1.
Keying (ship)
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Keying was a three-masted, 800-ton Foochow Chinese trading junk which sailed from China around the Cape of Good Hope to the United States and Britain between 1846 and 1848. Keying had been purchased in August 1846 in secrecy by British businessmen in Hong Kong, defying a Chinese law prohibiting the sale of Chinese ships to foreigners and she was renamed after the Manchu official Keying, based on an irregular romanization of his native name. The Keying was manned by 12 British and 30 Chinese sailors and she was commanded by Captain Charles Alfred Kellett, also British. Keying left Hong Kong in December 1846 and she rounded the Cape of Good Hope in March 1847. She stopped at St Helena in April 1847 and she was in New York City in July 1847. She visited Boston in November 1847 and she then arrived in Britain in April 1848. Captains, Charles Alfred Kellett and So Yin Sang Hsi Mates, the Keying was the first ship from China to visit New York. She moored off the Battery on the tip of Manhattan in July 1847. The Chinese crew of Keying were understandably angry as they had signed on only for a voyage to Singapore. Twenty-six of them left Keying and returned to Canton on board the Candace, Keying stayed several months in New York. 4,000 visitors a day paid 25 cents to board the ship and observe its design, P. T. Barnum had a copy of Keying built in Hoboken, and exhibited it with a crew which may have included some of the Keying Chinese. However the Brooklyn Eagle described Barnums crew as one third white, Keying also moored in Boston on November 18,1847, by the Charles River Bridge, according to the Boston Evening Transcript of 1847. She was visited by people, with as many as four to five thousand on Thanksgiving Day. A storm on 28 February wrecked her two boats, ripped the foresail, and disabled the hardwood ironbound rudder, which was hung in the Chinese manner without gudgeons or pintles, during the repair of the rudder the second mate drowned. Keying reached Britain in March 1848, and a medal was made in honor of her arrival, the obverse of the medal gives the following account, The first junk that ever rounded the Cape of Good Hope, or appeared in British waters. Rudder 7½ tons, mainsail 9 tons, the ship is built of teak wood. She sailed from Hong Kong 6 December 1846, arrived in England 27 March 1848,477 days from Canton, a multitude visited the ship, including Queen Victoria and other members of the Royal family. The Illustrated London News of 29 July 1848 described the visits to the Keying as follows, visitors received by a Mandarin of rank and Chinese Artist of celebrity
2.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
5.
Battens
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Batten has multiple meanings in construction and shipbuilding but is generally a strip of solid material, historically made from wood but can also be made from plastic, metal, or fiberglass. In a sense used in flooring a batten may be large, up to 2.5 inches thick by 7 inches wide. In the steel industry, battens used as furring may also be referred to as top hats, roofing battens or battening, also called roofing lath, are used to provide the fixing point for roofing materials such as shingles or tiles. The spacing of the battens on the trusses or rafters depend on the type of roofing material and are applied horizontally like purlins, battens are also used in metal roofing to secure the sheets called a batten-seam roof and are covered with a batten roll joint. Some roofs may use a grid of battens in both directions, known as a system, which improves ventilation. Wall battens like roofing battens are used to fix siding materials such as tile or shingles, rainscreen construction uses battens as part of a system which allows walls to dry out more quickly than normal. Battens may be used as spacers, sometimes called furring, to raise the surface of a material. In flooring the sometimes large battens support the finish flooring in a manner to a joist but with the batten resting on a solid sub-floor as a floating floor. Batten trim or batten molding is a strip of trim, typically with a rectangular cross-section. Board-and-batten siding is a treatment of vertical boards with battens covering the seams. Board-and-batten roofing is a type of roof with battens covering the gaps between boards on a roof as the roofing material. Board-and-batten is also a synonym for single-wall construction, a method of building with vertical, structural boards, in door construction battens may be used to strengthen panels made up of multiple boards, as in a batten door, or to cover joins. Battens are used for solid wall insulation, regularly spaced battens are fitted to the wall, the spaces between them filled with insulation, and plasterboard or drywall screwed to the battens. This method is no longer the most popular, as rigid insulation sheets give better insulation, in concrete work a screed batten is fixed to the formwork to smoothly guide a screed. In sailing, battens are long, thin strips used to support the roach of a sail and they are also used on tall ships to form the ladders up the shrouds in a fashion similar to ratlines. They are also used to help secure tarpaulins over hatches, thus giving rise to the common phrase batten down the hatches, meaning to secure the hatches against an approaching storm. Used by analogy in non-sailing contexts, it means to prepare to weather a coming storm, whether that storm is metaphorical or literal
6.
Mast (sailing)
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The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
7.
Junk (ship)
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A junk is an ancient Chinese sailing ship design that is still in use today. Junks were used as seagoing vessels as early as the 2nd century AD and they evolved in the later dynasties, and were used throughout Asia for extensive ocean voyages. They were found, and in numbers are still found, throughout South-East Asia and India. Found more broadly today is a number of modern recreational junk-rigged sailboats. The term junk may be used to cover many kinds of boat—ocean-going, cargo-carrying, pleasure boats and they vary greatly in size and there are significant regional variations in the type of rig, however they all employ fully battened sails. The term ultimately stems from the Chinese chuán, also based on and pronounced as in the Min Nan variant of Chinese, or zhōu and it entered the English language in the 17th century through the Portuguese junco from the Malay jong or Javanese djong. The modern Standard Chinese word for a wooden cargo vessel is cáo. That said, there are divergent views on this, Pierre-Yves Manguin, amongst others, most scholars consider it was the early Song Dynasty before the fully developed hull forms and rigs were in regular use in offshore trade. The fully developed junk design exhibited innovative, though very little further developed sail plans. There is no evidence that these were adopted in Western shipbuilding by direct emulation, in this case, as in so many others, parallel invention, often in response to quite different hydrodynamic, aerodynamic or technical stimuli, is the historically better evidenced explanation. The structure and flexibility of junk sails make the junk fast, the sails of a junk can be moved inward toward the long axis of the ship. In theory this closeness of what is called sheeting allowed the junk to sail into the wind, in practice, evidenced both by traditional sailing routes and seasons and textual evidence junks neither could nor sail well into the wind. In the typical junk these were both ill-adapted to windward work because, put simply, junks were neither intended to nor designed to work to windward. The sails include several members, called battens, which in principle could provide shape and strength but in practice, because of the available materials and technology. The sails can also be easily reefed to accommodate various wind strengths, the battens also make the sails more resistant than other sails to large tears, as a tear is typically limited to a single panel between battens. In South China the sails have a curved roach especially towards the head, the main drawback to the junk sail is its high weight caused by the 6 to 15 heavy full length battens. With high weight aloft and no keel, junks were known to capsize when lightly laden due to their high centre of gravity. The top batten is heavier and similar to a gaff, in principle junk sails have much in common with the most aerodynamically efficient sails used today in windsurfers or catamarans
8.
