1.
Jupiter, Florida
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Jupiter is the northernmost town in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. According to the 2015 Census Bureau estimate, the town had a population of 62,707. It is one of the northernmost communities of the Miami metropolitan area and it was rated as the 9th Happiest Seaside Town in America by Coastal Living in 2012. The area where the town now sits was named for the Hobe Indian tribe which lived at the mouth of the Loxahatchee River. A mapmaker misunderstood the Spanish spelling Jobe of the Indian name Hobe, subsequent mapmakers further misunderstood this to be the Latin translation of the god Jupiter, and they anglicized the name from Jove to Jupiter. The Roman god Jupiter is the chief Roman god, and god of light, of the sky and weather, jupiters consort was Juno, inspiring a neighboring town to name itself Juno Beach. The most notable landmark is the Jupiter Inlet Lighthouse, completed in 1860, made of brick, it was painted red in 1910 to cover discoloration caused by humidity. Hurricane Jeanne in 2004 sandblasted the paint from the portion of the tower. The lighthouse is used as the symbol for Jupiter. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 21.1 square miles. Jupiter has a Tropical savanna climate, much of the year is warm to hot in Jupiter, and frost is very rare. As is typical in Florida, there are two seasons in Jupiter, a mild and dry winter, and a hot and wet summer. Daily thundershowers are common in the hot season, though they are brief, the city of Jupiter is home to many tropical and subtropical plants and trees, and the city is known for its lush landscaping around private homes and public parks. As of 2010, there were 29,825 households out of which 19. 8% were vacant. In 2000,26. 6% had children under the age of 18 living with them,55. 8% are married couples living together,8. 4% have a householder with no husband present. 25. 8% of all households are made up of individuals and 10. 4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older, the median age is 42 years. For every 100 females there are 97.2 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.2 males. In 2000, the income for a household in the town is $54,945
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Fresnel lens
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A Fresnel lens is a type of compact lens originally developed by French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel for lighthouses. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the mass, a Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet. A Fresnel lens can capture more light from a light source. The idea of creating a thinner, lighter lens by making it with separate sections mounted in a frame is attributed to Georges-Louis Leclerc. The Marquis de Condorcet proposed grinding such a lens from a thin piece of glass. French physicist and engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel is most often given credit for the development of the lens for use in lighthouses. According to Smithsonian magazine, the first Fresnel lens was used in 1823 in the Cordouan lighthouse at the mouth of the Gironde estuary, scottish physicist Sir David Brewster is credited with convincing the United Kingdom to adopt these lenses in their lighthouses. The Fresnel lens reduces the amount of material required compared to a lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. An ideal Fresnel lens would have many such sections. In each section, the thickness is decreased compared to an equivalent simple lens. This effectively divides the surface of a standard lens into a set of surfaces of the same curvature. In some lenses, the surfaces are replaced with flat surfaces. Such a lens can be regarded as an array of prisms arranged in a fashion, with steeper prisms on the edges. In the first Fresnel lenses, each section was actually a separate prism, single-piece Fresnel lenses were later produced, being used for automobile headlamps, brake, parking, and turn signal lenses, and so on. In modern times, computer-controlled milling equipment might be used to more complex lenses. Fresnel lenses are made of glass or plastic, their size varies from large to medium to small. In many cases they are thin and flat, almost flexible. Modern Fresnel lenses usually consist of all refractive elements, however many of the lighthouses have both refracting and reflecting elements, as shown in the photographs and diagram
4.
Light characteristic
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The graphic indicates how the real light may be identified when looking at its actual light output type or sequence. Different lights use different colours, frequencies and light patterns, so mariners can identify which light they are seeing, while light characteristics can be described in prose, e. g. Flashing white every three seconds, lists of lights and navigation chart annotations use abbreviations. The abbreviation notation is different from one light list to another, with dots added or removed. An abbreviation of the type of light, e. g. Fl. for flashing, the color of the light, e. g. W for white, G for green, R for red, Y for yellow. If no color is given, a light is generally implied. The cycle period, e. g. 10s for ten seconds, additional parameters are sometimes added, The height of the light above the chart datum for height. The range in which the light is visible, e. g. 10M for 10 nautical miles, an example of a complete light characteristic is Gp Oc W 10s 15m 10M. A fixed light, abbreviated F, is a continuous and steady light and it is most commonly used for a single-flashing light which exhibits only single flashes which are repeated at regular intervals, in which case it is abbreviated simply as Fl. It can also be used with a group of flashes which are regularly repeated, in which case the abbreviation is Fl. or Gr Fl. for a group of two flashes. Another possibility is a group, in which successive groups in the period have different numbers of flashes. A specific case sometimes used is when the flashes are longer than two seconds, such a light is sometimes denoted long flashing with the abbreviation L. Fl. If the frequency of flashes is large the light is denoted as a quick light, an occulting light is a rhythmic light in which the duration of light in each period is longer than the total duration of darkness. In other words, it is the opposite to a flashing light where the duration of darkness is longer than the duration of light. It has the appearance of flashing off, rather than flashing on, an isophase light, abbreviated Iso, is a light which has dark and light periods of equal length. The prefix derives from the Greek iso- meaning same, a quick light, abbreviated Q, is a special case of a flashing light with a large frequency. If the sequence of flashes is interrupted by regularly repeated eclipses of constant and long duration, group notation similar to flashing and occulting lights is also sometimes used. Another distinction sometimes made is between quick, very quick and ultra quick. This can be combined with notations for interruptions, e. g. I. U. Q. for interrupted ultra quick, or grouping, e. g. V. Q. for a very quick group of nine flashes
5.
