1.
Military transport aircraft
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Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for delivering airborne forces during the Second World War and towing military gliders. Fixed-wing transport aircraft are defined in terms of their range capability as strategic airlift or [[tactical |-, for example, the military transport helicopter is the primary transport asset of US Marines deploying from LHDs and LHA. Transport helicopters are operated in assault, medium and heavy classes, air assault helicopters are usually the smallest of the transport types, and designed to move an infantry squad or section and their equipment. Helicopters in the role are generally armed for self-protection both in transit and for suppression of the landing zone. This armament may be in the form of door gunners, or the modification of the helicopter with wings and pylons to carry missiles. For example, the Sikorsky S-70, fitted with the ESSM, the assault helicopter can be thought of as the modern successor to the military glider. Finally, there is the term utility helicopter, which generally refers to medium-lift designs. Unlike the assault helicopter they are not expected to land directly in a contested landing zone. Examples include the versions of the Mil Mi-8, Super Puma. The lower speed, range and increased consumption of helicopters are more than compensated by their ability to operate virtually anywhere
2.
Medium bomber
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The term was used prior to and during World War II, based on available parameters of engine and aeronautical technology for bomber aircraft designs at that time. After the war, medium bombers were replaced in world air forces by more advanced, in the early 1930s many air forces were looking to modernize their existing bomber aircraft fleets, which frequently consisted of older biplanes. The World War II-era medium bomber was considered to be any level bomber design that delivered about 4,000 pounds of ordnance over ranges of about 1,500 to 2,000 mi. Typical heavy bombers were those with a load of 8,000 pounds or more. These distinctions were beginning to disappear by the middle of World War II, advances in powerplants and designs eventually allowed light bombers, tactical bombers, and later jet fighter-bombers to take over the roles performed by mediums. Although a number of aircraft were designed in this performance and load-carrying range. Examples of post-war mediums include the English Electric Canberra and the Soviet Ilyushin Il-28 Beagle, subsequent to World War II, only the U. S. A-6 Intruder General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark — U. S. supersonic swing wing strike aircraft Dive bomber High level bombing Maritime patrol aircraft Strategic bomber Tactical bombing Torpedo bomber
3.
Airliner
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An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passengers and air cargo. Such aircraft are most often operated by airlines, although the definition of an airliner can vary from country to country, an airliner is typically defined as an aircraft intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial service. The largest airliners are wide-body jets and these aircraft are frequently called twin-aisle aircraft because they generally have two separate aisles running from the front to the back of the passenger cabin. These aircraft are used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities with many passengers. A smaller, more class of airliners is the narrow-body or single aisle aircraft. These smaller airliners are used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body counterparts. Regional airliners typically seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be powered by turbofans or turboprops and these airliners are the non-mainline counterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers, legacy carriers, and flag carriers and are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs. These regional routes then form the spokes of an air transport model. The Beechcraft 1900, for example, has only 19 seats, when the Wright brothers made the world’s first sustained heavier-than-air flight, they laid the foundation for what would become a major transport industry. Their flight in 1903 was just 11 years before what is defined as the world’s first airliner. These airliners would have a significant impact on society, economics. If an airliner is defined as an aircraft intended for carrying passengers in commercial service. The Ilya Muromets was an aircraft with a separate passenger saloon, wicker chairs, bedroom, lounge. The aircraft also had heating and electrical lighting, the Ilya Muromets first flew on December 10,1913. On February 25,1914, it took off for its first demonstration flight with 16 passengers aboard, from June 21 – June 23, it made a round-trip from Saint Petersburg to Kiev in 14 hours and 38 minutes with one intermediate landing. However, it was never used as a commercial airliner due to the onset of World War I, in 1915 the very first airliner was used by Elliot Air Service. The aircraft was a Curtiss JN4, a biplane which was used mainly in World War I as a trainer. Later, it was used as a tour and familiarization flight aircraft in the early 1920s
4.
Junkers
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Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG, more commonly Junkers, was a major German aircraft and aircraft engine manufacturer. It produced some of the worlds most innovative and best-known airplanes over the course of its fifty-plus year history in Dessau and it was founded there in 1895 by Hugo Junkers, initially manufacturing boilers and radiators. During World War I, and following the war, the company famous for its pioneering all-metal aircraft. The history of Junkers aircraft production begins with the Junkers J1 mid-wing monoplane, research for this aircraft began in 1914 and was interrupted by the start of the First World War. The prototype aircraft, named the Blechesel, was completed in very late 1915 after the outbreak of the war and this aircraft is significant in that it was the first flyable aircraft to utilize an all-metal total structural design. Contemporary aircraft were built around wooden frames constructed in a fashion, reinforced with wires. The J1 was a design, using steel ribs. IdFlieg, in charge of aircraft evaluation, was unconvinced of the layout of these designs. Junkers took this opportunity to all the flying surfaces of the J4 aircraft of corrugated duralumin in order to lower weight. The J4 became Junkers first design to production, with orders totalling 283. Junkers continued to believe in the monoplane layout constructed entirely in metal, the J8 was the first cantilever monoplane design, and looked extremely modern when compared to contemporary wire-braced biplane designs. The corrugated duralumin wing and fuselage skin introduced in the J-series became a trademark of Junkers aircraft built in the 1920s and 30s, development continued during the course of World War I, including a growing partnership with Fokker, as the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft. Several Junkers designs were licensed to Fokker during this period, the Great War ended with German Navy trials of the model J11, which was an all-metal floatplane prototype. In the immediate post-war era, Junkers used their J8 layout as the basis for the F-13, first flown on 25 June 1919 and this four passenger monoplane was the worlds first all-metal airliner. The Treaty of Versailles signed only days after the F-13 flew, after that span of time only the design of civilian aircraft was permitted to Germany.24 and three-engined G.31. Neither aircraft was a commercial success, the W-33/W-34 series also set multiple aviation firsts including records for flight duration, flight distance, altitude, rocket assisted take-off and inflight refueling between 1926 and 1930. Junkers produced a study in 1924 for a visit to the United States. The study outlined a four-engined 80-passenger plane, incorporating a forward wing, as well as a main wing
5.
Luftwaffe
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The Luftwaffe was the aerial warfare branch of the combined German Wehrmacht military forces during World War II. During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base, with the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe was officially established on 26 February 1935. The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a testing ground for new doctrines. By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwaders, during World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely, the Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffes fighter arm, in addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa and Southern Europe. In January 1945, during the stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority. After the defeat of Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946, the Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history, Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim. Throughout the war, the force was responsible for war crimes, one of the forerunners of the Luftwaffe, the Imperial German Army Air Service, was founded in 1910 with the name Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches, most often shortened to Fliegertruppe. It was renamed Luftstreitkräfte on 8 October 1916, after the defeat of Germany, the service was dissolved on 8 May 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which also mandated the destruction of all German military aircraft. Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to have an air force, to train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of its future enemy, the Soviet Union, which was also isolated in Europe. This base was known as 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army. Hundreds of Luftwaffe pilots and technical personnel visited, studied and were trained at Soviet air force schools in locations in Central Russia. The first steps towards the Luftwaffes formation were undertaken just months after Adolf Hitler came to power, in April 1933 the Reichsluftfahrtministerium was established. Görings control over all aspects of aviation became absolute, on 25 March 1933 the Deutschen Luftsportverband absorbed all private and national organizations, while retaining its sports title. On 15 May 1933, all military organizations in the RLM were merged, forming the Luftwaffe. The |Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps was formed in 1937 to give pre-military flying training to male youths, military-age members of the NSFK were drafted to the Luftwaffe. As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members, the absence of Göring in planning and production matters was fortunate
6.
Deutsche Luft Hansa
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Deutsche Luft Hansa A. G. was a German airline, serving as flag carrier of the country during the later years of the Weimar Republic and throughout Nazi Germany. Even though Deutsche Luft Hansa was the forerunner of modern German airline Lufthansa, Deutsche Luft Hansa was founded on 6 January 1926 in Berlin. The name of the company was a composite of Deutsche Luft, the airline was created by a merger between Deutscher Aero Lloyd and Junkers Luftverkehr, the in-house airline of Junkers. The foundation of the airline coincided with the lifting of restrictions on commercial air operations imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles and this allowed the route network to be quickly expanded to cover major European cities. The initial fleet consisted of 162 aircraft, nearly all of them outdated World War I types, the most important airfield for DLH was Berlin Tempelhof. From there a Fokker F. II took off on 6 April 1926 for the first scheduled flight to Zürich via Halle, shortly after that flights to Paris were commenced. Deutsche Luft Hansa was one of the first airlines to operate night flights and this route proved so successful that the night train connection was discontinued some years later. During its first year, the airline operated more than six million flight kilometres, transporting a total of 56,268 passengers and 560 tons of freight, over the following years, the domestic network grew to cover all the important cities and towns of Germany. More international routes were added through co-operation agreements, with the newly founded Iberia in Spain its longest scheduled route was 2,100 kilometres from Berlin to Madrid. The establishment of Syndicato Condor in Brazil served the interests in South America where there were important German minorities at that time. The airline launched scheduled flights to Tokyo. A Heinkel HE12 aircraft was launched off the NDL liner Bremen during her maiden voyage crossing the Atlantic in 1929, shortening the mail delivery time between Europe and North America. Politically, the leaders were linked to the rising Nazi Party. Erhard Milch, who had served as head of the airline since 1926, a key interest of Deutsche Luft Hansa at that time was the reduction of mail delivery times. To this end, the Shanghai-Nanjing-Beijing route was launched in the year using Junkers W34 specially deployed there. A record was set in 1930 when the route from Vienna to Istanbul was completed in only 24 hours. By comparison, the first transatlantic flight by the airline took roughly one week. After several years of testing, the first scheduled route between Europe and South America was inaugurated in 1934
7.