Malays (ethnic group)
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These locations today are part of the modern nations of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, and southern Thailand. In literature, architecture, culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts, throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics. The epic literature, the Malay Annals, associates the etymological origin of Melayu to Sungai Melayu in Sumatra, the English term Malay was adopted via the Dutch word Malayo, itself derived from Portuguese, Malaio, which originates from the original Malay word, Melayu. Prior to the 15th century, the term Melayu and its variants appear to apply as an old toponym to the Strait of Malacca region in general. Malaya Dwipa, Malaya Dvipa, is described in chapter 48, Vayu Purana as one of the provinces in the sea that was full of gold. Some scholars equate the term with Sumatra, but several Indian scholars believe the term should refer to the mountainous Malay peninsula, maleu-kolon - appeared in Ptolemys work, Geographia. Mo-lo-yu - mentioned by Yijing, a Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695, according to Yijing, the Mo-Lo-Yu kingdom was located in a distance of 15 day sail from Bogha, the capital of Sribhoga. It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha from Mo-lo-yu, therefore, a popular theory relates Mo-Lo-Yu with the Jambi in Sumatra, however the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jings description of a half way sail between Ka-Cha and Bogha. Among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the source of monk Xuanzang). Malayur - inscribed on the wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Nadu. It was described as a kingdom that had a mountain for its rampart in Malay peninsula. Bhūmi Mālayu -, a transcription from Padang Roco Inscription dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana, the term is associated with Dharmasraya kingdom. Ma-li-yu-er - mentioned in the chronicle of Yuan Dynasty, referring to a nation of Malay peninsula that faced the southward expansion of Sukhothai Kingdom, the chronicle stated. Animosity occurred between Siam and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other. In response to the Sukhothais action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. Malauir - mentioned in Marco Polos account as a kingdom located in the Malay peninsula, malayapura -, inscribed on the Amoghapasa inscription dated 1347 CE. The term was used by Adityawarman to refer to Dharmasraya. The word Malay refer to Mountain, other evidence that supports this theory include, stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools, the similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs. The New Guinea theory - The proto-Malays are believed to be knowledgeable in oceanography. Over the years they settled at places and adopted various cultures
9.
Nusantara
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Nusantara is a contemporary Indonesian term for the Indonesian archipelago. It originated in Old Javanese and literally means archipelago, in Malaysia today, the term has been adopted to mean the Malay world. The word Nusantara was taken from an oath by Gajah Mada in 1336, as written in the Old Javanese Pararaton, Gajah Mada was a powerful military leader and prime minister of Majapahit who was credited with bringing the empire to its peak of glory. Gajah Mada delivered an oath called Sumpah Palapa, in which he vowed not to eat any food containing spices until he had conquered all of Nusantara under the glory of Majapahit. Today, Indonesian historians believed that the concept of Nusantara was not an idea coined by Gajah Mada for the first time in 1336 and it was coined earlier in 1275 as Cakravala Mandala Dvipantara by Kertanegara of Singhasari. Dvipantara is a Sanskrit word for the islands inbetween, the synonym to Nusantara as both dvipa and nusa mean island, the term is used to describe the Southeast Asian Archipelago. Kertanegara envisioned the union of Southeast Asian maritime kingdoms under Singhasari as a bulwark against the rise of the expansionist Mongol Yuan dynasty in mainland China, Nusantara is a Javanese word which appears in the Pararaton manuscript. In Javanese, Nusantara means outer islands, from nūsa, meaning island and antara, based on the Majapahit concept of state, the monarch had the power over three areas, Negara Agung, or the Grand State, the core kingdom. The traditional or initial area of Majapahit during its formation before entering the imperial phase and this includes the capital city and the surrounding areas where the king effectively exercises his government. The Brantas river valley corridor, connecting Majapahit Trowulan area to Canggu and estuarine areas in Kahuripan, mancanegara, areas surrounding Negara Agung — traditionally refer to Majapahit provinces in East and Central Java. This area covered the half of Java, with all its provinces ruled by the Bhres. These areas are influenced by Javanese Majapahit court culture. These areas usually possess their own rulers that might be directly related, Majapahit stationed their officials and officers in these places and regulate their foreign trade activities and collect taxes, yet they enjoyed substantial internal autonomy. This includes the rest of Java island, Madura and Bali, however, in later period, overseas provinces which has developed culture reflected or comparable to those of Java, or possess significant trading importance, are also considered as mancanegara. Either the province has their own native rulers subject to the king, or a regent appointed and this realm includes Dharmasraya, Pagaruyung, Lampung and Palembang in Sumatra. Nusantara, areas which do not reflect Javanese culture, but are included as colonies and these areas such as the vassal kingdoms and colonies in Malay peninsula, Borneo, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi and Maluku. The new proposed name was the locally developed name Nusantara and this is the first instance of the term Nusantara appearing after it had been written into Pararaton manuscript. The definition of Nusantara introduced by Setiabudi is different to the 14th century definition of the term, during the Majapahit era, Nusantara described vassal areas to be conquered
10.
Cruising (maritime)
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Cruising by boat is a lifestyle that involves living for extended time on a vessel while traveling from place to place for pleasure. Cruising generally refers to trips of a few days or more, boats were almost exclusively used for working purposes prior to the nineteenth century. The modern conception of cruising for pleasure was first popularised by the Scottish explorer and he was introduced to the canoes and kayaks of the Native Americans on a camping trip in 1858, and on his return to the United Kingdom constructed his own double-ended canoe in Lambeth. The boat, nicknamed Rob Roy after a relative of his, was built of lapstrake oak planking. He cruised around the waterways of Britain, Europe and the Middle East and wrote a book about his experiences. In 1866, Macgregor was a force behind the establishment of the Royal Canoe Club. The first recorded regatta was held at on 27 April 1867, the latter part of the century saw cruising for leisure being enthusiastically taken up by the middle class. The author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote An Inland Voyage in 1877 as a travelogue on his trip through France. Stevenson and his companion, Sir Walter Grindlay Simpson travelled in two Rob Roys along the Oise River and witnessed the Romantic beauty of rural Europe. The Canadian-American Joshua Slocum was one of the first people to carry out a long-distance sailing voyage for pleasure, despite opinion that such a voyage was impossible, Slocum rebuilt a derelict 37-foot sloop Spray and sailed her single-handed around the world. His book Sailing Alone Around the World was a classic adventure, other cruising authors have provided both inspiration and instruction to prospective cruisers. Key among these during the post World War II period are Electa and Irving Johnson, Miles and Beryl Smeeton, Bernard Moitessier, Peter Pye, the development of ocean crossing rallies, most notably the ARC, have encouraged less experienced sailors to undertake ocean crossings. These rallies provide a group of crossing the same ocean at the same time with safety inspections, weather information. Many cruisers are long term and travel for many years, the most adventurous among them circle the globe over a period of three to ten years, many others take a year or two off from work and school for shorter trips and the chance to experience the cruising lifestyle. Blue-water cruising is more involved and inherently more dangerous than coastal cruising, before embarking on an open-ocean voyage, planning and preparation will include studying charts, weather reports/warnings, almanacs and navigation books of the route to be followed. In addition, the needs to be well trained at working together. Finally, the sailor must be prepared for dealing with harsh situations. There have been many well-documented cases where sailors had to be rescued simply because they were not sufficiently prepared or lacked experience for their venture, Sailing near the coast gives a certain amount of safety
11.
Bermuda rig
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A Bermuda rig, Bermudian rig, or Marconi rig is a configuration of mast and rigging for a type of sailboat and is the typical configuration for most modern sailboats. Originally developed for smaller Bermudian vessels, and ultimately adapted to the larger, ocean-going Bermuda sloop, the Bermuda rigging has largely replaced the older gaff rigged fore-and-aft sails, except notably on schooners. The traditional design as developed in Bermuda features very tall, raked masts, a long bowsprit, in some configurations such as the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy vast areas of sail are achieved with this rig. Elsewhere, however, the design has omitted the bowsprit, and has become less extreme. A Bermuda rigged sloop with exactly one jib is known as a Bermuda sloop, a Bermuda sloop may also be a more specific type of vessel such as a small sailing ships traditional in Bermuda which may or may not be Bermuda rigged. The foot of a Bermuda sail may be attached to the boom along its length and this modern variation of a Bermuda mainsail is known as a loose-footed main. In some early Bermudian vessels, the mainsails were attached only to the mast and deck and this is the case on two of the three masts of the newly built Spirit of Bermuda, a replica of an 1830s British Royal Navy sloop-of-war. Additional sails were often mounted on traditional Bermudian craft, when running down wind, which included a spinnaker, with a spinnaker boom. The main controls on a Bermuda sail are, The halyard used to raise the head, the outhaul used to tension the foot by hauling the clew towards the end of the boom. The sheet used to haul the boom down and towards the center of the boat, the vang or kicking strap which runs between a point partway along the boom and the base of the mast, and is used to haul the boom down when on a run. The Bermuda rig developed from leg-of-mutton sails in Bermuda during the course of the 17th and 18th cnturies, the design was very useful on the gusty Bermudian waters for the boats that were the mainstay of transport around the archipelago into the 20th century. As Bermuda turned to an economy, after the dissolution of the Somers Isles Company in 1684, the rig was adapted to larger, ocean-going ships. The development of the rig is thought to have begun with fore-and-aft rigged boats built by a Dutch-born Bermudian in the 17th Century, the Dutch were influenced by Moorish lateen rigs introduced during Spains rule of their country. The Dutch eventually modified the design by omitting the masts, with the arms of the lateens being stepped in thwarts. By this process, the yards became raked masts, lateen sails mounted this way were known as leg-of-mutton sails in English. The Dutch called a vessel rigged in this manner a bezaanjacht, a bezaan jacht is visible in a painting of King Charles II arriving in Rotterdam in 1660. After sailing on such a vessel, Charles was so impressed that his successor, the Prince of Orange presented him with a copy of his own. The rig had been introduced to Bermuda some decades before this, Ships with somewhat similar rigs were in fact recorded in Holland during the 17th century
12.