United Kingdom Hydrographic Office
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The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office is located in Taunton, Somerset on Admiralty Way and has a workforce of approximately 1,000 staff. The UKHO is the UKs agency providing hydrographic and geospatial data to mariners and they are a trading arm of the Ministry of Defence. They are responsible for support to the Royal Navy and other defence customers. Supplying defence and the shipping industry, they help ensure Safety of Lives at Sea, protect the marine environment. Together with other national hydrographic offices and the International Hydrographic Organisation, they work to set and raise standards of hydrography, cartography. Their market-leading portfolio of ADMIRALTY Maritime Products & Services is found on over 90% of the ships trading internationally. Relied upon by mariners for over 200 years, their portfolio provides the most comprehensive range of SOLAS-compliant charts, publications and digital services to crews, cargo. The Admiraltys first Hydrographer was Alexander Dalrymple, appointed in 1795 on the order of King George III, the first chart Dalrymple published as Hydrographer to the ADMIRALTY brand did not appear until 1800. He also issued sailing directions and Notices to Mariners, Dalrymple was succeeded on his death in 1808 by Captain Thomas Hurd, under whose stewardship the department was given permission to sell charts to the public in 1821. In 1819 Captain Hurd entered into an agreement with Denmark to exchange charts. This is thought to be the earliest formal arrangement for the supply of information between the British and any foreign Hydrographic Office. Hurd developed the specialism of Royal Navy hydrographic surveyors, Rear-Admiral Sir W. Edward Parry was appointed Hydrographer in 1823 after his second expedition to discover a Northwest Passage. In 1825 some 736 charts and coastal views were being offered for sale by the Hydrographic Office, in 1828 Captain Parry and the Royal Society organised a scientific voyage to the South Atlantic, in collaboration with the Hydrographers of France and Spain, using HMS Chanticleer. In 1829, at the age of 55, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort became Hydrographer, during his time as Hydrographer, he developed the eponymous Scale, saw the introduction of official tide tables in 1833 and instigated various surveys and expeditions. Several of these were by the HMS Beagle, including one to Tierra del Fuego, in 1831 Captain Beaufort informed Captain FitzRoy that he had found a savant for the latters surveying voyage to South America, Charles Darwin. After completing extensive surveys in South America she returned to Falmouth, Cornwall via New Zealand, by the time of Beauforts retirement in 1855, the Chart Catalogue listed 1,981 charts and 64,000 copies of them had been issued to the Royal Navy. In the 1870s the Hydrographic Service supported the Challenger expedition, an exercise that made many discoveries. The cruise was named after the vessel, HMS Challenger
6.
Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society
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Founded in 2000 by Jim Weidner, K2JXW, the Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society is devoted to maritime communications, amateur radio, lighthouses, and lightships. Its members travel to lighthouses around the world where they operate amateur radio equipment at or near the light, collecting lighthouse QSLs is popular for some amateur radio operators. ARLHS is a organization with over 1665 members worldwide as of July 2009. A convention is held in October each year, in 2010 the gathering was in Biloxi, Mississippi. In earlier years it has held in Solomons, Maryland, St. Simons, Georgia, Port Huron, Michigan. The ARLHS has been featured in magazines, such as CQ. Jim Weidner is its founding President, and Jim Buffington, K5JIM, is Vice President, the club call sign is W7QF and the website is The ARLHS maintains a catalog of lighthouses called The World List of Lights. Its main feature is a short, and easily transmitted identification number for each lighthouse, the WLOL lists any lighthouse that is or was an Aid to Navigation and can reasonably accommodate an amateur radio operation. Lights that are no longer in existence, but were once an ATN, also show up on the list, with over 15,000 entries, the WLOL is one of the most complete lighthouse catalogs in existence. Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society Website ARLHS Convention web site Indias First ARLHS activation in Mahaballipuram, Chennai, India Aug 2008 Kadalur Lighthouse Centenary and ILLW operation Aug 2009
7.
United States Coast Guard
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The United States Coast Guard is a branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the countrys seven uniformed services. This has happened twice, in 1917, during World War I, created by Congress on 4 August 1790 at the request of Alexander Hamilton as the Revenue Marine, it is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton headed the Revenue Marine, by the 1860s, the service was known as the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service and the term Revenue Marine gradually fell into disuse, the modern Coast Guard was formed by a merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the U. S. Life-Saving Service on 28 January 1915, under the U. S. Department of the Treasury. As one of the five armed services, the Coast Guard has been involved in every U. S. war from 1790 to the Iraq War. As of 2014 the Coast Guard had over 36,000 men and women on duty,7,350 reservists,29,620 auxiliarists. In terms of size, the U. S. Coast Guard by itself is the worlds 12th largest naval force. Because of its authority, the Coast Guard can conduct military operations under the U. S. Department of Defense or directly for the President in accordance with Title 14 USC 1–3. The Coast Guards enduring roles are maritime safety, security, to carry out those roles, it has 11 statutory missions as defined in 6 U. S. C. §468, which include enforcing U. S. law in the worlds largest exclusive economic zone of 3.4 million square miles, the Coast Guards motto is the Latin phrase, Semper Paratus. In a 2005 article in Time magazine following Hurricane Katrina, the author wrote, the Coast Guards most valuable contribution to may be as a model of flexibility, and most of all, spirit. Wil Milam, a swimmer from Alaska told the magazine, In the Navy. Practicing for war, training for war, in the Coast Guard, it was, take care of our people and the mission will take care of itself. The Coast Guard carries out three basic roles, which are subdivided into eleven statutory missions. Both agencies maintain rescue coordination centers to coordinate this effort, and have responsibility for military and civilian search and rescue. The two services jointly provide instructor staff for the National Search and Rescue School that trains SAR mission planners and coordinators, previously located on Governors Island, New York, the school is now located at Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown at Yorktown, Virginia. The NRC also takes Maritime Suspicious Activity and Security Breach Reports, details on the NRC organization and specific responsibilities can be found in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The Marine Information for Safety and Law Enforcement database system is managed and used by the Coast Guard for tracking pollution, the five uniformed services that make up the U. S
8.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
9.