Spanish Air Force
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The Spanish Air Force is the aerial branch of the Spanish Armed Forces. Hot air balloons had been used with military purposes in Spain as far back as 1896, the new airship was completed successfully and, named España, made numerous test and exhibition flights. One year later a Royal decree established the National Aviation School, Escuela Nacional de Aviación in Getafe, near Madrid, under the Ministry of Public Works and Transport, captain Alfredo Kindelán was named Chief of Aviation, Jefe de Aviación. During the years followed, most of the military activity of the Spanish Air Force would take place in Northern Morocco. In 1915 Spains first seaplane base was opened at Los Alcazares on the Mar Menor in the Murcia region and Alfredo Kindelán was named Military Aeronautics Director, the Catalan Flying School was established in Can Tunis, Barcelona the following year and Getafe Aerodrome became a full-fledged military air base. In 1919 General Francisco Echagüe replaced Kindelán as leader of the Aeronáutica Española, in 1920 two Nieuport 80 and one Caudron G.3 were first painted with squadron identification numbers and the Spanish Air Force roundel. In 1921, following the Spanish defeat at Annual, known as Desastre de Annual in Spain, Lieutenant Colonel Kindelán was named Jefe Superior de Aeronáutica, becoming chief-commander of the air force in 1926, at the time when Spanish Morocco was retaken and the Rif War ended. That same year, pilots González Gallarza, Joaquín Loriga Taboada, the expedition was flown with two Breguet 19 and known as the Escuadrilla Elcano or Elcano Squadron. In 1930 the Aeronaval Base in San Javier was established and in the year a pro-Republican revolt in the Cuatro Vientos military aerodrome near Madrid was quashed. Captain Cipriano Rodríguez Díaz and Lieutenant Carlos de Haya González flew non-stop to Equatorial Guinea, under Capitan Warlela cadastral surveys of Spain were carried out using modern methods of aerial photography in 1933. The following year Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva took off, in 1934 Commander Eduardo Sáenz de Buruaga became new chief-commander of the air force. Accordingly, the Spanish Navy-based Escuadra model was replaced by Región Militar divisions which are still operative today. In July 1936, right after the coup, the first German Junkers Ju-52 and Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 arrived to help the rebels, in August Heinkel He 51 fighters were also deployed. These planes helped the army in revolt to gain control of the air, as did the German and Italian expeditionary forces, the Condor Legion. In September 1936 the Navy and Air Ministry, Ministerio de Marina y Aire, the first serious air combat took place over Madrid when Italian bombers attacked the city in a massive bombing operation. Nazi help to the Nationalist Air Force was part of Hitlers German re-armament strategy and he called his strategy Blumenkrieg, as evidenced in a January 1937 speech. The international outcry over Guernica, however, would not bring about any increase in the help provided to the beleaguered Spanish Republic. The pilots of the Spanish Republican Air Force, often young and poorly trained were unable to check the Nazi German and Fascist Italian modern-warfare attacks
8.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
9.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
10.
Francoist Spain
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It is the opinion of several historians that during the Spanish Civil War, Francos goal was to turn Spain into a totalitarian state based on fascism like Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Franco was also able to take advantage of the resources of the Axis Powers, Francos regime evolved into a more classic autocratic regime. The Spanish Civil War started as a coup by the Spanish military on the peninsula, the coup escalated into a civil war lasting for three years once Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany agreed to support Franco, starting with airlifting of the africanistas onto the mainland. However, the Falange remained the party throughout Francos regime and its ideology, National Syndicalism. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the regimes own figures, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons, large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies. Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen and it has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in the first years of the dictatorship, from 1940–42, as a result of political repression, hunger, and disease related to the conflict. This changed with the Cold War that soon followed the end of hostilities in 1945, independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship. On July 26,1947 Spain was declared a kingdom, Franco was to be succeeded by his Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco as head of government with the intention of continuing the Francoist regime, but those hopes ended with his 1973 assassination. With the death of Franco on 20 November 1975, Juan Carlos became the King of Spain and he initiated the countrys subsequent transition to democracy, ending with Spain becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. After Francos victory in 1939, the Falange was declared the legal party in Spain. The Organic Law made the government ultimately responsible for passing all laws, as all ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco as the Chief of state and government, he was effectively the only source of legislation. The law of national referendums, passed in 1945 approved for all laws to be approved by a popular referendum. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through elections, however, Carrero Blanco was assassinated on the same year and Franco named a civilian, Carlos Arias Navarro as the countrys new Prime Minister. Concerns about the situation, Spains possible entry into World War II. The army maintained a strength of about 400,000 men until the end of the war, Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of its colonial empire throughout Francos rule. During the Algerian War, Madrid became the base of the Organisation armée secrète right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria, despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. Henceforth, when French Morocco became independent in 1956, he surrendered Spanish Morocco to Mohammed V, the year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War. Only in 1975, with the Green March and the military occupation, in 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spains colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence, and the next year, ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco
11.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
12.
Swissair
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Swissair AG/S. A. was for many years the national airline of Switzerland. It was formed from a merger between Balair and Ad Astra Aero, in 1931, the airline thrived into the 1980s, when it was one of the Seven Sisters of Western European commercial aviation. It was headquartered at Zurich Airport and in Kloten, in 1997 the Swissair Group was renamed SAirGroup, with four subdivisions, SAirlines, SAirServices, SAirLogistics and SAirRelations. The airline was kept alive until 31 March 2002 by the Swiss Federal government, on 1 April 2002 successor airline Swiss International Air Lines was founded on the base of former Crossair, taking over most of the routes, planes and staff of the former Swissair. Today, The SAirGroup company still exists and is in the process of being liquidated, Swiss International Air Lines was taken over by the German airline Lufthansa in 2005. On March 26,1931, Swissair - Schweizerische Luftverkehr AG was founded through the fusion of the airlines Ad Astra Aero, the founding fathers were Balz Zimmermann and the Swiss aviation pioneer Walter Mittelholzer. In contrast to other airlines, it did not receive support from the government, the name Swissair was the proposal of Dr. Alphonse Ehinger, president of the directorial board of the Balair, although Swissair was first deemed un-Swiss. In the first operational year 64 people were employed including ten pilots, seven radio operators, in total, their planes offered 85 seats and operation was maintained only from March to October. The route network had a length of 4,203 kilometres, on April 17,1932 Swissair bought two Lockheed Orions, making them the second European airline to use American planes, after the Czechoslovak operator CSA purchased a Ford Trimotor in 1930. The Orion was the fastest commercial airplane of its time and was put to use on the Express line and this led Lufthansa to ask Heinkel for a model that could top the Orions speed, leading to the Heinkel He 70. In 1933, the first trans-Alpine route was introduced in 1933, for the first time in Europe, flight attendants were employed aboard the Curtiss Condor beginning in 1934. Nelly Diener, first flight attendant of Europe, became world-famous and she lost her life after just 79 flights in a crash near Wurmlingen, Germany, on July 27,1934. The cause of the crash was material fatigue, in 1936, Douglas DC-2s were acquired and London was added to the route network. In 1937, the bigger Douglas DC-3 was bought, in the same year, both founding fathers died, Walter Mittelholzer during mountaineering in the Steiermark, Austria, and Balz Zimmermann succumbed to an infectious disease. On August 27,1939, days before World War II broke out, Swissair was forced to suspend service to Amsterdam, Paris and London. Two days later, Swissair service was closed completely, of 180 employees,131 had to serve in the army. In spite of the war, some routes were re-introduced, such as Munich, Berlin, Rome, in 1940, an invasion of Switzerland was feared, and Swissair moved their operations to the Magadino plains in Ticino. Operations were suspended definitively in August 1944, when a Swissair DC-2 was destroyed in Stuttgart during an American bombing raid, on July 30,1945 Swissair was able to resume commercial aviation
13.
Cargo aircraft
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A cargo aircraft is a fixed-wing aircraft that is designed or converted for the carriage of cargo rather than passengers. Such aircraft usually do not incorporate passenger amenities and generally one or more large doors for loading cargo. Freighters may be operated by passenger or cargo airlines, by private individuals or by the armed forces of individual countries. Cargo aircraft represent a small proportion of the air freight market. The majority is carried in special ULD containers in the holds of normal passenger aircraft. Aircraft were put to use carrying cargo in the form of air mail as early as 1911, although the earliest aircraft were not designed primarily as cargo carriers, by the mid-1920s aircraft manufacturers were designing and building dedicated cargo aircraft. The Vickers Vernon, a development of the Vickers Vimy Commercial, in February 1923 this was put to use by the RAFs Iraq Command who flew nearly 500 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first ever strategic airlift of troops. The Victorians also helped to pioneer air routes for Imperial Airways Handley Page HP.42 airliners, the World War II German design, the Arado Ar 232 was the first purpose built cargo aircraft. The Ar 232 was intended to supplant the earlier Junkers Ju 52 freighter conversions, most other forces used freighter versions of airliners in the cargo role as well, most notably the C-47 Skytrain version of the Douglas DC-3, which served with practically every Allied nation. This aircraft, like most of its era, used tail-dragger landing gear caused the aircraft to have a decided rearward tilt when landed. A similar rear loading ramp even appeared in a different form on the nosewheel gear-equipped. Postwar Europe also served to play a role in the development of the modern air cargo. To rapidly supply the numbers of aircraft, many older types. In operation it was found that it took as long or longer to unload these older designs as the much larger tricycle landing gear Douglas C-54 Skymaster which was easier to move about in when landed. The C-47s were quickly removed from service, and from then on flat-decks were a requirement of all new cargo designs, in the years following the war era a number of new custom-built cargo aircraft were introduced, often including some experimental features. For instance, the USs C-82 Packet featured a cargo area. Although larger, smaller and faster designs have been proposed for many years and these designs offer the ability to carry the heaviest loads, even main battle tanks, at global ranges. The Boeing 747 was originally designed to the specification as the C-5
14.