Shroud (sailing)
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On a sailboat, the shrouds are pieces of standing rigging which hold the mast up from side to side. There is frequently more than one shroud on each side of the boat, usually a shroud will connect at the top of the mast, and additional shrouds might connect partway down the mast, depending on the design of the boat. Shrouds terminate at their ends at the chain plates, which are tied into the hull. They are sometimes held outboard by channels, a ledge that keeps the shrouds clear of the gunwales, shrouds are attached symmetrically on both the port and starboard sides. For those shrouds which attach high up the mast, a structure projecting from the mast must be used to increase the angle of the shroud at the attachment point, providing more support to the mast. On most sailing boats, such structures are called spreaders, on large sailing ships, however, particularly square-riggers, the shrouds end at the projections and their loads are carried into the mast slightly further down by futtock shrouds
13.
Point of sail
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Point of sail is a sailing boats orientation in relation to the current wind direction. Sailboats cannot sail directly into the wind, nor on a course that is too close to the direction from which the wind is blowing, the range of directions into which a boat cannot sail is called the no-go zone. When attempting to sail into the zone, the boats sails do not produce enough drive to maintain way or forward momentum through the water. Therefore, the boat will eventually coast to a stop, with the rudder becoming less and less effective at controlling the direction of travel, the size of the no-go zone varies, but all sailboats have one. Its width depends on the design of the boat, its rig, and its sails, as well as on the wind strength and the sea state. Depending on the boat and the conditions, the zone may be from 30 to 50 degrees either side of the wind. A sailboat is said to be in if it is stopped. This is also known as being taken aback, especially on a vessel whose sails can be blown back against the masts. A boat is said to be sailing close-hauled when its sails are trimmed in tightly and this point of sail lets the boat travel diagonally to the wind direction, or upwind. When the wind is coming from the side of the boat, a beam reach is when the wind is at a right angle to the boat. A close reach is a closer to the wind than a beam reach. I. e. any angle between a reach and close-hauled. The sails are trimmed in, but not as tight as for a close-hauled course, a broad reach is a course further away from the wind than a beam reach but above a run. In a broad reach, the wind is coming from behind the boat at an angle and this represents a range of wind angles between beam reach and running downwind. The sails are eased out away from the boat, but not as much as on a run or dead run, on this point of sail, the wind is coming from directly behind the boat. Running can be dangerous to those on board in the event of an accidental jibe, when running, the mainsail is eased out as far as it will go. The jib will collapse because the mainsail blocks its wind, and must either be lowered and replaced by a spinnaker, running with the jib to windward is known as gull wing, goose wing, butterflying or wing and wing. A genoa gull-wings well, especially if stabilized by a whisker pole, which is similar to but lighter than a spinnaker pole
14.
Spinnaker
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A spinnaker is a sail designed specifically for sailing off the wind from a reaching course to a downwind, i. e. with the wind 90°–180° off bow. The spinnaker fills with wind and balloons out in front of the boat when it is deployed, called flying and it is constructed of lightweight fabric, usually nylon, and is often brightly coloured. It may be optimised for a range of wind angles, as either a reaching or a running spinnaker, by the shaping of the panels. Some types of spinnaker can be carried by the side of the boat and this is called flying a shy spinnaker, and is used for reaching. The spinnaker is often called a kite, or a chute because it resembles a parachute in both construction and appearance. This should not be confused with the spinnaker chute which is a hull fitting sometimes used for launching and recovering the spinnaker, a purported etymology has the first boat to carry this sail being a Cowes yacht named Sphinx, from which Sphinxs Acre and eventually Spinnaker. A spinnaker is used for sailing with the direction of the wind, symmetrical spinnakers have large amounts of camber, making them nearly hemispherical. Both lift and drag propel the boat forward when moving with the wind, reaching spinnakers have less camber as they operate within an airflow that generates lift. A well designed spinnaker will have leading edges when filled. A well designed spinnaker will also have a curve when filled. Any deviations from a curve will cause the airflow over the leeward side of the sail to separate causing a reduction in lift. When running downwind in heavy weather or when hit by a gust, with or without a spinnaker, there may be a tendency for a roll of increasing amplitude to build up, known as the death roll. Excessive heel leads to loss of rudder effectiveness resulting in the boat slewing round uncontrollably in the direction opposite to the direction of heel, luffing carefully onto a broad reach may help to retain control, as can moving everyones weight as far aft as possible. There are two categories of spinnakers, symmetric and asymmetric depending on whether a plane of symmetry exists for that particular sail. Asymmetric spinnakers operate more like a jib, generating lift from the side and this makes asymmetrics a better choice on reaching courses than symmetric spinnakers, which excel when running. The symmetric one is the most classic type, running alongside the boat controlled by lines known as a sheet. The windward line, or guy, is attached to the called the tack of the sail. The leeward line is called the sheet and it attaches to the clew of the spinnaker and is used to control the shape of the sail
15.
Whisker pole
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A spinnaker pole is a spar used in sailboats to help support and control a variety of headsails, particularly the spinnaker. However, it is used with other sails, such as genoas and jibs. The spinnaker pole is rigged to run from the base of the mast, there, one of the control lines of whichever sail it is to be used with is run through a fitting on the other end of the spinnaker pole. This allows for precise control of the corner of the sail to which the line is attached. For a spinnaker, the attached to the pole is the guy, or brace. For other headsails, such as a jib, the line would be the sheet, a special line, the topping lift, runs from the middle of the spinnaker pole up to a block on the mast, and is used to support the weight of the spinnaker pole. Another line referred to as the downhaul or foreguy runs down so that the height of the pole is under control at all times
16.
Preventer
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A preventer, or jibe-guard, is a mechanical device on a sailing vessel which limits the booms ability to swing unexpectedly across the boat due to an unplanned accidental jibe. During an unplanned accidental jibe, neither the nor the boat is set up properly to execute a planned jibe. As a result the uncontrolled boom will swing across the boat potentially inflicting injury or knocking crew members overboard, the mainsheet or traveller can also inflict serious injury. Uncontrolled jibes may also damage the boat itself, rigging a preventer on a yachts mainsail is often performed when the wind is behind the beam. It can also be useful at times when there is more swell than wind. On any boat that is sailing downwind without a preventer, strict heads-down procedures must be enforced anywhere within the booms arc. Certain areas of the side-decks and maybe the cockpit also have to be strictly no-go to all crew depending on what the boom, many cruising sailors prefer to rig two tackles that run from the midpoint of the boom to blocks on a track such as the headsail-sheet-block track. These tackles are typically a 2 -4 part tackles for greater purchase and this rig can also be used as a boom vang without taking up space under the mast that may be essential to the cruising sailor for dinghy stowage and other uses. For example, while running with the preventer cleated, a large swell could roll the boat, dipping the end into the water. Care should be taken when selecting the rope which is used for preventer lines, to reduce the shock loads on the tackles, for example in an unexpected jibe, three-strand nylon line may be preferred over of braided cored line. Another form of preventer is the brake, which, when sailing downwind, can also be used to jibe the mainsail in a slow. The brake usually rides on a line running perpendicular to, when the boom brake is actuated, friction on the line either works as a preventer, or slows the boom’s speed while jibing. The brake is actuated by either tensioning the line upon which it rides or by using a line to adjust the brake itself. When jibing a fully loaded mainsail in a sea, the following procedure may be used. Using the steering, the stern of the boat is brought up into the wind. Then the leeward, working preventer is released little by little, while the mainsheet is shortened to bring in the boom. It is important to maintain at least a turn or two around the preventers cleat the whole time ready to catch an early jibe during this stage of the manoeuvre, the mainsheet should pull the preventer around its cleat, without it being offered any slack. All the while it is necessary to take in slack on the lazy preventer to keep it under control until it is needed
17.