Cape Canaveral Light
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The Cape Canaveral Light is a historic lighthouse on the east coast of the U. S. state of Florida. The light was established in 1848 to warn ships of the shoals that lie off its coast. It is located inside the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and managed by the 45th Space Wing of the U. S. Air Force with the assistance of the Cape Canaveral Lighthouse Foundation and it is the only fully operational lighthouse that is owned by the United States Air Force. The current 151-foot lighthouse tower was first erected and lit in 1868 then relocated further inland between 1893-1894 and it was originally equipped with a first-order Fresnel lens that was automated in 1967 and then retired from the tower in 1993. The Cape Canaveral lighthouse was erected to warn mariners of the shoals off its coast. Broken ground and shoals extend 13 nautical miles northward and northeastward of the terminating in the Hetzel and Ohio shoals. Hetzel Shoal is located about 13.5 nautical miles NE of the lighthouse, in a heavy sea these shoals are marked by breakers, but with smooth sea there is nothing to indicate their locality. The land is not visible from off these outer shoals. Located closer to the land are the Chester, Bull and Southeast shoals, the current Cape Canaveral Light is not the first lighthouse constructed on Cape Canaveral. On May 21,1838, the building of the first lighthouse at the cape was requested by Florida territorial delegate Charles Downing, Nathaniel Scobie was appointed as the first lighthouse keeper and oversaw the construction of the lighthouse. The 65-foot tall white brick tower and keepers dwelling were completed in January 1848 at the cost of $13,300. Its light consisted of 15 Lewis lamps powered by whale oil, the lamps were set on a chandelier rotated via clockwork. During the Seminole War scare, Scobie abandoned the lighthouse, captain Mills Olcott Burnham was appointed as the next lighthouse keeper in July 1853. Along with his position, Burnham was given 160 acres of land as part of the Florida Armed Occupation Act of 1842, a legislation passed to populate the state. Sailors heavily criticized the white brick lighthouse with complaints that the light was too weak, in 1860, the government approved the construction of a new lighthouse. However, the start of the American Civil War stopped the work on the new tower, the lamps and mechanism of the lighthouse were removed from the tower by Burnham and buried in his orange grove to protect them from Federal raids. At the end of the war, construction resumed on the lighthouse, the conical tower was lined inside by bricks for stability and insulation. It was situated about 80 to 90 feet from the location of the first tower, the new all-white lighthouse tower was completed in 1868, receiving a first-order Fresnel lens made by Henry-Lepaute and Company of Paris, France that was first lit on May 10,1868
10.
Hillsboro Inlet Light
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Hillsboro Inlet Light is located on the north side of Hillsboro Inlet, midway between Fort Lauderdale and Boca Raton, in Hillsboro Beach, Florida. The light marks the limit of the Florida Reef, an underwater coral formation on the lower east coast of the state. In 1901, the United States Lighthouse Establishment persuaded Congress to authorize the construction of a lighthouse in the area between Jupiter Inlet Light and Fowey Rocks Light. In the second half of the 20th century, this became an increasingly busy waterway. Hillsboro Inlet Light is considered one of the most powerful lights in the world with a beam that can be seen for 28 nautical miles. The octagonal iron tower was built at Russel Wheel & Foundry Co in Detroit, Michigan, moved to the Hillsboro Inlet Light Station in 1906. Its second-order bivalve Fresnel lens emits a light measuring 5.5 megacandelas and is placed 136 feet above sea level, automated in 1974, the light acts both as a coastal navigational aide and as a support to local water traffic. The light was relit in 2000, with 400 pounds of mercury replaced by a specially designed ball-bearing assembly, in 2003, Hillsboro Inlet Light was honored with a 37¢ U. S. postage stamp. Barnes and Noble Books, New York,1999, historic Light Station Information and Photography, Florida. United States Coast Guard Historians Office, university of Florida Press ISBN 0-8130-0993-6 The Hillsboro Lighthouse Preservation Society - Lighthouse information and 2 minute video with aerial view, internal views and description of lens
11.
George Meade
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George Gordon Meade was a career United States Army officer and civil engineer involved in the coastal construction of several lighthouses. He fought with distinction in the Second Seminole War and the Mexican–American War, during the American Civil War he served as a Union general, rising from command of a brigade to command of the Army of the Potomac. He is best known for defeating Confederate General Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863, Meades Civil War combat experience started as a brigade commander in the Peninsula Campaign and the Seven Days Battles, including the Battle of Glendale, where he was wounded severely. As a division commander, he had success at the Battle of South Mountain. His division was arguably the most successful during the assaults at the Battle of Fredericksburg, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, who accompanied him throughout these campaigns. He also suffered from a reputation as a man of short, violent temper who was hostile toward the press, after the war, he commanded several important departments during Reconstruction. George Gordon Meade was born in 1815 in Cádiz, Spain and his father, a wealthy Philadelphian merchant, was serving in Spain as a naval agent for the U. S. government. He was ruined financially because of his support of Spain in the Napoleonic Wars and his family returned to the United States in 1817, in precarious financial straits. Young George attended the Mount Hope Institution in Baltimore and entered the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1831 and he graduated 19th in his class of 56 cadets in 1835. His brother, Richard Worsam Meade II, became a naval officer, for a year, he served with the 3rd U. S. Artillery in Florida, fighting against the Seminole Indians, before resigning from the Army and he worked as a civil engineer for the Alabama, Georgia, and Florida Railroad and for the War Department. On December 31,1840, he married Margaretta Sergeant, daughter of John Sergeant, finding steady civilian employment was difficult for the newly married man, so he reentered the army in 1842 as a second lieutenant in the Corps of Topographical Engineers. After that war he was involved in lighthouse and breakwater construction and coastal surveying in Florida. He designed Barnegat Light on Long Beach Island, Absecon Light in Atlantic City, Cape May Light in Cape May, Jupiter Inlet Light in Jupiter, Florida and he also designed a hydraulic lamp that was adopted by the Lighthouse Board for use in American lighthouses. He was promoted to captain in 1856, in 1857, Meade relieved Lt. Col. James Kearney on the Lakes Survey mission of the Great Lakes. Completion of the survey of Lake Huron and extension of the surveys of Lake Michigan down to Grand, prior to Captain Meades command, Great Lakes water level readings were taken locally with temporary gauges, a uniform plane of reference had not been established. In 1858, based on his recommendation, instrumentation was set in place for the tabulation of records across the basin, in 1860, the first detailed report of Great Lakes was published. Meade stayed with the Lakes Survey until the 1861 outbreak of the Civil War and he was assigned command of the 2nd Brigade of the Pennsylvania Reserves, recruited early in the war, which he led competently, initially in the construction of defenses around Washington, D. C
12.