Troop
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A troop is a military sub-subunit, originally a small formation of cavalry, subordinate to a squadron. In many armies a troop is the equivalent element to the section or platoon. Exceptions are the Royal Horse Artillery and the US Cavalry, where troops are subunits that compare to a company or artillery battery. A cavalry soldier of private rank is called a trooper in many Commonwealth armies, a related sense of the term troops refers to members of the military collectively, as in the troops, see Troop. In some countries, like Italy, the cavalry unit is called Squadron. Today, a troop is defined differently in different armed forces, SASR troops are also unusual as they are commanded by a captain—most troop/platoon sized elements are commanded by a lieutenant. In all cases, units which refer to platoon sized elements as troops refer to company-sized elements as squadrons, privates in the RAAC and SASR hold the rank trooper, however this is not the case for any other Corps/units which use the term troops. In the British Army the definition of a troop varies by corps, household Cavalry and Royal Armoured Corps, Three or four armoured fighting vehicles commanded by a subaltern, i. e. effectively the same level element as an infantry platoon. A unit of two to four guns or launchers, or an equivalent headquarters unit, in the Royal Horse Artillery, a troop used to be the equivalent to a battery in other artillery units. The Royal Engineers and Royal Corps of Signals used platoons instead until after World War II, other army corps do not use the term. In the Royal Marines, a troop is the equivalent to an army platoon, in the Canadian Army, a troop is the equivalent of a platoon within the armoured, artillery, engineer, and signals branches. Two to four troops comprise the elements of a squadron. Companies were renamed troops in 1883, in the United States, state police forces are often regionally divided into troops. This usage came about from these organizations modelling themselves on the US Army, for this same reason the state police and highway patrol personnel of most states are known as trooper rather than officer. In Scouting, a troop is a made up of scouts or guides from the same locality under a leader. In the case of Guides, the company is used more often
15.
Junkers W 33
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The Junkers W33 was a German single-engine transport aircraft. It was aerodynamically and structurally advanced for its time, a clean and it is remembered in aviation history for the first east–west non-stop heavier-than-air crossing of the Atlantic. The Junkers W33 was a development of the 1919 four-seat airliner. The latter was an advanced aircraft when built, an aerodynamically clean all-metal cantilever monoplane. Even later in the 1920s, it and other Junkers types were unusual as unbraced monoplanes in a biplane age, like all Junkers designs from the J7 fighter onwards, it used an aluminium alloy duraluminum structure covered with Junkers characteristic corrugated dural skin. The wings had the same span as the F13, though the platform was a different. The fuselage, though, was flatter-topped than that of the F13, a large port-side door gave access to the freight compartment. The designer of the W33 was Herman Pohlmann, the cockpit and undercarriage were of their time, the former enclosed with two seats, and the latter fixed and divided with a tailwheel. The Junkers W letter labelled the type as a seaplane, the prototype W33, registered D-921, first flew, as a seaplane, from Leopoldshafen on the river Elbe near Dessau on 17 June 1926. Production began in 1927 and ran until 1934 with 198 production machines built, Most of these were built at the Junkers works at Dessau, but a small number were assembled at Junkers Swedish subsidiary AB Flygindustri at Limhamn near Malmö and in the USSR. The Swedish plant had set up in the early 1920s to avoid the post-war restrictions on aircraft building. The Russian works at Fili near Moscow was used initially to build the H21, there were over 30 W33 variants, so only a few are listed below. The first two W33 prototypes competed very soon after their first flights at the Deutschen Seeflug seaplane competition at Warnemünde in July 1926, the first prototype W33, D-921, flew as no.7 and came second in the contest. The second prototype, a W 33a, flew as no.8, W 33s were used by many operators across the world in the late 1920s and 1930s. They served as transports and specialised mailplanes. Deutsche Luft Hansa had only four, which ran mail from 1929, others were used as survey aircraft and crop-sprayers. Later, the Luftwaffe used some as trainers, the Colombian Air Force used Junkers W33, W34 and K43 in the Colombia-Peru War. The Ethiopian Air Force had one W 33c during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, One Junkers W 33g was used by the Swedish Air Force from 1933-5 as an air ambulance and known as the transport type Trp2
16.
Dessau
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Dessau is a city in Germany on the junction of the rivers Mulde and Elbe, in the Bundesland of Saxony-Anhalt. Since 1 July 2007, it is part of the new city of Dessau-Roßlau, Dessau is situated on a floodplain where the Mulde flows into the Elbe. The worst flood took place in the year 2002, when the Waldersee district was completely flooded. The south of Dessau touches a well-wooded area called Mosigkauer Heide, the highest elevation is a 110m high former rubbish dump called Scherbelberg in the southwest of Dessau. Dessau is surrounded by parks and palaces that ranks Dessau as one of the greenest towns in Germany. Dessau was first mentioned in 1213 and it became an important centre in 1570, when the Principality of Anhalt was founded. Dessau became the capital of state within the Holy Roman Empire. Anhalt was dissolved In 1603 it was split into four – later five – Anhalts, in 1863 two of the noble line died out, and became reunited. Dessau is famous for its college of architecture Bauhaus and it moved here in 1925 after it had been forced to close in Weimar. Many famous artists were lecturers in Dessau in the years, among them Walter Gropius, Paul Klee. The Nazis forced the closure of the Bauhaus in 1931, the city was almost completely destroyed by Allied air raids in World War II on March 7,1945, six weeks before American troops occupied the town. Afterwards it was rebuilt with typical GDR concrete slab architecture and became an industrial centre of East Germany. Since German reunification in 1990 many historic buildings have been restored, the composer Kurt Weill was born in Dessau. Since 1993 the city has hosted an annual Kurt Weill Festival, Dessau was also the birthplace of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, and Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, a lauded field marshal for the Kingdom of Prussia. Since January 7,2005, Dessau has gained notoriety for the death of Sierra Leonean convicted drug trafficker. According to local police, Jalloh, who was drunk and had tied to his bed because he was volatile and violent, set his own mattress on fire. A local court acquitted officers in 2008, in 2010, however, a higher federal court declared the ruling null and void, and ordered a new investigation and trial be launched. The Bauhaus College itself was constructed based on designs by Walter Adolph Georg Gropius, Dessau Hauptbahnhof has connections to Magdeburg, Berlin, Leipzig, Halle, Bitterfeld and Lutherstadt Wittenberg
17.
Duralumin
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Duralumin is the trade name of one of the earliest types of age-hardenable aluminium alloys. Its use as a name is obsolete, and today the term is mainly used to describe aluminium–copper alloys. In addition to aluminium, the main materials constituting duralumin are copper, manganese, composition of Duralumin are as follows, - Aluminium-95% Copper-4% Magnesium-0. 5% Manganese-0. 5% Duralumin was developed by the German metallurgist Alfred Wilm at Dürener Metallwerke AG. In 1903, Wilm discovered that after quenching, an alloy containing 4% copper would slowly harden when left at room temperature for several days. Further improvements led to the introduction of duralumin in 1909. S, navy airships USS Los Angeles, USS Akron and USS Macon. Its composition and heat treatment were a wartime secret, Duralumin also is popular for use in precision tools such as levels because of its light weight and strength. Duralumin, its composition and heat treatment, was published in the German scientific literature before World War I. Despite this, it was not adopted beyond Germany until after World War I, reports of German use during World War I, even in such erudite technical journals as Flight, could still mis-identify its key alloying component as magnesium rather than copper. Only after the war did interest begin in its use in the UK, only the covered wings and tubular fuselage framework of the J3 were ever completed, before the project was abandoned. The slightly later Junkers J. I low-wing monoplane fighter, introducing all-duralumin aircraft structural technology to German military aviation in 1918, although the addition of copper improves strength, it also makes these alloys susceptible to corrosion. For sheet products, corrosion resistance can be enhanced by metallurgical bonding of a high-purity aluminium surface layer. These sheets are referred to as alclad, and are used by the aircraft industry. Aluminium alloyed with copper, which can be hardened, are designated by the International Alloy Designation System as the 2000 series. Typical uses for wrought Al-Cu alloys include,2011, Wire, rod, applications where good machinability and good strength are required. 2014, Heavy-duty forgings, plate, and extrusions for aircraft fittings, wheels, applications requiring high strength and hardness including service at elevated temperatures. 2017 or Avional, Around 1% Si, acceptable resistance to corrosion in air and mechanical properties. Used for aircraft applications between the wars in France and Italy, also saw some use in motor-racing applications from the 1960s, as it is a tolerant alloy that could be press-formed with relatively unsophisticated equipment. 2024, Aircraft structures, rivets, hardware, truck wheels, screw machine products,2036, Sheet for auto body panels
18.