Malay Archipelago
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The Malay Archipelago is the archipelago between mainland Indochina and Australia. It has also called the Malay World, Indo-Australian Archipelago, East Indies, Nusantara, Spices Archipelago. The name was taken from the 19th-century European concept of a Malay race, situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the group of over 25,000 islands is the largest archipelago by area, and fourth by number of islands in the world. It includes Brunei, Singapore, East Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, the island of New Guinea is usually excluded from definitions of the Malay Archipelago, although the Indonesian western portion of the island may be included. The term is synonymous with maritime Southeast Asia. The term was derived from the European concept of a Malay race, which referred to the people who inhabited what is now Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and East Timor. The racial concept was proposed by European explorers based on their observations of the influence of the ethnic Malay empire, Srivijaya, the 19th-century naturalist Alfred Wallace used the term Malay Archipelago as the title of his influential book documenting his studies in the region. Wallace also referred to the area as the Indian Archipelago and the Indo-Australian Archipelago and he included within the region the Solomon Islands and the Malay Peninsula due to physiographic similarities. The archipelago was called the East Indies from the late 16th century and it is still sometimes referred to as such, but broader usages of the East Indies term had included Indochina and the Indian subcontinent. The area is called Nusantara in the Indonesian and Malaysian languages, the area is also referred to as the Indonesian archipelago. The term maritime Southeast Asia is largely synonymous, covering both the islands in Southeast Asia and nearby communities, such as those found on the Malay Peninsula. The land and sea area of the archipelago exceeds 2 million km2, the more than 25,000 islands of the archipelago comprise many smaller archipelagoes. Geologically the archipelago is one of the most active regions in the world. Tectonic uplifts have produced large mountains, including the highest in Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with a height of 4,095.2 m and Puncak Jaya on Papua, Indonesia at 4,884 m. Other high mountains in the archipelago include Puncak Mandala, Indonesia at 4,760 m and Puncak Trikora, Indonesia, the climate throughout the archipelago is tropical, owing to its position on the equator. Wallace used the term Malay Archipelago as the title of his influential book documenting his studies in the region and he proposed what would come to be known as the Wallace Line, a boundary that separated the flora and fauna of Asia and Australia. The ice age boundary was formed by the deep water straits between Borneo and Sulawesi, and through the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok and this is now considered the western border of the Wallacea transition zone between the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australia. The zone has a mixture of species of Asian and Australian origin, over 380 million people live in the region, with the most populated islands being Java, Luzon, Sumatra, Taiwan, Mindanao and Sri Lanka
18.
Tongkang
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Tongkang or Tongkang were a type of light wooden boat used commonly in the early 19th century to carry goods along rivers in Maritime Southeast Asia. The tongkang was an open cargo boat, propelled by a variety of methods, including rowing, punt poles. The early tongkangs were about 20 ton burthen or less, they were propelled by about ten rowers, long punt poles were used to propel them in shallower water. The size of the tongkang increased around 1860, the tongkang was one of the two traditional Malay ships using Junk Rig with local hulls instead of the Chinese Junk hull. Its hull design was reminiscent of the dhow type used in South Asia. Besides the Junk Rig, the rig was also used on the tongkang. The last tongkangs in Singapore were towed by a motorised launch, small tongkangs carrying firewood from the Indonesian archipelago berthed at this jetty. The firewood trade was primarily a Teochew enterprise, a tongkang in full sail appeared on the reverse of the 1990 and 1992 Singapore dollar 2 $ currency notes. Tongkang LRT Station was named after this boat, another boat used on the Singapore River along with the tongkang was the twakow. These traditional vessels began to disappear around the 1930s, following the introduction of motor-powered boats and contemporary-type lighters
19.
Singapore River
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The Singapore River is a river in Singapore that flows from the Central Area, which lies in the Central Region in the southern part of Singapore before emptying into the ocean. The immediate upper watershed of the Singapore River is known as the Singapore River Planning Area, Singapore River planning area sits within the Central Area of the Central Region of Singapore, as defined by the Urban Redevelopment Authority. The planning area shares boundaries with the following - River Valley and Museum to the north, Tanglin and Bukit Merah to the west, Outram to the south, the Singapore River is approximately 3. The mouth of the Singapore River was the old Port of Singapore, historically, the city of Singapore initially grew around the port so the river mouth became the centre of trade, commerce and finance. To this day, area around the old Singapore River mouth, some of the temples, shrines and other places of worship still stand in the vicinity of the river. Bridges such as Anderson Bridge, Elgin Bridge and Cavenagh Bridge still remain, the Merlion, the shophouses, and the large trees such as Banyan and Madras Thorn. Some parts of this area include such as Clarke Quay, Boat Quay and Robertson Quay. Boat Quay itself was handling three quarters of the service in the 1860s. Shophouses and warehouses flourished around the quays due to their proximity to trade during the colonial era, through lack of knowledge or foresight, the bridges were constructed too low and the river was too shallow for the demands that were to be made on its use. However, with the expansion of trade came congestion and pollution, old maps of the river state that it actually originates from Bukit Larangan. Starting in the 1819, there was heavy traffic on the Singapore River due to rapid urbanization, at the same time, it brought in water pollution caused by the disposal of garbage, sewage and other by-products of industries located along the rivers banks. The sources of pollution into the Singapore River and Kallang Basin included pig wastes from pig and duck farms, unsewered premises, street hawkers. Riverine activities such as transport, boat building and repairs were found along the Singapore River. Some 750 lighters plied along the Singapore River and Kallang Basin in 1977, waste, oil spills and wastewater from these boats and lighters added to the pollution of the rivers. In 1977, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew called for a clean up of Singapores rivers, the clean up costed the government $300 million. The clean up involved a relocation of about 4,000 squatters, along with hawkers and vegetable sellers. Public housing was found for the squatters, while street hawkers were persuaded to move to hawker centres, the government then dredged foul-smelling mud from the banks and the bottom of the river, and debris and other rubbish cleared. The river is now part of the Marina Reservoir after damming the Singapore River at its outlet to the sea to create a new reservoir of freshwater, the dam is known as Marina Barrage
20.
Bowsprit
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The bowsprit of a sailing vessel is a spar extending forward from the vessels prow. It provides a point for the forestay, allowing the fore-mast to be stepped farther forward on the hull. The word bowsprit is thought to originate from the Middle Low German word bōchsprēt - bōch meaning bow, early ocean-going vessels tended to tilt the bowsprit, also known in centuries past as a boltsprit, at a high angle, and hung one or two square spritsails from yards. Many types of pleasure and work vessels ship bowsprits, generally short in length. Once popular on large and small, even after the popularization of the Bermuda rig. On some modern racing yachts and dinghies, the bowsprit is retractable, the bowsprit on a tall ship may be of considerable length and carry several forestays supporting the foremast. Headsails are stowed by tying onto the bowsprit when not in use, to minimise the risk of bowsprit and crew handling sail on it being buried in large waves, it is normally angled upwards from the horizontal. Some hang gliders use a bowsprit, rather than a spar to spread their wings, the bowsprit is formed by extending the keel tube about a metre beyond the leading edge of the wing. In 1879 a patent in England by F. W. Brearey was filed that taught bowsprit structure for flying machines, in the modern mid-1900s renaissance in hang gliding a Dial Soap TV commercial featured in 1973 a bowsprit cross-sparless hang glider. Other examples of bowsprit hang gliders were exampled in the manufactured by Bautek in the 1980s
21.