William F. Raynolds
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William Franklin Raynolds was an explorer, engineer and U. S. army officer who served in the Mexican-American War and American Civil War. He is best known for leading the 1859–60 Raynolds Expedition while serving as a member of the U. S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers, during the 1850s and again after his participation in the American Civil War, Raynolds was the head engineer on numerous lighthouse construction projects. He oversaw riverway and harbor dredging projects intended to improve accessibility, as a cartographer, Raynolds surveyed and mapped the islands and shorelines on the Great Lakes and other regions. At least six lighthouses whose construction he oversaw are still standing, some are still in use and of these, several are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1859, Raynolds was placed in charge of the first government-sponsored expedition to venture into the upper Yellowstone region that was later to become Yellowstone National Park, after negotiating the pass the expedition entered Jackson Hole and surveyed the Teton Range, now within Grand Teton National Park. On March 13,1865 Raynolds was brevetted brigadier general for service during the Civil War. Raynolds retired from the Corps of Engineers on March 17,1884 with the permanent rank of colonel after a 40-year military career, William Franklin Raynolds was born on March 17,1820 in Canton, Ohio, the fourth of six children to William Raynolds and Elizabeth Seabury. William F. Raynoldss grandfather was also named William Raynolds and had been a veteran of the War of 1812, during the War of 1812, the grandfather Raynolds rose to the rank of major while serving under Lewis Cass. William F. Raynolds entered the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and he graduated fifth out of 39 classmates in his class of 1843, which included William B. Franklin, Raynoldss friend Joseph J. Reynolds and future president Ulysses S. Grant, Raynolds married at a young age, he and his wife had no children. Initially appointed a second lieutenant in the 5th U. S. Infantry. The Topographical Engineers performed surveys and developed maps for use until their merger with the Corps of Engineers in 1863. When war with Mexico seemed imminent, topographic engineers were sent to the border to assist with the armys preparations, Raynolds served in Winfield Scotts Mexican-American War campaign which marched overland to Mexico City from the Gulf of Mexico seaport at Veracruz. After the war, the American army occupied Mexico City and the surrounding region, during the occupation, Raynolds and others set out to map and explore nearby mountains. Raynoldss party is credited with being the first confirmed to climb to the summit of Pico de Orizaba which at 18,620 feet is the tallest mountain in Mexico and third tallest in North America. Over a period of months, Raynolds and other officers from both the army and navy mapped the best approach route to Pico de Orizaba. As the expedition left to ascend the mountain, a pack train of nearly fifty officers, soldiers. After several days of hiking through dense jungle, the expedition slowly gained altitude, starting from base camp in the early morning of May 10 nearly two dozen climbers made the final push to the top of the mountain, but only Raynolds and a few others reached the summit
13.
Seminole Wars
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Taken together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive Indian Wars in United States history. The First Seminole War began with General Andrew Jacksons excursions into West Florida, the governments of Britain and Spain both expressed outrage over the invasion. However, Spain was unable to defend its territory, and the Spanish Crown agreed to cede Florida to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. According to the Treaty of Moultrie Creek of 1823, the Seminoles were required to leave northern Florida and were confined to a reservation in the center of the Florida peninsula. The U. S. government enforced the treaty by building a series of forts and trading posts in the territory, mainly along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. The war resulted in most of the Seminole population in Florida being killed in battle, ravaged by starvation and disease, a few hundred Seminoles were allowed to remain in an unofficial reservation in southwest Florida. An estimated 100 Seminoles still refused to leave and retreated deep into the Everglades to live on land that was unwanted by white settlers, raids from the newly- established English Province of Carolina beginning in the mid-1600s began another steep decline in the indigenous population. In the first decade of the 18th century,10,000 –12,000 Indians were taken as slaves according to the governor of La Florida and by 1710, observers noted that north Florida was virtually depopulated. The few remaining natives fled west to Pensacola and beyond or east to the vicinity of St. Augustine. When Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain as part of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, during the mid-1700s, small bands from various Native American tribes from the southeastern United States began moving into the unoccupied lands of Florida. In 1715, the Yamasee moved into Florida as allies of the Spanish, Creek people, at first primarily the Lower Creek but later including Upper Creek, also started moving into Florida from the area of Georgia. The Mikasuki, Hitchiti-speakers, settled around what is now Lake Miccosukee near Tallahassee, another group of Hitchiti speakers, led by Cowkeeper, settled in what is now Alachua County, an area where the Spanish had maintained cattle ranches in the 17th century. One of the best-known ranches was Rancho de la Chua, the region became known as the Alachua Prairie. The Spanish in Saint Augustine began calling the Alachua Creek Cimarrones and this was the probable origin of the term Seminole. This name was applied to the other groups in Florida. Escaped African and African-American slaves who could reach the fort were essentially free, many were from Pensacola, some were free citizens though others had escaped from United States territory. The Spanish offered the freedom and land in Florida, they recruited former slaves as militia to help defend Pensacola. Other escaped slaves joined various Seminole bands as free members of the tribe, while most of the former slaves at Fort Mose went to Cuba with the Spanish when they left Florida in 1763, others lived with or near various bands of Indians
14.