Junkers D.I
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The Junkers D. I was a monoplane fighter aircraft produced in Germany late in World War I, significant for becoming the first all-metal fighter to enter service. The prototype, a venture by Junkers designated the J7, first flew on 17 September 1917. When it was demonstrated to the Idflieg early the year it proved impressive enough to result in an order for three additional aircraft for trials. However, the changes made by Junkers were significant enough for the firm to redesignate the next example the J9, which was supplied to the Idflieg instead of the three J 7s ordered. During tests, the J9 lacked the maneuverability necessary for a fighter, but was judged fit for a naval fighter. These were supplied to a unit by September 1918, which then redeployed to the Eastern Front after the Armistice. Several replicas have been built, including one on display at the Luftwaffenmuseum Berlin-Gatow, the Way to the Worlds First All-Metal Fighter. Kay, Anthony L. Junkers Aircraft and engines 1913-1945, taylor, Michael J. H. Janes Encyclopedia of Aviation. Fokker D. VII, Halberstadt CL. IV and Junkers D. I Junkers D. I at Musée de lAir et de lEspace, Le Bourget
19.
Cantilever
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A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at only one end to a support from which it is protruding. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs, when subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies, in cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a truss bridge. A cantilever in a timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay. In the southern United States a historic barn type is the barn of log construction. Temporary cantilevers are used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built. So some truss arch bridges are built each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages, many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support and these structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies, the East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed, the largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford Football Ground uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field, the old, now demolished Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilever in Europe is located at St James Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing radio towers without guy-wires, and chimneys, which resist being blown over by the wind through cantilever action at their base. Another use of the cantilever is in fixed-wing aircraft design, pioneered by Hugo Junkers in 1915, early aircraft wings typically bore their loads by using two wings in a biplane configuration braced with wires and struts. They were similar to bridges, having been developed by Octave Chanute. The wings were braced with crossed wires so they would stay parallel, the cables and struts generated considerable drag, and there was constant experimentation for ways to eliminate them
20.
Fuselage
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The fuselage is an aircrafts main body section. It holds crew, passengers, and cargo, the fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, which is required for aircraft stability and maneuverability. This type of structure is still in use in lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form an aerodynamic shape. Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions and this proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types, the geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the completed the aerodynamic shell. The logical evolution of this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form of this was built using molded plywood, a later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II, no plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The use of molded fiberglass using negative molds is prevalent in the production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to large aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. This is the method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the shape of the cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers and these are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring, controls
21.
Spar (aeronautics)
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In a fixed-wing aircraft, the spar is often the main structural member of the wing, running spanwise at right angles to the fuselage. The spar carries flight loads and the weight of the wings while on the ground, other structural and forming members such as ribs may be attached to the spar or spars, with stressed skin construction also sharing the loads where it is used. There may be more than one spar in a wing or none at all, however, where a single spar carries the majority of the forces on it, it is known as the main spar. Spars are also used in other aircraft aerofoil surfaces such as the tailplane and fin and serve a similar function, the wing spar provides the majority of the weight support and dynamic load integrity of cantilever monoplanes, often coupled with the strength of the wing D box itself. Together, these two structural components collectively provide the wing rigidity needed to enable the aircraft to fly safely, some of the forces acting on a wing spar are, Upward bending loads resulting from the wing lift force that supports the fuselage in flight. These forces are often offset by carrying fuel in the wings or employing wing-tip-mounted fuel tanks, downward bending loads while stationary on the ground due to the weight of the structure, fuel carried in the wings, and wing-mounted engines if used. Drag loads dependent on airspeed and inertia, chordwise twisting loads due to aerodynamic effects at high airspeeds often associated with washout, and the use of ailerons resulting in control reversal. Further twisting loads are induced by changes of thrust settings to underwing-mounted engines, the D box construction is beneficial to reduce wing twisting. Early aircraft used spars often carved from solid spruce or ash, wooden spars are still being used in light aircraft such as the Robin DR400 and its relatives. Even in modern times, homebuilt aircraft such as the replica Spitfires use laminated wooden spars. These spars are laminated usually from spruce or douglas fir, a number of enthusiasts build replica Spitfires that will actually fly using a variety of engines relative to the size of the aircraft. Larger aircraft using this method of construction may have the spar caps sealed to provide integral fuel tanks. Fatigue of metal wing spars has been a causal factor in aviation accidents. A design aspect of the Supermarine Spitfire wing that greatly to its success was an innovative spar boom design. Two of these booms were linked together by a web, creating a lightweight. A version of this construction method is also used in the BD-5. Many modern aircraft use carbon fibre and Kevlar in their construction, of note are the developments made by Scaled Composites and the German glider manufacturers Schempp-Hirth and Schleicher. These companies initially employed solid fibreglass spars in their designs but now often use carbon fibre in their high performance gliders such as the ASG29, the increase in strength and reduction in weight compared to the earlier fibreglass-sparred aircraft allows a greater quantity of water ballast to be carried
22.
Aileron
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An aileron is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll, movement around this axis is called rolling or banking. The aileron was first patented by the British scientist and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton in 1868, considerable litigation ensued within the United States over the legal issues of lateral roll control, until World War I which compelled the U. S. Government to legislate a legal resolution. The name aileron, from French, meaning wing, also refers to the extremities of a birds wings used to control their flight. It first appeared in print in the 7th edition of Cassells French-English Dictionary of 1877, in the context of powered airplanes it appears in print about 1908. Prior to that, ailerons were often referred to as rudders, their older technical sibling, among the earliest printed aeronautical use of aileron was that in the French aviation journal LAérophile of 1908. He was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868, Boultons description of his lateral flight control system was both clear and complete. It was the first record we have of appreciation of the necessity for active lateral control as distinguished from, with this invention of Boultons we have the birth of the present-day three torque method of airborne control as was praised by Charles Manly. This was also endorsed by C. H, the fact that the Wright brothers were able to gain a patent in 1906 did not invalidate Boultons lost and forgotten invention. The pioneering U. S. aeronautical engineer Octave Chanute published descriptions and drawings of the Wright brothers 1902 glider in the leading periodical of the day, LAérophile. This prompted Esnault-Pelterie, a French military engineer, to build a Wright-style glider in 1904 that used ailerons in lieu of wing warping. The French journal L’Aérophile then published photos of the ailerons on Esnault-Pelterie’s glider which were included in his June 1905 article, during the early years of powered flight the Wrights had better roll control on their designs than airplanes that used movable surfaces. From 1908, as aileron designs were refined it became clear that ailerons were much more effective, ailerons also had the advantage of not weakening the airplanes wing structure as did the wing warping technique, which was one reason for Esnault-Pelteries decision to switch to ailerons. By 1911 most biplanes used ailerons rather than wing warping - by 1915 ailerons had become almost universal on monoplanes as well, the Wright brothers quietly changed their aircraft flight controls from wing warping to the use of ailerons at that time as well. In 1886 his third glider design used rotation of the wing rather than just a trailing edge portion for roll control. By his own all of these changes in addition to his use of an elevator for pitch control provided entire control of the machine in the wind. Both Bullet prototypes crashed during their first flights when their wings broke off in flight due to flutter as a result of being deliberately unbraced. S, the patents importance lay in its claim of a new and useful method of controlling an airplane. Curiously, John J. Montgomery was granted U. S, Patent 831173 at nearly the same time for his methods of wing warping
23.
Flap (aeronautics)
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Flaps are a type of high-lift device used to increase the lift of an aircraft wing at a given airspeed. Flaps are usually mounted on the trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used to lower the speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown. Flaps also cause an increase in drag, so they are retracted when not needed, extending the wing flaps increases the camber or curvature of the wing, raising the maximum lift coefficient or the upper limit to the lift a wing can generate. The increase in camber also increases the drag, which can be beneficial during approach and landing. In other configurations, however, depending on the type of flap, plain flaps, slotted flaps, and Fowler flaps are the most common. Krueger flaps are positioned on the edge of the wings and are used on many jet airliners. The Fowler, Fairey-Youngman and Gouge types of flap increase the area in addition to changing the camber. The larger lifting surface reduces wing loading, hence reducing the stalling speed. Leading-edge flaps form the leading edge and when deployed they rotate down to increase the wing camber. The de Havilland DH.88 Comet racer had flaps running across beneath the fuselage, many of the Waco Custom Cabin series biplanes have the flaps at mid-chord on the underside of the top wing. Here, it can be seen that increasing the area and lift coefficient allow an amount of lift to be generated at a lower airspeed. Extending the flaps also increases the coefficient of the aircraft. Therefore, for any given weight and airspeed, flaps increase the drag force, flaps increase the drag coefficient of an aircraft due to higher induced drag caused by the distorted spanwise lift distribution on the wing with flaps extended. Some flaps increase the area and, for any given speed. Depending on the type, flaps may be partially extended for takeoff. When used during takeoff, flaps trade runway distance for climb rate—using flaps reduces ground roll, the amount of flap used on takeoff is specific to each type of aircraft, and the manufacturer will suggest limits and may indicate the reduction in climb rate to be expected. The Cessna 172S Pilot Operating Handbook generally recommends 10° of flaps on takeoff, flaps may be fully extended for landing to give the aircraft a lower stall speed so the approach to landing can be flown more slowly, which also allows the aircraft to land in a shorter distance
24.