Lorcha (boat)
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The lorcha is a type of sailing vessel having a Chinese junk rig on a Portuguese or other European style hull. Because of its structure, the vessel is faster and can carry more cargo than the normal Chinese junk. The advantage of a rig was in its ease of handling and resulting ability to be sailed with a minimal crew. Owing to its simplicity, it was easier to repair. This type of vessel was developed around 1550 in Macau, then a Portuguese colony in China and this hybrid type of vessel sailed faster than traditional pirate ships and it began to be used by British traders after the First Opium War. The Vũng Tàu shipwreck is a lorcha that sunk near the Côn Đảo Islands and has dated to about 1690. A type of lorcha sailing lighter was used formerly in Bangkok to carry out to ocean ships over the bar of the Chao Phraya river. Junk Bedar Pinas Complete list of Ship Types Lugger to Lorcha
22.
Gulf of Thailand
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The Gulf of Thailand, formerly the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the western part of the South China and Eastern Archipelagic Seas, a marginal body of water in the western Pacific Ocean. The gulf is around 800 km long and up to 560 km wide, has an area of 320,000 km2 and is surrounded on the north, west and southwest by Thailand, on the northeast by Cambodia. The South China Sea is to the southeast, the modern Thai name of the gulf is Ao Thai and Gulf of Thailand has been adopted as the official name of the body by the International Hydrographic Organization. Its name in Malay and Khmer continues to be the Gulf of Siam, Teluk Siam and Khmer, ឈូងសមុទ្រសៀម, Chhoung Samut Siem, in Thai, the gulf is historically known as Ao Sayam. The Gulf of Thailand is bordered by Cambodia, Thailand, and it occupies a seabed area of 304,000 km2 from 6° N to 13°30 N latitude and 99°E to 104° E longitude. The northern tip of the gulf is the Bay of Bangkok at the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, the southern boundary of the gulf is defined by a line from Cape Bai Bung in southern Vietnam to the city of Kota Bharu on the Malaysian coast. The gulf is shallow, its mean depth is 58 metres. This makes water exchange slow, and the water inflow from the rivers reduce the level of salinity in the gulf. Only at greater depths does water with a higher salinity flow into the gulf from the South China Sea and it fills the central depression below a depth of 50 metres. The seabed morphology in the depression of the gulf is characterised by the presence of elongated mounds. This morphology, widespread within the gulf in water depths exceeding 50 m and it reflects an interaction between sediment dewatering and the erosional activity of the present-day bottom currents. The sediment dewatering and fluid seepage result in the formation of small pits. In 2016, coral bleaching was detected at Ko Thalu and Ko Lueam in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province for the first time, the gulfs many coral reefs have made it attractive to divers. The tropical warmth of the water attracts many tourists, in recent years, the bay has become known for its whale watching activities, targeting the endemic, critically endangered populations of cetaceans and dugongs. It was first classified by Müller in 1776 as Trichechus dugon, presence of the critically endangered Hawksbill sea turtle which is a rare species in Thai waters, was confirmed during whale watching expeditions in January,2016. The area between Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam is subject to territorial disputes. Malaysia and Thailand have chosen to develop the disputed areas. A long-standing dispute between Cambodia and Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand concerns mainly the island of Phú Quốc or Koh Tral in Khmer, Cambodia also claims 48,000 square kilometres of shelf area
23.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
24.
South China Sea
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The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 square kilometres. The areas importance largely results from one-third of the worlds shipping sailing through its waters, the sea and its mostly uninhabited islands are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are reflected in the variety of names used for the islands. South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and this name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the sixteenth century Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as South China Sea. The Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn period also referred to the sea, Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions, during the Eastern Han dynasty, Chinas rulers called the Sea Zhang Hai. Fei Hai became popular during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, usage of the current Chinese name, Nan Hai, became gradually widespread during the Qing Dynasty. In Southeast Asia it was called the Champa Sea or Sea of Cham. The majority of the sea came under Japanese naval control during World War II following the acquisition of many surrounding South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea Minami Shina Kai South China Sea and this was written 南支那海 until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched the spelling 南シナ海, which has become the standard usage in Japan. In China, it is called the South Sea, 南海 Nánhǎi, in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the South China Sea, with the part within Philippine territorial waters often called the Luzon Sea, Dagat Luzon, by the Philippines. However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, a PAGASA spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea. In September 2012, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Administrative Order No, states and territories with borders on the sea include, the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam. Major rivers that flow into the South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Red, Mekong, Rajang, Pahang, Pampanga, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the South China Sea as follows, On the South. From Fuki Kaku the North point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao on to the South point of Haitan Tao, the Mainland, the Southern limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East coast of the Malay Peninsula. The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf, during recent ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, the South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago when the Dangerous Ground rifted away from southern China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30 million years ago, a process that propagated to the SW resulting in the V-shaped basin we see today, extension ceased around 17 million years ago
25.
Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
26.
Catboat
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A catboat, is a sailboat, with a single sail on a single mast set well forward in the bow of the boat. Most have a draft, with centreboards, although some have a keel. Most are gaff rigged but some have a Bermuda rig, the beam of the classic Cape Cod Cats beam measurement is almost half the waterline length, making it very stable. Some cat boats in current use include the Beetle Cat, the Redden Catboat, the Nonsuch, the Inland Cat, the Cape Cod Cat Com-Pac Trailerable, Marshal Menger, and the ABPY cat boat. A catboat is not the same as a catamaran, which is a multi-hull with a trampoline for crew seating and trapezing. Nor is it the same as a Cat, or Norwgian ship used to carry up to 600 tons of coal, one of the most well-known catboats is the 12-foot Beetle Cat daysailer. Fleets of these boats are found in harbors all across New England. In the 1960s, Breck Marshall based his 18-foot fiberglass Sanderling upon an existing, the Sanderling has since become a very popular boat, with more than 700 built, and it has helped to rekindle interest in the catboat. To honor Marshall and his contribution to the type, the Catboat Association funded the construction of the Breck Marshall, leavens, John M. Chapelle, Howard I. Middleboro, MA, Catboat Association with Intl Marine Publishing Co. p.160, the Illustrated Dictionary of Boating Terms,2000 Essential Terms for Sailors and Powerboaters
27.