Midden
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The word is of Scandinavian via Middle English derivation, and is today used by archaeologists worldwide to describe any kind of feature containing waste products relating to day-to-day human life. They may be convenient, single-use pits created by groups or long-term. These features, therefore, provide a resource for archaeologists who wish to study the diet. Middens with damp, anaerobic conditions can even preserve organic remains in deposits as the debris of daily life are tossed on the pile, each individual toss will contribute a different mix of materials depending upon the activity associated with that particular toss. During the course of deposition sedimentary material is deposited as well, different mechanisms, from wind and water to animal digs, create a matrix which can also be analyzed to provide seasonal and climatic information. In some middens individual dumps of material can be discerned and analysed, a shell midden or shell mound is an archaeological feature consisting mainly of mollusk shells. The Danish term køkkenmøddinger was first used by Japetus Steenstrup to describe shell heaps, a midden, by definition, contains the debris of human activity, and should not be confused with wind or tide created beach mounds. Some shell middens are processing remains, areas where resources were processed directly after harvest. Some shell middens are directly associated with villages, as a designated village dump site, in other middens, the material is directly associated with a house in the village. Each household would dump its garbage directly outside the house, in all cases, shell middens are extremely complex and very difficult to excavate fully and exactly. The fact that they contain a record of what food was eaten or processed and many fragments of stone tools. Shells have a high carbonate content, which tends to make the middens alkaline. This slows the rate of decay caused by soil acidity. Shell middens were studied in Denmark in the half of the 19th century. The Danish word køkkenmødding is now used internationally, the English word midden derives from the same Old Norse word that produced the modern Danish one. Shell middens are found in coastal zones all over the world, consisting mostly of mollusc shells, they are interpreted as being the waste products of meals eaten by nomadic groups or hunting parties. Some are small examples relating to meals had by a handful of individuals, others are many metres in length and width, in Brazil, they are known as sambaquis, having been created over a long period between the 6th millennium BC and the beginning of European colonisation. On Canadas west coast, there are shell middens that run for more than a kilometer along the coast and are several meters deep, the midden in Namu, British Columbia is over 9 meters deep and spans over 10,000 years of continuous occupation
15.
Burial mound
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A tumulus is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans, a cairn, which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus. Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape, in this respect, a long barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials, such as passage graves. A round barrow is a tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows has a range, the categorization only refers to the external apparent shape. The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen, a cist, a mortuary enclosure, examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe. The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the Iliad, Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre, achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race, boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing. Beowulfs body is taken to Hronesness, where it is burned on a funeral pyre, during cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord, a widows lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow. Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, a band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord. Parallels have also drawn to the account of Attilas burial in Jordanes Getica. Jordanes tells that as Attilas body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games. An Old Irish Life of Columcille reports that every funeral procession halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. Some British types are listed below, Bank barrow Bell barrow Bowl barrow D-shaped barrow - round barrow with a flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs. Disc barrow Fancy barrow - generic term for any Bronze Age barrows more elaborate than a hemispherical shape. Long barrow Oval barrow - a Neolithic long barrow consisting of an elliptical, platform barrow - The least common of the recognised types of round barrow, consisting of a flat, wide circular mound that may be surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern England with a concentration in East and West Sussex. Pond barrow - a barrow consisting of a circular depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression
16.
Dune
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In physical geography, a dune is a hill of loose sand built by wind or the flow of water. Dunes occur in different shapes and sizes, formed by interaction with the flow of air or water, most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter slip face in the lee of the wind. The valley or trough between dunes is called a slack, a dune field is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. Dunes occur, for example, in deserts and along some coasts. Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach, in most cases, the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. Although the most widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, Dunes can form under the action of water flow, and on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries and the sea-bed. The modern word dune came into English from French c,1790, which in turn came from Middle Dutch dūne. Crescent-shaped mounds are generally wider than they are long, the slipfaces are on the concave sides of the dunes. These dunes form under winds that blow consistently from one direction, some types of crescentic dunes move more quickly over desert surfaces than any other type of dune. A group of dunes moved more than 100 metres per year between 1954 and 1959 in Chinas Ningxia Province, and similar speeds have been recorded in the Western Desert of Egypt. The largest crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths of more than three kilometres, are in Chinas Taklamakan Desert. They may be composed of clay, silt, sand, or gypsum, eroded from the floor or shore, transported up the concave side of the dune. Examples in Australia are up to 6.5 km long,1 km wide and they also occur in southern and West Africa, and in parts of the western United States, especially Texas. Straight or slightly sinuous sand ridges typically much longer than they are wide are known as linear dunes and they may be more than 160 kilometres long. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes, many form in bidirectional wind regimes. The long axes of these dunes extend in the resultant direction of sand movement, linear loess hills known as pahas are superficially similar. These hills appear to have formed during the last ice age under permafrost conditions dominated by sparse tundra vegetation. Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from the center of the mound
17.