Tailplane
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Not all fixed-wing aircraft have tailplanes. The function of the tailplane is to provide stability and control, in particular, the tailplane helps adjust for changes in the center of pressure or center of gravity caused by changes in speed and attitude, fuel consumption, or dropping cargo or payload. The tailplane comprises the fixed horizontal stabiliser and movable elevator. Besides its planform, it is characterised by, Number of tailplanes - from 0 to 3 Location of tailplane - mounted high, mid or low on the fuselage, fixed stabilizer and movable elevator surfaces, or a single combined stabilator or flying tail. This means that any disturbance which raises the nose produces a pitching moment which tends to raise the nose further. The longitudinal stability of an aircraft may change when it is flown hands-off, i. e. when the controls are subject to aerodynamic forces. In addition to giving a restoring force a tailplane gives damping and this is caused by the relative wind seen by the tail as the aircraft rotates around the center of mass. For example, when the aircraft is oscillating, but is aligned with the overall vehicles motion. Depending on the design and flight regime, its tailplane may create positive lift or negative lift. It is sometimes assumed that on an aircraft this will always be a net down force. On some pioneer designs, such as the Bleriot XI, the center of gravity was between the center of pressure from the wings and the tailplane, which provided positive lift. However this arrangement can be unstable and these often had severe handling issues. Later examples of aircraft from World War I and onwards into the years that had positive lift tailplanes include, chronologically. But with care a lifting tailplane can be made stable, an example is provided by the Bachem Ba 349 Natter VTOL rocket-powered interceptor, which had a lifting tail and was both stable and controllable in flight. In many modern aircraft, the center of gravity is placed ahead of the center of pressure of the main wing. The wing lift then exerts a pitch-down moment around the centre of gravity, a disadvantage is that it generates trim drag. Using a computer to control the elevator allows aerodynamically unstable aircraft to be flown in the same manner, aircraft such as the F-16 are flown with artificial stability. The advantage of this is a significant reduction drag caused by the tailplane, at transonic speeds, an aircraft can experience a shift rearwards in the center of pressure due to the buildup and movement of shockwaves
25.
Elevator (aeronautics)
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Elevators are flight control surfaces, usually at the rear of an aircraft, which control the aircrafts pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and the lift of the wing. The elevators are usually hinged to the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer and they may be the only pitch control surface present, sometimes located at front or integrated into a rear all-moving tailplane also called a slab elevator or stabilator. The effects of drag and engine thrust may also result in pitch moments that need to be compensated with the horizontal stabilizer, both the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator contribute to pitch stability, but only the elevators provide pitch control. They do so by decreasing or increasing the force created by the stabilizer, an increased downward force, produced by up elevator, forces the tail down. At constant speed, the wing angle of attack causes a greater lift to be produced by the wing, accelerating the aircraft upwards. The drag and power demand also increase, a downward force at the tail, produced by down elevator, allows the tail to rise. At constant speed, the decrease in angle of attack reduces the lift, on many low-speed aircraft, a trim tab is present at the rear of the elevator, which the pilot can adjust to eliminate forces on the control column at the desired attitude and airspeed. Supersonic aircraft have all-moving tailplanes, because shock waves generated on the horizontal stabilizer greatly reduced the effectiveness of hinged elevators, delta winged aircraft combine ailerons and elevators –and their respective control inputs– into one control surface called elevon. Elevators are usually part of the tail, at the rear of an aircraft, in some aircraft, pitch-control surfaces are in the front, ahead of the wing, in a two-surface aircraft, this type of configuration is called a canard or a tandem wing. The Wright Brothers early aircraft were of type, Mignet Pou-du-Ciel. Some early three surface aircraft had front elevators, modern three surface aircraft may have both front and rear elevators and these may be used in many unmanned aerial vehicles and 6th generation fighter aircraft. Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics, in flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing is a NASA effort, the Adaptive Compliant Wing is a military and commercial effort. In this use, fluidics promises lower mass, costs, and very low inertia and response times, and simplicity
26.
Cockpit
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A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft. Most modern cockpits are enclosed, except on small aircraft. The cockpit of an aircraft flight instruments on an instrument panel. In most airliners, a separates the cockpit from the aircraft cabin. After the September 11,2001 attacks, all major airlines fortified their cockpits against access by hijackers, the word cockpit was originally a sailing term for the coxswains station in a Royal Navy ship, and later the location of the ships rudder controls. Cockpit first appeared in the English language in the 1580s, a pit for fighting cocks, used in nautical sense for midshipmens compartment below decks, transferred to airplanes and to cars. From about 1935, cockpit came to be used informally to refer to the seat of a car, especially a high performance one. In the US and many countries, however, the term cockpit is also used for airliners. Military biplanes and the first single-engined fighters and attack aircraft also had open cockpits, the largest impediment to having closed cabins was the material the windows were to be made of. Prior to Perspex becoming available in 1933, windows were either safety glass, which was heavy, or cellulose nitrate, in the mid-1920s many aircraft manufacturers began using enclosed cockpits for the first time. Open-cockpit airplanes were almost extinct by the mid-1950s, with the exception of training planes, crop-dusters, Cockpit windows may be equipped with a sun shield. Most cockpits have windows that can be opened when the aircraft is on the ground, nearly all glass windows in large aircraft have an anti-reflective coating, and an internal heating element to melt ice. Smaller aircraft may be equipped with a transparent aircraft canopy, in most cockpits the pilots control column or joystick is located centrally, although in some military fast jets the side-stick is located on the right hand side. In some commercial airliners both pilots use a side-stick located on the side, so Captains side-stick on the left. Except for some helicopters, the seat in the cockpit of an aircraft is the seat used by the co-pilot. The captain or pilot in command sits in the seat, so that he can operate the throttles. The tradition has maintained to this day, with the co-pilot on the right hand side. The layout of the cockpit, especially in the military fast jet, has undergone standardisation, One of the most important developments was the Basic Six pattern, later the Basic T, developed from 1937 onwards by the Royal Air Force, designed to optimise pilot instrument scanning
27.
Landing gear
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Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally both, for aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Faster aircraft usually have retractable undercarriages, which folds away during flight to reduce air resistance or drag, for launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the landing gear is typically designed to support the vehicle only post-flight, and are typically not used for takeoff or surface movement. Aircraft landing gear usually includes wheels equipped with shock absorbers, or more advanced air/oil oleo struts, for runway. Some aircraft are equipped with skis for snow or floats for water, the undercarriage is a relatively heavy part of the vehicle, it can be as much as 7% of the takeoff weight, but more typically is 4–5%. The taildragger arrangement was common during the early era, as it allows more room for propeller clearance. Most modern aircraft have tricycle undercarriages, taildraggers are considered harder to land and take off, and usually require special pilot training. Sometimes a small wheel or skid is added to aircraft with tricycle undercarriage. Concorde, for instance, had a tail bumper wheel. Both Boeinga largest WW II bomber, the B-29 Superfortress and the 1960s-introduction Boeing 727 trijet airliner each have a tail bumper. Some aircraft with conventional landing gear have a fixed tailwheel. Another arrangement sometimes used is central main and nose gear with outriggers on the wings and this may be done where there is no convenient location on either side to attach the main undercarriage or to store it when retracted. Examples include the Lockheed U-2 spy plane and the Harrier Jump Jet, to decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels flush against the surface or concealed behind doors, this is called retractable gear. If the wheels rest protruding and partially exposed to the airstream after being retracted, most retraction systems are hydraulically operated, though some are electrically operated or even manually operated. This adds weight and complexity to the design, in retractable gear systems, the compartment where the wheels are stowed are called wheel wells, which may also diminish valuable cargo or fuel space. Pilots confirming that their landing gear is down and locked refer to three green or three in the green, a reference to the electrical indicator lights from the nosewheel/tailwheel and the two main gears. Red lights indicate the gear is in the position, amber lights indicate that the landing gear is in transit. Multiple redundancies are usually provided to prevent a failure from failing the entire landing gear extension process
28.
Aircraft fairing
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An aircraft fairing is a structure whose primary function is to produce a smooth outline and reduce drag. These structures are covers for gaps and spaces between parts of an aircraft to form drag and interference drag, and to improve appearance. On aircraft, fairings are commonly found on, Cockpit fairing Also called a cockpit pod, commonly made from fiberglass, it may also incorporate a windshield. Elevator and horizontal stabilizer tips Elevator and stabilizer tips fairings smooth out airflow at the tips, the inlet and the nozzle in combination lead to an isotropic speed reduction around the cooling fins and due to the speed-squared law to a reduction in cooling drag. Fin and rudder tips fairings reduce drag at low angles of attack, fillets smooth the airflow at the junction between two components like fuselage and wing, or fuselage and fin. Fixed landing gear junctions Landing gear fairings reduce drag at these junctions, flap track fairings Most jet airliners have a cruising speed between Mach 0.8 and 0.85. For aircraft operating in the regime, wave drag can be minimized by having a cross-sectional area which changes smoothly along the length of the aircraft. This is known as the area rule, on subsonic aircraft such as jet airliners, this can be achieved by the addition of smooth pods on the trailing edges of the wings. These pods are known as anti-shock bodies, Küchemann Carrots, or flap track fairings, spinner To cover and streamline the propeller hub. Strut-to-wing and strut-to-fuselage junctions Strut end fairings reduce drag at these junctions, Tail cones Tail cones reduce the form drag of the fuselage, by recovering the pressure behind it. For the design speed they add no friction drag, Wing root Wing roots are often faired to reduce interference drag between the wing and the fuselage. On top and below the wing it consists of small rounded edge to reduce the surface, Wing tips Wing tips are often formed as complex shapes to reduce vortex generation and so also drag, especially at low speed. Wheels on fixed gear aircraft Wheel fairings are often called wheel pants, speed fairings or, in the UK and they also have the important function of preventing mud and stones from being thrown upwards against the wings or fuselage, or into the propeller on a pusher craft. Bicycle fairing Motorcycle fairing Payload fairing
29.