Ketch
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A ketch is a sailing craft with two masts. The distinguishing characteristic of a ketch is that the forward of the two masts is larger than the after mast, historically the ketch was a square-rigged vessel, most commonly used as a freighter or fishing boat in northern Europe, particularly in the Baltic and North seas. In modern usage, the ketch is a rigged vessel used as a yacht or pleasure craft. To assist going to windward, a ketch may carry one or more jibs or foresails, if a ketch has no jibs, it is called a cat ketch or a periauger. On older, larger ketches the main mast may in addition one or more square rigged topsails. The large fore-and-aft sail on the mainmast is the mainsail, while the sail on the mizzen mast is the mizzen and these sails may be any type of fore-and-aft sail, in any combination. Most modern ketches are Bermuda rigged, but other possible rigs on a ketch include gunter rigs, the Scots Zulu, for example, had a dipping lug main with a standing lug mizzen. In northern Europe and among long distance cruisers, the ketch is often preferred to a sloop, since the additional sail allows a balance. An advantage of the ketch is when sudden increases in wind strength require a rapid reefing, the ketch rig also allows sailing only on the mizzen and jib, without introducing excessive lee helm, and in an emergency can be quite well steered without use of the rudder. When running before the wind or reaching across the wind, a ketch may set extra sails such as a spinnaker on the main mast, and a spinnaker or mizzen staysail on the mizzen mast. Another advantage of a ketch is at anchor, where the sail may be used to hold the boat steady in the wind. The square-rigged ketch was largely supplanted by the brig, which differs from the ketch by having a forward mast smaller than the after mast, and by the hoy, other similar craft include the snow and the pink. But the balance of sail area can be an overriding characteristic, if 20% or more of the sail area is in the mizzen sail the rig would be termed a ketch. This is particularly true on center cockpit yachts, compared to a ketch, a similar size yawls mizzen sail is much smaller than the main, because of the limitations of the mizzen sheet. So on a ketch, the purpose of the mizzen sail is to both propel and balance the vessel, while on a yawl, the smaller mizzen mainly serves the purpose of trim or balance. Yawls tend to have mainsails almost as large as those of comparable sloops, a ketch may be distinguished from a cutter or a sloop by virtue of having two masts rather than one, though a ketch with two foresails is sometimes called a cutter-rigged ketch. Both the ketch and the yawl differ from the two-masted schooner, if a vessel has two masts of approximately the same height, the rig with the larger sail forward is called a ketch, while the rig with the larger sail aft is a schooner. The American two-masted schooner is rare in Europe, where the rig is preferred
28.
Yawl
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The mizzen sail is hoisted on the mizzen mast. The yawl was originally developed as a rig for fishing boats. In its heyday, the ability to be trimmed to sail without rudder input made it particularly popular with single-handed sailors, such as circumnavigators Harry Pidgeon. Modern self-steering and navigation aids have made less important. A good example of this was Olin Stephens Finisterre, a small ships boat, usually rowed by four or six oars. To add a sailing rig to a rowboat, the masts must not interfere with the rowers, the mainmast is placed well forward and the mizzen as far back as possible. The mizzen has to be small in size to keep the sail area balanced around the centre of lateral resistance to ensure the boat will sail in a straight line without excessive correction. Both the yawl and the ketch have two masts, with the main mast foremost. On classic yacht types with long overhangs and inboard rudders, the distinction is simple, for boats with shorter overhangs or outboard rudders the distinction is more usefully determined by comparing the purposes and relative sizes of the mizzens. Compared to a ketch, a similar size yawls mizzen sail is much smaller than the main, and is usually situated very far aft, behind the helm station. On a ketch, the purpose of the mizzen sail is to help propel the vessel as part of the working sail. On a yawl, the smaller mizzen mainly serves the purposes of trim and balance, Yawls tend to have mainsails almost as large as those of sloops of comparable sized hulls. The common definition of Yawl and Ketch using the rudder post does not reflect the tradition and was created by much more recent developments of a handicap system for racing yachts. The CCA rating rule was developed following World War II to allow different styles of boats to race against each other with a handicap calculated from measurements of each boat. It was later combined with the RORC rule to become the IOR rule in the late 1950s which was used to handicap international racing until the late 1980s, canoe Yawls have a pointed stern similar to a canoe. Rudders were usually placed on the back of the boat which allows the rudder to be raised to allow the boat to be landed on a beach
29.
Schooner
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A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
30.
Full-rigged ship
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A full-rigged ship or fully rigged ship is term of art denoting a sailing vessels sail plan with three or more masts, all of them square-rigged. A full-rigged ship is said to have a ship rig or be ship-rigged, the ship-rig sail plan, also differs drastically from the large panoply of one and two masted vessels found as working and recreational sailboats. Alternatively, a ship may be referred to by its function instead, as in collier or frigate. In many languages the word frigate or frigate rig refers to a full-rigged ship, only one five-masted full-rigged ship had ever been built until recent years, when a few modern five-masted cruise sailing ships have been launched. Even a fourth mast is relatively rare for full-rigged ships, ships with five and more masts are not normally fully rigged and their masts may be numbered rather than named in extreme cases. If the masts are of wood, each mast is in three or more pieces and they are, The lowest piece is called the mast or the lower. Topmast Topgallant mast Royal mast, if fitted On steel-masted vessels, note that even a full-rigged ship did not usually have a lateral course on the mizzen mast below the mizzen topmast. Instead, the lowest sail on the mizzen was usually a fore/aft sail—originally a lateen sail, the key distinction between a ship and barque is that a ship carries a square-rigged mizzen topsail whereas the mizzen mast of a barque has only fore-and-aft rigged sails. The cross-jack yard was the lowest yard on a ships mizzen mast, unlike the corresponding yards on the fore and main mast it did not usually have fittings to hang a sail from, its purpose was to control the lower edge of the topsail. In the rare case that the yard did carry a square sail. Above the course sail, in order, are, Topsail, or Lower topsail, Topgallant sail, or Lower topgallant sail, if fitted. The division of a sail into upper and lower sails was a matter of practicality, since undivided sails were larger and, consequently, larger sails necessitated hiring, and paying, a larger crew. Additionally, the size of some late-19th and 20th century vessels meant that their correspondingly large sails would have been impossible to handle had they not been divided. Jibs are carried forward of the foremast, are tacked down on the bowsprit or jib-boom and have varying naming conventions, staysails may be carried between any other mast and the one in front of it or from the foremast to the bowsprit. In light winds studding sails may be carried on either side of any or all of the square rigged sails except royals and skysails and they are named after the adjacent sail and the side of the vessel on which they are set, for example main topgallant starboard stunsail. One or more spritsails may also be set on booms set athwart, one or two spankers are carried aft of the aftmost mast, if two they are called the upper spanker and lower spanker. A fore-and-aft topsail may be carried above the upper or only spanker, to stop a full-rigged ship except when running directly down wind, the sails of the foremast are oriented in the direction perpendicular to those of the mainmast. Thus, the masts cancel out of their push on the ship and this allows the crew to stop and quickly restart the ship without retracting and lowering the sails, and to dynamically compensate for the push of the wind on the masts themselves and the yards
31.
Sampan
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A sampan is a relatively flat bottomed Chinese wooden boat. Some sampans include a shelter on board, and may be used as a permanent habitation on inland waters. Sampans are generally used for transportation in coastal areas or rivers and it is unusual for a sampan to sail far from land as they do not have the means to survive rough weather. The word sampan comes from the original Cantonese term for the boats, 三板, the name referred to the hull design, which consists of a flat bottom joined to two sides. The design closely resembles Western hard chine boats like the scow or punt, Sampans may be propelled by poles, oars or may be fitted with outboard motors. Sampans are still in use by residents of Southeast Asia, particularly Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Burma. Cranks with Planks presents Sampans -n- Yulohs
32.
Tiller
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A tiller or till is a lever attached to a rudder post or rudder stock of a boat that provides leverage in the form of torque for the helmsman to turn the rudder. The tiller can be used by the helmsman directly pulling or pushing it, rapid or excessive movement of the tiller results in an increase in drag and will result in braking or slowing the boat. In steering a boat, the tiller is moved in the direction opposite of which the bow of the boat is to move. If the tiller is moved to side, the bow will turn to starboard. If the tiller is moved to starboard, the bow will turn port, sailing students often learn the alliterative phrase Tiller Towards Trouble to remind them of how to steer. Since the tiller is forward of the pivot point, and the rudder aft of it. For example, to turn a ship to port, the helmsman would be given the order starboard helm or x degrees starboard, the ships tiller was then moved to starboard, turning the rudder to the vessels port side, producing a turn to port. The opposite convention applied in France, but Austria and Italy kept to the English system, there was no standardisation in vessels from Scandinavian countries, where the practice varied from ship to ship. Most French vessels with steering wheels had their steering chains reversed, when large steamships appeared in the late 19th century with telemotors hydraulically connecting the wheel on the bridge to the steering gear at the stern, the practice continued. However the helmsman was now no longer controlling the tiller. Tiller Orders remained however, although many maritime nations had abandoned the convention by the end of the 19th century, Britain retained it until 1933, during the transition period the wording of the order was changed, to specify Wheel to starboard or Wheel to port. A well-known and often-depicted example occurred on the RMS Titanic in 1912 just before she collided with an iceberg. When the iceberg appeared directly in front of the ship, her officer-of-the-watch, First Officer William Murdoch and he ordered Hard-a-Starboard, which was a Tiller Order directing the helmsman to turn the wheel to port as far as it would go. The Titanics steering gear then pushed the tiller toward the side of the ship, swinging the rudder over to port. These actions are portrayed in the 1997 film of the disaster. Although frequently described as an error, the order was given, however, according to the granddaughter of the highest-ranking officer to survive the sinking, Second Officer Charles Lightoller, the order was not correctly executed. Quartermaster Hitchins, who had trained under Rudder Orders, mistakenly turned the wheel to starboard. It took two minutes to recognise and correct the error, by time it was too late to avoid collision with the iceberg
33.