Sea level
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Mean sea level is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earths oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a low and mean high tide at a particular location. Sea levels can be affected by factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales. The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change, the term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level. Precise determination of a sea level is a difficult problem because of the many factors that affect sea level. Sea level varies quite a lot on several scales of time and this is because the sea is in constant motion, affected by the tides, wind, atmospheric pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, salinity and so forth. The easiest way this may be calculated is by selecting a location and calculating the mean sea level at that point, for example, a period of 19 years of hourly level observations may be averaged and used to determine the mean sea level at some measurement point. One measures the values of MSL in respect to the land, hence a change in MSL can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates. In the UK, the Ordnance Datum is the sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Prior to 1921, the datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, in Hong Kong, mPD is a surveying term meaning metres above Principal Datum and refers to height of 1. 230m below the average sea level. In France, the Marégraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and it is used for a part of continental Europe and main part of Africa as official sea level. Elsewhere in Europe vertical elevation references are made to the Amsterdam Peil elevation, satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001, height above mean sea level is the elevation or altitude of an object, relative to the average sea level datum. It is also used in aviation, where some heights are recorded and reported with respect to sea level, and in the atmospheric sciences. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire Earth, in aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define heights, however, differences up to 100 metres exist between this ellipsoid height and mean tidal height. The alternative is to use a vertical datum such as NAVD88. When referring to geographic features such as mountains on a topographic map, the elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL height shown in metres, feet or both. In the rare case that a location is below sea level, for one such case, see Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
18.
Masonry
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Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block. Masonry is generally a durable form of construction. However, the used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer, Masonry is commonly used for walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations, Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement offers much greater tensile, the use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Extreme weather, under circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a foundation, such as reinforced concrete. Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend well to mechanization. Masonry consists of components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood. Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength unless reinforced, the tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added, a masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural, the brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties. There is typically an air gap between the veneer and the structural wall. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion
19.
Hurricane Jeanne
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Hurricane Jeanne was the deadliest hurricane in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the named storm, the seventh hurricane. After wreaking havoc on Hispaniola, Jeanne struggled to reorganize, eventually strengthening and performing a loop over the open Atlantic. It headed westwards, strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane and passing over the islands of Great Abaco, Jeanne made landfall later in the day in Florida just 2 miles from where Frances had struck a mere 3 weeks earlier. Building on the rainfall of Frances and Ivan, Jeanne brought near-record flood levels as far north as West Virginia, Jeanne is blamed for at least 3,006 deaths in Haiti with about 2,800 in Gonaïves alone, which was nearly washed away by floods and mudslides. Final property damage in the United States was $6.8 billion, Tropical Depression Eleven formed from a tropical wave 70 miles east-southeast of Guadeloupe in the evening of September 13, and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Jeanne the next day. Jeanne passed south of the U. S. Virgin Islands on September 15, making landfall near Yabucoa, Jeanne moved offshore the Dominican Republic late in the afternoon of September 17. By that time, Jeanne had weakened to depression strength. Even though Jeanne did not strike Haiti directly, the storm was large enough to cause flooding and mudslides, on September 18, while the system was being tracked near Great Inagua and Haiti, a new center formed well to the northeast and the previous circulation dissipated. The system restrengthened, becoming a hurricane on September 20, Jeanne continued to meander for several days before beginning a steady westward motion toward the Bahamas and Florida. Jeanne continued strengthening as it headed west, passing over Great Abaco in the Bahamas on the morning of September 25, shortly thereafter, the hurricane reached Category 3 strength. Jeanne maintained this intensity as it passed Grand Bahama Island. At 11,50 p. m. EDT on September 25, Jeanne made landfall on Hutchinson Island, just east of Sewalls Point, Florida, Stuart, Florida and Port Saint Lucie, Florida and this is the same place Hurricane Frances struck Florida three weeks earlier. Jeannes track continued to follow within 20 miles of that of Frances until it reached Pasco County. The cyclone then swung more rapidly to the north, and the center remained over land all the way to the Georgia state line, Jeanne became an extratropical cyclone over Virginia on September 28 and the system moved back into the Atlantic offshore the New Jersey coast the next day. The watches were upgraded to storm warnings early on the morning of September 14. Later in the morning, tropical storm warnings were issued for St. Kitts and Nevis, while tropical storm watches were issued for Anguilla. During the afternoon, tropical storm warnings were lowered for Saba, St. Eustatius, and St. Maarten, while hurricane warnings were issued for Puerto Rico, late on the morning of September 15, a hurricane watch was issued for the British Virgin Islands
20.
Potassium silicate
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Potassium silicate is the name for a family of inorganic compounds. The most common potassium silicate has the formula K2SiO3, samples of which varying amounts of water. These are white solids or colorless solution, addition of acids causes the reformation of silica. K2SiO3 adopts a chain or cyclic structures with interlinked SiO32− monomers, impregnation of wood with a potassium silicate solution is an easy and low cost way for rendering the woodwork of houses secure against catching fire. The woodwork is first saturated with a diluted and nearly neutral solution of potash silicate, after drying, one or two coats of a more concentrated solution are usually applied. In horticulture, potassium silicate is used as a source of potassium. It makes the medium more alkaline. It is also used as a supplement for the benefits that increasing the availability of silicon compounds has. Silicon-containing compounds are valuable to a plant, and serve to support the plant, stems thicken, the plant becomes more tolerant to drought and resists wilting, and the plant gets larger leaves and fruit. Some metal cleaning formulations use potassium silicate, which serves as a corrosion inhibitor. It also finds uses in the fabrication of welding rods or even of cosmetics
21.