V12 engine
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By using split crankpins or ignoring minor vibrations, any V angle is possible. The 180° configuration is referred to as a flat-twelve engine or a boxer although it is in reality a 180° V since the pistons can. This is not important in a car if all-out performance is the only goal. Since cost and fuel economy are usually important even in luxury and racing cars and it is often used in marine engines where great power is required, and the hull width is limited, but a longer vessel allows faster hull speed. In twin-propeller boats, two V12 engines can be enough to sit side-by-side, while three V12 engines are sometimes used in high-speed three-propeller configurations. Large, fast cruise ships can have six or more V12 engines, after World War II, the compact, more powerful, and vibration-free turboprop and turbojet engines replaced the V12 in aircraft applications. The first V-type engine was built in 1889 by Daimler, to a design by Wilhelm Maybach, by 1903 V8 engines were being produced for motor boat racing by the Société Antoinette to designs by Léon Levavasseur, building on experience gained with in-line four-cylinder engines. In 1904, the Putney Motor Works completed a new V12 marine racing engine—the first V12 engine produced for any purpose, a single camshaft mounted in the central V operated the valves directly. As in many engines, the camshaft could be slid longitudinally to engage a second set of cams. Starting is by pumping a charge into each cylinder and switching on the trembler coils, a sliding camshaft gave direct reversing. The camshaft has fluted webs and main bearings in graduated thickness from the largest at the flywheel end, displacing 1,120 cu in, the engine weighed 950 pounds and developed 150 bhp. Little is known of the achievements in the 40-foot hull for which it was intended. One V12 Dörwald marine engine was still running in a Hong Kong junk in the late-1960s. Two more V12s appeared in the 1909-1910 motor boat racing season, the Lamb Boat & Engine Company of Clinton, Iowa built a 1,559 cu in engine for the companys 32-foot Lamb IV. It weighed in at 2,114 pounds, no weight is known for the massive 3,464 cu in F-head engine built by the Orleans Motor Company. Output is quoted as nearly 400 bhp, by 1914, when Panhard built two 2,356 cu in engines with four-valve cylinder heads the V12 was well established in motor boat racing. In October 1913, Louis Coatalen, chief engineer of the Sunbeam Motor Car Company entered a V12 powered car in the Brooklands short, the engine displaced 9 L, with bore and stroke of 80 x 150 mm. An aluminum crankcase carried two blocks of three cylinders each along each side, with a 60 degree included angle, the cylinders were of iron, with integral cylinder heads with L-shaped combustion chambers
30.
Prototype
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A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics. A prototype is used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one, in some design workflow models, creating a prototype is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, primitive form, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, original, primitive, from πρῶτος protos, first and τύπος typos, a Working Prototype represents all or nearly all of the functionality of the final product. A Visual Prototype represents the size and appearance, but not the functionality, a User Experience Prototype represents enough of the appearance and function of the product that it can be used for user research. A Functional Prototype captures both function and appearance of the design, though it may be created with different techniques. A Paper Prototype is a printed or hand-drawn representation of the interface of a software product. In some cases, the final production materials may still be undergoing development themselves, process - Mass-production processes are often unsuitable for making a small number of parts, so prototypes may be made using different fabrication processes than the final product. Differences in fabrication process may lead to differences in the appearance of the prototype as compared to the final product, verification - The final product may be subject to a number of quality assurance tests to verify conformance with drawings or specifications. These tests may involve custom inspection fixtures, statistical sampling methods, prototypes are generally made with much closer individual inspection and the assumption that some adjustment or rework will be part of the fabrication process. Prototypes may also be exempted from some requirements that apply to the final product. Engineers and prototype specialists will attempt to minimize the impact of these differences on the role for the prototype. Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design and it is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the design may have been sound. In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and it is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. As an alternative, rapid prototyping or rapid application development techniques are used for the prototypes, which implement part
31.
Radial engine
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The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders radiate outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a star when viewed from the front, and is called a star engine in some languages. The radial configuration was very commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant, instead, the pistons are connected to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod assembly. One piston, the uppermost one in the animation, has a rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods attachments to rings around the edge of the master rod, extra rows of radial cylinders can be added in order to increase the capacity of the engine without adding to its diameter. Four-stroke radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order can be maintained, for example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is 1,3,5,2,4 and back to cylinder 1. Moreover, this leaves a one-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps compress the next cylinder to fire, if an even number of cylinders were used, an equally timed firing cycle would not be feasible. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types, as with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the four strokes of each piston. The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the direction to the crankshaft. The cam lobes are placed in two rows for the intake and exhaust, for the example, four cam lobes serve all five cylinders, whereas 10 would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves. C. M. Manly constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, manlys engine produced 52 hp at 950 rpm. This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops, another early radial engine was the three-cylinder Anzani, originally built as a W3 fan configuration, one of which powered Louis Blériots Blériot XI across the English Channel. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the engine design in 1909, offering it to the Salmson company. It was similar in concept to the radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a factor with the early stationary radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow. Most German aircraft of the time used water-cooled inline 6-cylinder engines, in the early 1920s Le Rhône converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines. By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the inline engine
32.
Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet
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The Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet was a widely used aircraft engine. Developed by Pratt & Whitney,2,944 were produced from 1926 through 1942 and it was a single-row, 9-cylinder air-cooled radial design. It was built under licence in Italy as the Fiat A.59, in Germany, the BMW132 was a developed version of this engine. The R-1860 Hornet B was a version produced from 1929. Licence built in Italy with reduction gearing and supercharger, BMW Hornet Licence production of the Hornet in Germany, independently developed as the BMW132. World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 5th Edition, phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, England, UK, Sutton Publishing Limited
33.
BMW 132
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The BMW132 was a nine-cylinder radial aircraft engine produced by BMW starting in 1933. BMW took over the license for manufacturing air-cooled radial engines from Pratt & Whitney on 3 January 1928, the nine-cylinder model Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet was initially manufactured virtually unchanged under the designation BMW Hornet. Soon BMW embarked on its own development, the result was the BMW132 that went into production in 1933, which was essentially an improved version of the Hornet engine. A number of different versions were built, aside from the carburetor designs used mainly in civilian aircraft, versions with direct fuel injection were manufactured for the German Luftwaffe. The engines had a displacement of 27.7 L and generated up to 960 PS depending on model, numerous pioneering flights were undertaken with the BMW132. The most impressive was the first direct flight from Berlin to New York in a Focke-Wulf 200 S-1 Condor equipped with four BMW132 engines
34.
Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp
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The Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp was an aircraft engine of the reciprocating type that was widely used in American aircraft from the 1920s onward. It was the Pratt & Whitney aircraft companys first engine, and it was a single-row, nine-cylinder, air-cooled, radial design, and displaced 1,344 cubic inches, bore and stroke were both 5.75 in. A total of 34,966 engines were produced, as well as numerous types of fixed-wing aircraft, it was used to power helicopters, the Agusta-Bell AB.102 and the Sikorsky H-19, and a class of airship, the K-class blimp. In 2016, it received designation as a Historic Engineering Landmark from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, note, R for Radial and 1340 for 1340 cubic inch displacement. Type, Nine-cylinder single-row supercharged air-cooled radial engine Bore,5.75 in Stroke,5.75 in Displacement,1,344 in3 Diameter,51.45 hp/in³ Compression ratio,6,1 Power-to-weight ratio,0. Pratt & Whitneys R-1340 page There is a Pratt & Whitney 1340N Radial Engine in use on a T-6 Texan at Pacific Warbirds, Oahu, HI
35.
Bristol Pegasus
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The Bristol Pegasus is a British nine-cylinder, single-row, air-cooled radial aero engine. Designed by Roy Fedden of the Bristol Aeroplane Company it was used to both civil and military aircraft of the 1930s and 1940s. Developed from the earlier Mercury and Jupiter engines, later variants could produce 1,000 horsepower from its capacity of 1,750 cubic inches by use of a geared supercharger. Further developments of the Pegasus created the fuel-injected Bristol Draco and the diesel cycle Bristol Phoenix, in contrast, by the end of production over 30,000 Pegasus engines had been built. Aircraft applications ranged from single-engine biplanes to the four-engined Short Sandringham, several altitude and distance records were set by aircraft using the Pegasus. The Pegasus was designed by Sir Roy Fedden as the follow-on to the Bristol Aeroplane Companys very successful Bristol Jupiter, using lessons learned in development of the Mercury. The power of an engine can be calculated by multiplying the charge per cylinder by the number of cycles per second. The primary advantage was a much improved power-to-weight ratio due to volumetric efficiency. This gave rise to the one pound per horsepower reflecting the excellent power-to-weight ratio. Some notable users of the Pegasus were the Fairey Swordfish, Vickers Wellington and it was also used on the Anbo 41, Bristol Bombay, Saro London, Short Empire, Vickers Wellesley and the Westland Wallace. Like the Jupiter before it, the Pegasus was also licensed by the PZL company in Poland and it was used on the PZL.23 Karaś and PZL.37 Łoś bombers. In Italy Alfa Romeo built both the Jupiter and the Pegasus under licence, with the based on the Pegasus designated as the Alfa Romeo 126-RC34 with the civil version as the 126-RC10. In Czechoslovakia it was built by Walter Engines and was known as the Pegas, approximately 32,000 Pegasus engines were built. The Pegasus set three records in the Bristol Type 138, in 1932,1936 and 1937. It was used for the first flight over Mount Everest in the Westland Wallace, the Pegasus was produced in many variants, early prototype engines were unsupercharged but the majority used a geared supercharger, either single-speed or two-speed. Variant differences included compression ratios, propeller reduction gear ratios and accessories, note, Bristol Pegasus engines can be viewed installed in aircraft at the Royal Air Force Museum London and the Imperial War Museum Duxford. An unrestored Pegasus recovered from the sea bed is in the care of the Bristol Aero Collection, there is also an engine on display at the Brooklands Museum at Weybridge. As of October 2010 two Bristol Pegasus engines remain airworthy in England and they power the two Fairey Swordfish aircraft operated by the Royal Navy Historic Flight
36.