SPARS
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The United States Coast Guard Womens Reserve, better known by the acronym SPARS, was the World War II womens branch of the USCG Reserve. It was established by the U. S. Congress and signed into law by the President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 23 November 1942. This authorized the acceptance of women into the reserve as commissioned officers and at the enlisted level, the purpose of the law was to release officers and men for sea duty and to replace them with women at shore stations. Dorothy C. Stratton was appointed director of the Womens Reserve, Stratton is credited with creating the nautical name of SPARS. The age for candidates was between 20 and 50, they had to have a college degree, or two years of college and two years of professional or business experience. The enlisted age requirements were between 20 and 36, candidates had to have completed at least two years of high school, for the most part, SPARS were white, but five African-Americans did eventually serve. The agreement between the U. S. Navy and the USCG required that candidates receive their indoctrination training at Smith College, Northampton. But in June 1943, the USCG withdrew from the agreement, most SPAR officers were general duty officers, but some officers received specialized training. At first, according to agreement, the SPARS enlisted personnel received their training on college campuses operated for such by the U. S. Navy. In March 1943, the USCG decided to establish its own training center for the indoctrination of enlisted recruits, the site selected was the Palm Beach Biltmore Hotel, Palm Beach, Florida. Beginning in late June, all enlisted personnel received their indoctrination, some 70 percent of the enlisted women who received recruit training also received some specialized training. Yeoman and storekeepers represented the largest share, but many SPARS were given the opportunity to train in other fields, in January 1945, the training of enlisted personnel was transferred from Palm Beach to Manhattan Beach, Brooklyn, New York. The SPARS were assigned to every USCG district except Puerto Rico, most officers held general duty billets, which included administrative and supervisory assignments. Others served as officers, supply officers, barracks. The bulk of the women performed clerical and stenographic duties. In smaller numbers, the personnel were found in practically every other billet, from baking pies to rigging parachutes. A select group of SPAR officers and enlisted personnel were assigned to work with the Long Range Aid to Navigation at monitoring stations in the Continental United States. Better known under the acronym LORAN, it was a radio navigation system developed for ships at sea
34.
Standing rigging
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Standing rigging comprises the lines, wires, or rods which support each mast or bowsprit on a sailing vessel. This term is used in contrast to running rigging, which elements of rigging which adjust the position. Standing rigging is placed under tension to keep each mast securely in position, early sailing vessels used rope of hemp or other fibers, which gave way to wire ropes of various types. Galvanized steel was common for the first half of the 20th century, continuing as an option to its 1960s successor material—stainless steel cables. In the late 20th Century, racing yachts adopted composite fiber lines for standing rigging, with the goal of reducing weight, on modern yachts, standing rigging is often stainless steel wire, stainless steel rod or synthetic fiber. Semi-rigid stainless steel wire is by far the most common as it combines extreme strength, unlike rigid stainless steel rod, it is comparatively easy to recognize wear and stress as individual strains break often near a swage fitting, and can be inspected while standing. Solid rod stainless steel is more aerodynamic so is used in extreme racing yachts. Great care must be used when swaging fittings onto stainless steel rod as this can start minute cracking, rod-type stays fail suddenly, often where the rod bends around a spreader. Bending can induce unseen stress fractures, most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the following types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay, and upper and lower shrouds. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment was supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds
35.
Sailcloth
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Doek is Dutch for cloth, which was evolved into the English word duck in reference to sail canvas. Duck was typically made from cotton or linen, with use of hemp. These natural fibers have poor resistance to rot, UV light, linen is stronger, but cotton is lighter. Linen was the traditional fiber of sails until it was supplanted by cotton during the 19th century, as sail size grew linen was too heavy to be practical so cotton became more popular. Cotton did not substantially replace linen worldwide until the end of the age of sail, however and it was not until the late 20th century that natural fibers were replaced by synthetics in mainstream use. Cotton sailcloth is still used for sportswear, upholstery and draperies, the traditional width for carded cotton sailcloth in the US was 23 inches while the British standard was 24 inches. The wa proa of the Caroline Islands traditionally used pandanus matting as sailcloth, the characteristics of a sail are due to design, construction and the attributes of the fibers, which are woven together to make the sail cloth. The following sections discuss the attributes of fibers assuming a good design, according to Mahr, there are six key factors in evaluating a fiber for suitability in weaving a sail-cloth, Initial modulus – The ability to resist stretching. Higher resistance is better for upwind sails, breaking strength – Measured as a force per cross sectional area of fiber. Creep – Describes the long stretch of a fiber or fabric. A material with creep may have a superior modulus, but lose its shape over time, resistance to ultraviolet light – Strength loss from exposure to the Sun’s UV rays measured by a standardized exposure test. Flex strength – Strength lost due to bending, folding, or flogging, cost-effectiveness –Both the initial cost and its durability of the material define its cost-effectiveness over time. There is no perfect solution since in most cases the increase of one attribute generally results in the attractiveness of another. Reduced stretch generally also reduces the flexibility causing a trade-off of performance for durability, solving both problems generally sends the price out of range for most sailors. Nylon is used in spinnakers because of its weight, high tensile strength, superior abrasion resistance. However, it has a low modulus allowing too much stretch to be suitable for upwind sails, nylon is more susceptible to UV and chemical degradation than polyesters and its physical properties can change due to moisture absorption. Polyethylene terephthalate, the most common type of polyester, is the most common used in sailcloth. PET has excellent resiliency, high resistance, high UV resistance, high flex strength
36.
Running rigging
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Running rigging varies between vessels that are rigged fore and aft and those that are square-rigged. In centuries past, a ships rigging was typically fashioned from rope, in the 19th century this was commonly referred to as Manilla, a reference to the origin of much good quality rope. On modern vessels, running rigging is likely to be made from synthetic fibers, since the 1990s, several new synthetic fibers have become common, particularly on racing and other high-performance sailing boats. These fibers include Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene, Vectran, fore-and-aft rigged vessels have rigging that supports, shapes, and adjusts the sails to optimize their performance in the wind. Halyards, are used to raise sails and control luff tension, in large yachts the halyard returns to the deck but in small racing dinghies the head of the sail is attached by a short line to the head of the mast while the boat is lying on its gunwale. Topping lifts, which hold booms and yards aloft, barber haulers, which adjust the spinnaker/jib sheeting angle by pulling the sheet/sail inboard at right angles to the sheet. Consists of either a ring or clip on the attached to cordage which is secured and adjusted via fairlead. Kicking straps / boom vangs, which control a boom-footed sails leech tension by exerting downward force mid-boom. Normally this is a system of highly geared blocks, of stainless steel wire and low stretch cordage but recently some sail boats have a short spar instead. When sailing downwind the kicking strap is tensioned to stop the boom lifting, cunninghams, which tighten the luff of a boom-footed sail by pulling downward on a cringle in the luff of a mainsail above the tack. The idea is to flatten the sail in heavier weather or when sailing to windward. In its simplest form a steel hook that goes through the cringle. From the hook a cordage tail passes through a turnblock on the deck at the base of the mast, often the tail is split so the cunningham can be operated from either sidedeck in a racing dinghy. Downhauls, which lower a sail or a yard, and can be used to adjust the tension on the luff of a sail, outhauls, which control the foot tension of a boom-footed sail. This is one of the controls for sail fullness. In a racing boat the boom outhaul runs from the sail clew through a block along the inside of the boom. For simplicity many small racing craft have the boom attached to a powerful hyfield lever mounted on the boom or deck. The lever is let off for down wind sailing, so the sail becomes full
37.