Jupiter Inlet
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Jupiter is the northernmost town in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States. According to the 2015 Census Bureau estimate, the town had a population of 62,707. It is one of the northernmost communities of the Miami metropolitan area and it was rated as the 9th Happiest Seaside Town in America by Coastal Living in 2012. The area where the town now sits was named for the Hobe Indian tribe which lived at the mouth of the Loxahatchee River. A mapmaker misunderstood the Spanish spelling Jobe of the Indian name Hobe, subsequent mapmakers further misunderstood this to be the Latin translation of the god Jupiter, and they anglicized the name from Jove to Jupiter. The Roman god Jupiter is the chief Roman god, and god of light, of the sky and weather, jupiters consort was Juno, inspiring a neighboring town to name itself Juno Beach. The most notable landmark is the Jupiter Inlet Lighthouse, completed in 1860, made of brick, it was painted red in 1910 to cover discoloration caused by humidity. Hurricane Jeanne in 2004 sandblasted the paint from the portion of the tower. The lighthouse is used as the symbol for Jupiter. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 21.1 square miles. Jupiter has a Tropical savanna climate, much of the year is warm to hot in Jupiter, and frost is very rare. As is typical in Florida, there are two seasons in Jupiter, a mild and dry winter, and a hot and wet summer. Daily thundershowers are common in the hot season, though they are brief, the city of Jupiter is home to many tropical and subtropical plants and trees, and the city is known for its lush landscaping around private homes and public parks. As of 2010, there were 29,825 households out of which 19. 8% were vacant. In 2000,26. 6% had children under the age of 18 living with them,55. 8% are married couples living together,8. 4% have a householder with no husband present. 25. 8% of all households are made up of individuals and 10. 4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older, the median age is 42 years. For every 100 females there are 97.2 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.2 males. In 2000, the income for a household in the town is $54,945
22.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
23.
Franklin Pierce
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Franklin Pierce was the 14th President of the United States. Pierce was a northern Democrat who saw the abolitionist movement as a threat to the unity of the nation. Historians and other scholars generally rank Pierce as among the worst of US Presidents, born in New Hampshire, Pierce served in the U. S. House of Representatives and the Senate until he resigned from the latter in 1842. His private law practice in his state was a success. Pierce took part in the Mexican–American War as a general in the Army. In the 1852 presidential election, Pierce and his running mate William R. King easily defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham. While Pierce was popular and outgoing, his life was a grim affair, with his wife Jane suffering from illness. All of their children died young, their last son being killed in a train accident while the family was traveling shortly before Pierces inauguration. Pierce was a Young America expansionist who signed the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico and his popularity in the Northern states declined sharply after he supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which nullified the Missouri Compromise, while many whites in the South continued to support him. Passage of the act led to violent conflict over the expansion of slavery in the American West, Pierces administration was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto, calling for the annexation of Cuba, a document which was roundly criticized. Although Pierce fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats in the 1856 presidential election, he was abandoned by his party and his reputation in the North suffered further during the Civil War as he became a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln. Pierce, who had been a heavy drinker for much of his life, Franklin Pierce was born on November 23,1804, in a log cabin in Hillsborough, New Hampshire. He was a descendant of Thomas Pierce, who had moved to the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Norwich, Norfolk, England. Pierces father Benjamin, a Revolutionary War lieutenant, moved from Chelmsford, Massachusetts to Hillsborough after the war, Pierce was the fifth of eight children born to Benjamin and his second wife, Anna Kendrick. Benjamin was by then a prominent Democratic-Republican state legislator, farmer, Pierces father, who sought to ensure that his sons were educated, placed Pierce in a school at Hillsborough Center in childhood and sent him to the town school at Hancock at the age of 12. The boy was not fond of schooling, growing homesick at Hancock, he walked 12 miles back to his home one Sunday. His father fed him dinner and drove him part of the back to school before kicking him out of the carriage. Pierce later cited this moment as the turning-point in my life, later that year he transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy to prepare for college
24.
Connecticut Yankee Council
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The Connecticut Yankee Council of the Boy Scouts of America is located in Milford, Connecticut. It is council #072 and serves 37 towns and cities in Connecticut, located in Farfield County, New Haven County, the present council was formed in 1998 by the merger of Quinnipiac Council and Fairfield County Council. Owaneco Lodge is the Order of the Arrow lodge that serves this council, Connecticut Yankee Council is divided into the following districts, Lighthouse District serves New Haven, East Haven, Branford, North Branford, Guilford and Madison. Pomperaug District serves Westport, Weston, Easton, Fairfield, Monroe, Trumbull, Bridgeport, powahay District serves Stamford, New Canaan, Darien, Wilton and Norwalk. Scatacook District serves Sherman, New Fairfield, Brookfield, Danbury, Bethel, Newtown, Ridgefield, Sleeping Giant District serves Southington, Meriden, Wallingford, North Haven and Hamden. Wepawaug Valley District serves Bethany, Woodbridge, Orange, Milford, Camp Sequassen is located in New Hartford, Connecticut. It is a Boy Scout camp operated by the Connecticut Yankee Council and is used for summer camp. During the summer, it becomes a Boy Scout resident camp for over 2,000 boys from across New England, troops from around Connecticut and neighboring states stay at Camp Sequassen for a week. While staying there, Scouts are able to work on rank requirements, one of these places is the Trading Post. This is a small Scouting store operated by Sequassen staff, at the waterfront, Scouts can go swimming or take boats such as canoes, kayaks and row boats out into West Hill Pond. Also, Platt Field, located in North Sequassen, is where Scouts can participate in shooting, paintball. Very close to Platt Field, shotgun shooting is available for older Scouts near Scout Craft, there is also a handicrafts center near the waterfront where woodcarving, photography and metalwork is possible. Scouts can also play exciting games such as quidditch, gaga ball, at the end of the week all scouts can participate in the camp-wide Land and Sea Games. No one is allowed to cross over West Hill Road to get from one half of the camp to the other, instead, all Scouts, staff and adult leaders use the Godfrey-Morris tunnel that goes under West Hill Road. John Sherman Hoyt Scout Reservation and Training Center is located in Redding, the reservation was donated to the Alfred W. Dater Council by Alice B. Sanford in 1966. The 174 acres of wooded property is located in a area of Connecticut on the western end of the Connecticut Yankee Council. The reservation is named after John Sherman Hoyt of Darien, Connecticut, Hoyt was a wealthy industrialist and dedicated Scouter. Hoyt donated 18 acres of land in 1947 to the Alfred W. Dater Council, the first building built at the new camp was a training cabin, which was dedicated to General Arthur Carter
25.