Chord (aeronautics)
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In aeronautics, chord refers to the imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil. The chord length is the distance between the edge and the point on the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge. The point on the edge that is used to define the chord can be defined as either the surface point of minimum radius. The wing, horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer and propeller of an aircraft are all based on sections. The chord of a wing, stabilizer and propeller is determined by measuring the distance between leading and trailing edges in the direction of the airflow, the term chord is also applied to the width of wing flaps, ailerons and rudder on an aircraft. The term is applied to aerofoils in gas turbine engines such as turbojet, turboprop. Most wings are not rectangular so they have a different chord at different positions along their span, to give a characteristic figure that can be compared among various wing shapes, the mean aerodynamic chord, or MAC, is used. The MAC is somewhat complex to calculate, because most wings vary in chord over the span. This means that lift is generated on the wider inner portions. Standard mean chord is defined as wing area divided by wing span, SMC = S b, thus, the SMC is the chord of a rectangular wing with the same area and span as those of the given wing. This is a geometric figure and is rarely used in aerodynamics. Mean aerodynamic chord is defined as, MAC =2 S ∫0 b 2 c 2 d y, other terms are as for SMC. The MAC is a representation of the whole wing. The pressure distribution over the wing can be reduced to a single lift force on. Therefore, not only the length but also the position of MAC is often important. In particular, the position of center of mass of an aircraft is measured relative to the MAC. Note that the figure to the right implies that the MAC occurs at a point where leading or trailing edge sweep changes, in general, this is not the case. Any shape other than a simple trapezoid requires evaluation of the above integral, the ratio of the length of a rectangular-planform wing to its chord is known as the aspect ratio, an important indicator of the lift-induced drag the wing will create
37.
Townend ring
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A Townend Ring is a narrow-chord cowling ring fitted around the cylinders of an aircraft radial engine to reduce drag and improve cooling. The Townend ring was the invention of Dr. Hubert Townend of the British National Physical Laboratory in 1929, patents were supported by Boulton & Paul Ltd in 1929. In the United States it was called a drag ring. It caused a reduction in the drag of radial engines and was used in high-speed designs of 1930-1935 before the long-chord NACA cowling came into general use. Examples of aeroplanes with Townend rings were the Douglas O-38, Vickers Wellesley, the Westland Wallace, early claims portrayed it as a superior design to the NACA cowling, but later comparisons proved aircraft performance worse when using a Townend ring at airspeeds above 250 mph. The Spotters Glossary North, J D, Engine Cowling, With Special Reference to the Air-cooled Engine, The Aircraft Engineer,6, 133–137 North, J D, Engine Cowling, The Aircraft Engineer, IX No. 2, 174a–174f Engine Cowling, Flight, XXVI No
38.
Air-start system
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An air-start system is a power source used to provide the initial rotation to start large diesel and gas turbine engines. Compared to an engine, a Diesel engine has a very high compression ratio. An electric starter with sufficient power to crank a large Diesel engine would itself be so large as to be impractical, when starting the engine, compressed air is admitted to whichever cylinder has a piston just over top dead center, forcing it downward. As the engine starts to turn, the valve on the next cylinder in line opens to continue the rotation. After several rotations, fuel is injected into the cylinders, the engine starts running, after a successful blow ahead and a blow astern, the indicator cocks are closed on all the cylinders, and then the engine can be started on fuel. This added complexity and cost limits the use of air-starters to very large, another method of air-starting an internal combustion engine is by using compressed air or gas to drive a fluid motor in place of an electric motor. They can be used to start engines from 5 to 320 liters in size, starters of this type are used in place of electric motors because of their lighter weight and higher reliability. They can also outlast an electric starter by a factor of three and are easier to rebuild, engines operating in underground mining activities tend to operate on this type of starter system to reduce the risk of an electrical system igniting flammable material. Compressed air is provided to the system by bleed air from the auxiliary power unit or from an air compressor mounted on ground support equipment. Compared to electric starters, air-starters have a higher power-to-weight ratio, electric starters and their wiring can become excessively hot if it takes longer than expected to start the engine, while air-starters can be run as long as their air supply lasts. Turbine starters are much simpler and are a natural fit for turbine engines, AVPIN - A monofuel used to power turbojet starter motors. Coffman engine starter - A similar system uses an explosive cartridge to supply gas pressure
39.
Royal Aviation Museum of Western Canada
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The Royal Aviation Museum of Western Canada is a museum in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. It is the second largest aviation museum in Canada, the collection is housed in an original Trans-Canada Air Lines hangar dating from the 1930s. The Western Canada Aviation Museum was incorporated in 1974 for the preservation and promotion of Canadas aviation history, the museum received the Royal designation on 19 December 2014 to become The Royal Aviation Museum of Western Canada. A fully enclosed flight deck to watch the landings and takeoffs at Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport is one of the other attractions, Canadas first helicopter which was built by the Froebe brothers in Homewood, Manitoba. Avro CF-100 Canuck interceptor Avrocar - Replica of the secret Cold War flying saucer built by Avro Canada for the American military, beechcraft Expeditor - RCAF trainer and light transport Bellanca Aircruiser Eldorado Radium Silver Express - bushplane. Bristol Freighter - large twin engine cargo aircraft Canadair CL-84 - experimental VTOL aircraft, Canadian Vickers Vedette replica built from three wrecks of first aircraft designed for Canadian conditions. De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver - Canadian designed bushplane. de Havilland Tiger Moth RCAF BCATP biplane trainer, Fairchild Super 71 all metal bushplane. Fokker Super Universal bushplane Junkers Ju 52/1M modified as CF-ARM flown by Canadian Airways Ltd, known as the Flying Boxcar, this was the largest single-engine aircraft operated in North America. Lockheed Model 10 Electra - twin engine 1930s airliner McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo interceptor with training simulator, North American NA-64 Yale RCAF radio trainer. Vickers Viscount - airliner which operated from the hangar that now houses the Museum, in 2012, an exhibit displaying Canadas role in coastal patrol was opened. One item in the archives is a rare, five-minute film of Amelia Earhart embarking on her solo, trans-Atlantic flight from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, the library is open to the public on an appointment basis and photos, films, and audiotapes are loaned or copied on request. The Museum has an active Restoration Department and has returned many bent, a team of volunteers completed a full-scale replica of a Canadian Vickers Vedette Mark V aircraft in May 2002. Current projects include the restoration of a Bellanca Aircruiser, Fairchild Super 71, Waco, the Museum has facilitated the recovery of several aircraft, including the Ghost of Charron Lake - a Fokker Standard Universal that has taken more than 30 years to locate. It is currently in a recovery and retrieval phase, after which it will begin its restoration, the Museum is affiliated with the Canadian Museums Association, Canadian Heritage Information Network, and the Virtual Museum of Canada. Minnesota Aviation Hall of Fame List of aerospace museums List of Canadian organizations with royal prefix Official website
40.
Battle of Crete
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The Battle of Crete was fought during World War II on the Greek island of Crete. It began on the morning of 20 May 1941, when Nazi Germany began an invasion of Crete. Greek forces and other Allied forces, along with Cretan civilians, after one day of fighting, the Germans had suffered heavy casualties and the Allied troops were confident that they would defeat the invasion. Allied forces withdrew to the south coast, over half were evacuated by the British Royal Navy, the remainder surrendered or joined the Cretan resistance. In contrast, the Allies were impressed by the potential of paratroopers and started to form airborne-assault, British forces had initially garrisoned Crete when the Italians attacked Greece on 28 October 1940, enabling the Greek government to employ the Fifth Cretan Division in the mainland campaign. The Italians were repulsed, but the subsequent German invasion of April 1941, at the end of the month 57,000 Allied troops were evacuated by the Royal Navy. Some were sent to Crete to bolster its garrison until fresh forces could be organised, oberkommando des Heeres was preoccupied with Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union and was largely opposed to a German attack on Crete. The directive also stated that the operation was to be in May, before the invasion, the Germans conducted a bombing campaign to establish air superiority and forced the RAF to move its remaining aeroplanes to Alexandria. No RAF units were based permanently at Crete until April 1941 but airfield construction had begun, radar sites built, equipment was scarce in the Mediterranean and in the backwater of Crete. The British forces had seven commanders in seven months, in early April, airfields at Maleme and Heraklion and the landing strip at Retimo on the north coast were ready and another strip at Pediada-Kastelli was nearly finished. After the German invasion of Greece, the role of the Crete garrison changed from the defence of an anchorage to preparing to repel an invasion. On 17 April, Group Captain George Beamish was appointed Senior Air Officer, Crete, taking over from a Flight-Lieutenant whose duties and instructions had been only vaguely defined. The navy tried to deliver 27,000 long tons of supplies from 1–20 May 1941, but the Luftwaffe attacks forced most ships to turn back, and only 2,700 long tons of stores were delivered. In mid-May, the four squadrons had about 24 aircraft, of which twelve were serviceable, due to a lack of tools. The unfinished ground at Pediada-Kastelli was blocked with trenches and heaps of soil and all but narrow flight paths were blocked at Heraklion, at Maleme, blast pens were built for the aircraft, and barrels full of petrol were kept ready to be ignited by machine-gun fire. Around each ground, a few guns, anti-aircraft guns. The three areas were made into independent sectors, but there were only eight QF 3-inch and twenty Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns, on 30 April 1941, Major-General Bernard Freyberg VC a New Zealand Army officer, was appointed commander of the Allied forces on Crete. Cadets from the Gendarmerie academy and recruits from Greek training centres in the Peloponnese had been transferred to Crete, the British Commonwealth contingent consisted of the original 14, 000-man British garrison and another 25,000 British and Commonwealth troops evacuated from the mainland
41.