Canvas
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Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, and other items for which sturdiness is required. It is also used by artists as a painting surface. It is also used in such objects as handbags, electronic device cases. The word canvas is derived from the 13th century Anglo-French canevaz, both may be derivatives of the Vulgar Latin cannapaceus for made of hemp, originating from the Greek κάνναβις. Modern canvas is made of cotton or linen, although. It differs from other cotton fabrics, such as denim. Canvas comes in two types, plain and duck. The threads in duck canvas are more tightly woven, the term duck comes from the Dutch word for cloth, doek. In the United States, canvas is classified in two ways, by weight and by a number system. The numbers run in reverse of the weight so a number 10 canvas is lighter than number 4, canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting, replacing wooden panels. One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, however, panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change, Venetian sail canvas was readily available, as lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Early canvas was made of linen, a sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength, linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint. In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as cotton duck, linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint. Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, the advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant, respectively. Gessoed canvases on stretchers are also available and they are available in a variety of weights, light-weight is about 4 oz or 5 oz, medium-weight is about 7 oz or 8 oz, heavy-weight is about 10 oz or 12 oz. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away, artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso
38.
Tarpaulin
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In some places such as Australia, and in military slang, a tarp may be known as a hootch. Tarpaulins often have reinforced grommets at the corners and along the sides to form attachment points for rope, inexpensive modern tarpaulins are made from woven polyethylene, this material is so associated with tarpaulins that it has become colloquially known in some quarters as polytarp. The word tarpaulin originated as a compound of the words tar, sailors often tarred their own overclothes in the same manner as the sheets or palls. By association, sailors became known as Jack Tars, thus constructed, they were placed upon a duck paulin, which was drawn up tightly around the beds and secured. Tarpaulins have multiple uses, including as shelter from the elements, i. e. wind, rain, or sunlight, tarpaulins are often used during the build process to protect brickwork and masonry from weather damage. Such was the demand for tarpaulins by the New South Wales Government Railways, up until 1990 and it is also used on outdoor market stalls to provide some protection from the elements of nature. Tarpaulins are also used for advertisement printing, most notably for billboards, perforated tarpaulins are typically used for large-medium advertising, or for protection on scaffoldings, the aim of the perforations is to reduce wind vulnerability. Polyethylene tarpaulins have also proven to be a source when an inexpensive. Many amateur builders of plywood sailboats turn to polyethylene tarpaulins for making their sails, as it is inexpensive, with the proper type of adhesive tape, it is possible to make a serviceable sail for a small boat with no sewing. Tarps can also be classified by size—a common determining factor for consumers in acquiring tarps—and measured in width by length, actual tarp sizes are generally about three to five percent smaller than the advertised size. Some other factors that may influence a purchase decision include color, grommet type, the weave count, a measure of tarp strength, often runs between and the greater the count, the greater its resistance against ripping in high wind conditions. Tarps may also be washable or non-washable and waterproof or non-waterproof, Tarp flexibility refers to its ability to remain pliable during cold winter months, some tarps offer more flexibility than others in cold weather. Some manufacturers also advertise their tarps as rot-proof, but this may be more an subjective than an objective measurement, a polyethylene tarp is not a traditional fabric, but rather, a laminate of woven and sheet material. The center is loosely woven from strips of plastic, with sheets of the same material bonded to the surface. This creates a material that resists stretching well in all directions and is waterproof. Sheets can be either of Low density polyethelene or High density polyethelene, canvas tarps are not 100% waterproof, though they are water resistant. Vinyl tarps are industrial-grade and intended for heavy-duty use and they are constructed of 10 oz. per sq. yd. -weight coated yellow vinyl. This makes the tarp waterproof and have high resistance and tear strength
39.
Sail components
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Sail components include the features that define a sails shape and function, plus its constituent parts from which it is manufactured. A sail may be classified in a variety of ways, including by its orientation to the vessel and its shape. Sails are typically constructed out of material that is shaped by various means, while in use, to offer an appropriate airfoil, according to the strength. A variety of features and fittings allow the sail to be attached to lines and they also may be classified as symmetrical or asymmetrical. Triangular sails have names for each of three edges and three corners, rigs with such sails include Bermuda, cutter, lateen and vessels with mixed sail plans that include jibs and other staysails. Most triangular sails are classified as asymmetrical and fore and aft, gaff, gunter, lug, junk and some sprit sails have four sides and are set fore and aft so that one edge is leading into the wind. Naming conventions are consistent with triangular sails, except for the top edge and these spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the shape of a sail is defined by its edges and corners in the plane of the sail, laid out on a flat surface. The edges may be curved, either to extend the sails shape as an airfoil or to define its shape in use, in use, the sail becomes a curved shape, adding the dimension of depth or draft. The top of all sails is called the head, the edge is called the luff, the trailing edge is the leech. Head – The head is the edge of the sail. For a triangular sail the head refers to the topmost corner, luff – The forward edge of a fore-and-aft sail is called the luff, which, in a mainsail, is parallel to the mast. In a symmetrical sail that leech, which is the edge into the wind. Foot – The foot of a sail is its bottom edge and this added area would flutter in the wind and not contribute to the efficient airfoil shape of the sail without the presence of battens. Offshore cruising mainsails sometimes have a hollow leech to obviate the need for battens and their ensuing likelihood of chafing the sail. Roach is a term applied to square sail design—it is the arc of a circle above a straight line from clew to clew at the foot of a square sail. The roach allows the foot of the sail to clear stays coming up the mast, the names of corners of sails vary, depending on shape and symmetry. Head – In a triangular sail, the corner where the luff, on a square sail, the top corners are head cringles, where there are grommets, called cringles
40.
Halyard
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In sailing, a halyard or halliard is a line that is used to hoist a ladder, sail, flag or yard. The term halyard comes from the phrase, to haul yards, halyards, like most other parts of the running rigging, were classically made of natural fibre like manila or hemp. A square rig sail with a halyard is mounted on a yard that is free to slide on a short section of the mast. The halyard is used to raise the yard when setting the sail, a gaff rigged sail has two, a throat halyard to lift the end of the gaff nearer the mast, and a peak halyard to lift the outer end. A more modern triangular sail has only one halyard which is attached at its uppermost point, halyards can be attached a number of ways to the head of a triangular sail. The most common methods are as follows, A shackle through a headboard on the sail, a bowline through a hole in the head. A half hitch with a knot, preferred over a bowline because it allows the sail to get closer to the top of the mast. The other end of the halyard is attached to the mast at its foot by way of a cleat. It is convention in some places to fasten the main halyard on the side of the mast. This allows quicker access to the lines in a time-critical situation, jumping the halyard is a technique used to raise a large sail quickly by employing a few crew members to work simultaneously on the halyard. The person jumping stands next to the mast and manually grabs the halyard as high as he can and pulling it down as fast and far as possible. While this crew member reaches for the next heave, a crew member tails or takes up the slack created by the jumper. When the person jumping can no longer pull up the sail simply by hanging on the halyard, to sweat the halyard is to take as much slack out of it as possible. This may be done with a winch, or manually, to manually sweat a halyard, the sweater grasps the line and, in a fluid motion, hauls it laterally towards himself, then down toward the deck, letting the tailer take up the new slack
