. His ambitions are said to have him into conflict with Agrippa and with others, he is described as the presumptive monarchic heir of Augustus, or as his beloved nephew. He died at c.19 years of age, in Baiae, Campania, Italy, in 23 BC, and was buried in the mausoleum of Augustus, specific cause of death uncertain. His mother Octavia built a library in his honor, and Augustus fondness was expressed in his funeral oration, though dying young and unproven, Marcellus position led to his celebration by Sextus Propertius and by Virgil in the Aeneid. Marcellus, born 42 BC, was the eldest son of Augustuss sister Octavia Minor and Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, a former consul and he was descended through his father from Marcus Claudius Marcellus, a famous general in the Second Punic War. Augustus had no sons, and Marcellus was one of his closest relatives, Marcellus was therefore engaged to Pompeia, daughter of Sextus Pompey at the age of three, when his uncle needed to solidify a peace with Sextus Pompey. Marcellus was seen often in public with Augustus as he grew older, including at his triumphs over Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and in a campaign against the Cantabri. In 25 BC, just two years before his death, Marcellus was married to Augustus only daughter, Julia the Elder, on Augustuss falling ill at this period all were expecting that Marcellus would be preferred for Augustuss successor, according to Dio. He was, we are told, a man of noble qualities, cheerful in mind and disposition. According to historians, this supports the suggestion in Tacitus and other sources that other potential heirs such as Tiberius. In addition, Dio states that, well understood that Agrippa was exceedingly beloved by the people and he preferred not to seem to be committing the supreme power to him on his own responsibility. And Agrippa straightway set out from the city, but did not reach Syria, instead, acting with more than his usual moderation, he sent his lieutenants thither. In the same year as his marriage,25 BC, Marcellus served under Augustus in Spain, according to Tacitus, Marcellus was also appointed to the College of Pontiffs by Augustus. Marcellus ambitions are said to have him into conflict with Agrippa. He is variously described as being the presumptive heir of Augustus, or as beloved by Augustus as nephew and son-in‑law. His death was ascribed to Livia, as reiterated skeptically by Cassius Dio, whether he died of an infectious disease, or food or other poisoning, or another ailment is uncertain
Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)
–
Marcellus, nephew and son-in-law of Augustus
Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)
–
Virgil reading Aeneid, Book VI, to Octavia, by Tailasson