NACA cowling
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The NACA cowling is a type of aerodynamic fairing used to streamline radial engines for use on airplanes and developed by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1927. It was an advance in drag reduction, and paid for its development. The NACA cowling enhanced speed through drag reduction while delivering improved engine cooling, the cowling constitutes a symmetric, circular airfoil, in contrast to the planar airfoil of wings. It directs cool air to flow through the engine where it is routed across the engines hottest parts, that is, furthermore, turbulence after the air passes the free-standing cylinders is greatly reduced. The sum of all these effects reduces drag by as much as 60 percent, the test conclusions resulted in almost every radial-engined aircraft being equipped with this cowling, starting in 1932. NACA duct Townend ring Aeronautic exhibit in Smithsonian Institution, Washington, abstract of NACA TN301 report and. pdf file Archive of NACA reports 1917-1958
42.
MG 15
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The MG15 was a German 7.92 mm machine gun designed specifically as a hand manipulated defensive gun for combat aircraft during the early 1930s. By 1941 it was replaced by types and found new uses with ground troops. The MG15 was developed from the MG30 which was designed by Rheinmetall using the system invented by Louis Stange in the mid to late 1920s. Though it shares the MG15 designation with the earlier gun built by Bergmann, the World War I gun used a tipping lock system while the WWII aircraft gun uses a rotating bolt/lockring. The World War II MG15 was used in nearly all Luftwaffe aircraft with a flexible-mount defensive position and it was a modular design with various attachments that could be quickly attached or removed. Operation was easy and the bolt remained in the position after expending the 75 round double drum magazine. Pulling the trigger releases the bolt and allows it to go forward, the bolt continues pushing the round into the chamber and locks up when the lockring rotates and locks the bolt and barrel extension together. At this point the lever releases the firing pin and the gun fires. Recoil pushes the barrel, lock and bolt backwards until the lockring hits a cam that rotates it unlocking the bolt, inertia carries the bolt backwards until the base of the fired case hits the ejector flinging the empty out of the receiver. If the trigger is held down the cycle will continue, if the trigger is released the bolt will remain in the rearward position. The 75 rounds of ammunition was distributed in each side of the magazine with a central feed tower where the ammunition is fed to the bolt. Various methods where used to secure the magazines in the aircraft, ammunition was fed by a spring forced spiral double-drum containing 75 rounds total. This combined with a rate of 1000+ rpm means it could empty the magazine in 4.5 seconds or less. Typical practice was to provide at least 10 reloads for each gun on the aircraft, starting in late 1940 the MG15 was replaced by the Mauser 7.92 mm MG81, MG 81Z, MG13113 mm machine guns, or MG 151/2020 mm cannons. Many MG 15s were modified for use as heavier weapons replaced them on Luftwaffe aircraft. There are a number of showing the guns, both aircraft and ground versions, with 25-round magazines from the MG13 but the magazines dont actually work with the MG15. Official numbers of conversions was about 17,648 by January 1,1944, the license-produced MG15 was used in the Japanese aircraft as the Type 98 flexible-mounted machine gun and as the Type 1 in the Imperial Japanese Navy. 15, Manual for using MG15 owned by contributor Panzerfaust WW II German Infantry Anti-Tank Weapons Page 5, MG15 in private collection, forum site Imperial Japanese Weapons
43.
James Armstrong Richardson Sr.
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James Armstrong Richardson Sr. was an influential business person in Canada in both business and aviation during the early part of the 20th Century. He lived most of his life in Winnipeg, James Armstrong Richardson was born in Kingston, Ontario in 1885 to Agnes and George A. Richardson. He attended Queens and received his Bachelor of Arts in 1906, after graduation, Richardson entered the family business founded by his grandfather, James Richardson & Sons, at the time, one of Canadas greatest grain exporters. Richardson became vice president of the company in 1912 and its president in 1919, in 1923, Richardson quickly rose to prominence in the grain business and was elected President of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange. The later company, Canadian Airways was instrumental in creating an air system that was eventually incorporated into the fledgling Trans-Canada Air Lines. The backroom deals in 1937 that cut Canadian Airways out of the routes was said to have broken his heart. Richardson was the 6th Chancellor of Queens University, elected in 1929 and his daughter, Agnes Benidickson, would later become the first female Chancellor of Queens, and his son James Armstrong Richardson, would become a Cabinet minister in the government of Pierre Trudeau. In December 2006, the Winnipeg International Airport was renamed Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport in his honour. The main stadium at Queens University is named in honour of his brother, Captain George Taylor Richardson, a Queens alumnus, today, Richardson & Sons, Limited is a family-owned company that has expanded and developed into an international, multi-enterprise corporation. In 2009, Richardson Partners Financial merged with GMP Private Client to form Richardson GMP, Richardson presents FDR with an honorary degree,1938 FDR visit to Queens,1938 Notes Bibliography
44.
Canadian Airways
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Canadian Airways Limited was a Canadian regional passenger and freight air service based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. At its peak, Canadian Airways had a total of 51 aircraft of various types that both regular scheduled service between settlements as well as charter service to bush locations. Canadian Airways was absorbed into the fledgling Canadian Pacific Airlines in 1942, james Armstrong Richardson established Western Canada Airways in 1926 which was later to become Canadian Airways Limited. Over time, Richardson obtained 51 Aircraft and an assortment of top bush pilots and military pilots, all of which provided services, particularly cargo transport. Whether it was financing operations, hiring and selecting personnel or selecting the best equipment for operations in Canadas tricky climate and he was also in constant contact with people throughout the aviation industry at the time, to learn and adapt efficiently. Something that made him so successful in the grain trade earlier in his career, in 1927, he was made a Director of the Canadian Pacific Railway, something that would inevitably influence later events involving his venture. By 1929 he had taken WCA to the #2 spot behind Imperial Airways Limited in the British Empire, in order to expand WCA at the national level, Richardson convened a syndicate, which led to the formation of the Aviation Corporation of Canada in July 1929. The purpose of this formation was to help in the acquisition of eastern Canadian aviation companies to facilitate the planned expansion and this was done with Sir Henry Worth Thornton, representing the Canadian National Railways and Sir Edward Wentworth Beatty, of the Canadian Pacific Railways. In 1930, Canadian Airways Limited was established after the acquisition of several aviation companies, Richardson became the president and general manager. Richardsons advanced logistical knowledge, business sense, vision and technological innovation, Air mail was the backbone of aviation at the time as it underpinned regular services and helped cover costs. Richardson was particularly worried about Canadian sovereignty, the budding challenges of international competition and eastern and western Canadas strategic interests weighed on his mind as well. Political activities of varying degrees and the depression in particular began to take a toll through the very early 1930s. In 1932, the government mail contracts were cancelled and a host of new restrictions were introduced by the federal government and these actions would serve to gradually undermine Canadian Airways. By 1936, control of aviation was transferred from the Department of National Defence to the newly established Department of Transport. Around this time, Richardsons earlier fears were on the verge of being realized as American aviation companies were beginning to work towards establishing passenger routes within Canada, the Department of Transport was considering developing a national air transport system to help protect Canadas budding airline industry. Howe led Richardson to believe that his Canadian Airways would be the airline for the task. Using Richardsons Canadian Airways business plan and key personnel from the Airline, Richardson was deeply saddened by the betrayal and the way the events had unfolded. The personal assurances of government support for Canadian Airways were not acted upon and Howes will to see the government rise to prominence in the field left Richardson, unfortunately, Richardsons decency and lack of will to protest publicly left Canadian Airways vulnerable
45.
Armstrong Siddeley Leopard
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The Armstrong Siddeley Leopard was a British 14-cylinder twin-row air-cooled radial aero engine developed in 1927 by Armstrong Siddeley. It was the most powerful engine in the world when introduced. Leopard I700 hp, medium supercharged, Leopard II700 hp, geared epicyclic drive. Leopard III800 hp, two-valve cylinder head, direct drive, Leopard IIIA800 hp, geared epicyclic drive
46.
Rolls-Royce Buzzard
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The Rolls-Royce Buzzard was a British piston aero engine of 36.7 litres capacity that produced about 800 horsepower. Designed and built by Rolls-Royce Limited it featured 12 cylinders in a V configuration of 6 in bore and 6.6 in stroke and it was manufactured in the late 1920s, but only 100 were sold. A further development was the Rolls-Royce R Schneider Trophy engine, the Buzzard was developed by scaling-up the Kestrel engine in the ratio of 5,6. Buzzard IMS, Maximum power 955 hp, nine engines produced at Derby, Buzzard IIMS, Maximum power 955 hp, reduced propeller drive ratio,69 engines produced at Derby. Buzzard IIIMS, Maximum power 937 hp, further reduced propeller drive ratio,22 engines produced at Derby