National Weather Service
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It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration branch of the Department of Commerce, and is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970, the NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers, and 122 local weather forecast offices. As the NWS is a government agency, most of its products are in the public domain, the agency was placed under the Secretary of War as Congress felt military discipline would probably secure the greatest promptness, regularity, and accuracy in the required observations. Within the Department of War, it was assigned to the U. S. Army Signal Service under Brigadier General Albert J. Myer, General Myer gave the National Weather Service its first name, The Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce. The agency first became an enterprise in 1890, when it became part of the Department of Agriculture. The first Weather Bureau radiosonde was launched in Massachusetts in 1937, the Bureau would later be moved to the Department of Commerce in 1940. On July 12,1950, bureau chief Francis W, the Weather Bureau became part of the Environmental Science Services Administration when that agency was formed in August 1966. The Environmental Science Services Administration was renamed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on October 1,1970, at this time, the Weather Bureau became the National Weather Service. NEXRAD, a system of Doppler radars deployed to improve the detection and warning time of local storms, replaced the WSR-57. Bob Glahn has written a history of the first hundred years of the National Weather Service. The NWS, through a variety of sub-organizations, issues different forecast products to users, although, throughout history, text forecasts have been the means of product dissemination, the NWS has been using more forecast products of a digital, gridded, image or other modern format. Each of the 122 Weather Forecast Offices send their graphical forecasts to a server to be compiled in the National Digital Forecast Database. The NDFD is a collection of weather observations used by organizations and the public, including precipitation amount, temperature. Specific points in the database can be accessed using an XML SOAP service. The National Weather Service issues many products relating to wildfires daily, for example, a Fire Weather Forecast, which have a forecast period covering up to seven days, is issued by local Weather Forecast Offices daily, with updates as needed. The forecasts contain weather information relevant to fire control and smoke management for the next 12 to 48 hours, such as direction and speed. The appropriate crews use this information to plan for staffing and equipment levels, the ability to conduct scheduled controlled burns, and assess the daily fire danger. Once per day, NWS meteorologists issue a coded fire weather forecast for specific United States Forest Service observation sites that are input into the National Fire Danger Rating System
26.
Signal station
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A signal station is a form of Aids to Navigation that is defined by the IHO simply as A signal station is a place on shore from which signals are made to ships at sea. While this broad definition would include coastal radio stations and fog signal stations, as they were normally located in high places with extensive fields of view, surviving signal stations are often in scenic locations, and have become local landmarks. The most widespread method was through different forms of flaghoist, Signals were often private signals, requiring local knowledge or code books. From the 1880s, Lloyds operated a network of stations around the world, connected to telegraph land-lines. Messages for passengers could also be sent using a flag semaphore, in Japan, signal stations in the form of lighted letter boards are extensively used to mark traffic conditions, one way flows and predominant currents. Most ports elsewhere in the world use a form of the International Port Traffic Signals system. Tide gauges are usually classified as stations, as they provide immediate visual information of tide levels
27.
Flag semaphore
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Flag semaphore is the telegraphy system conveying information at a distance by means of visual signals with hand-held flags, rods, disks, paddles, or occasionally bare or gloved hands. Information is encoded by the position of the flags, it is read when the flag is in a fixed position, semaphores were adopted and widely used in the maritime world in the 19th century. It is still used during underway replenishment at sea and is acceptable for emergency communication in daylight or, using lighted wands instead of flags, at night. The current flag semaphore system uses two short poles with flags, which a signalman holds in different positions to signal letters of the alphabet. The signalman holds one pole in each hand, and extends each arm in one of eight possible directions, except for in the rest position, the flags do not overlap. The flags are colored based on whether the signals are sent by sea or by land. At sea, the flags are colored red and yellow, while on land, they are white, flags are not required, their purpose is to make the characters more obvious. The following 30 semaphore characters are presented as they would appear when facing the signalman, letters can be signaled by first signaling J. The sender uses the Attention signal to request permission to begin a transmission, the receiver uses a Ready to receive signal not shown above to grant permission to begin the transmission. The receiver raises both flags vertical overhead and then drops them to the rest position, once only, to grant permission to send, the sender ends the transmission with the Ready to receive signal. The receiver can reply with the Attention signal, at this point, sender and receiver change places. The Japanese merchant marine and armed services have adapted the flag system to the Japanese language. The flags are specified as a white square for the left hand. It is the arm, holding the red flag, which moves as a pen would. As in telegraphy, the syllabary is the one used to write down the messages as they are received. Also, the Japanese system presents the number 0 by moving flags in a circle, and those from 1 through 9 using a sort of the dial system. Semaphore flags are sometimes used as means of communication in the mountains where oral or electronic communication is difficult to perform. Although they do not carry flags, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers have used hand semaphore in this manner, some surf-side rescue companies, such as the Ocean City Maryland Beach Patrol, use semaphore flags to communicate between lifeguards
28.
Flare
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A flare, also sometimes called a fusee, is a type of pyrotechnic that produces a brilliant light or intense heat without an explosion. Flares are used for signalling, illumination, or defensive countermeasures in civilian, flares may be ground pyrotechnics, projectile pyrotechnics, or parachute-suspended to provide maximum illumination time over a large area. Projectile pyrotechnics may be dropped from aircraft, fired from rocket or artillery, the earliest recorded use of gunpowder for signalling purposes was the signal bomb used by the Song Dynasty Chinese as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty besieged Yangzhou in 1276. These soft-shelled bombs, timed to explode in mid-air, were used to send messages to a detachment of troops far in the distance, another mention of the signal bomb appears in a text dating from 1293 requesting their collection from those still stored in Zhejiang. A signal gun appears in Korea by 1600, the Wu I Thu Phu Thung Chih or Illustrated Military Encyclopedia written in 1791 depicts a signal gun in an illustration. Flares produce their light through the combustion of a pyrotechnic composition, flares may be colored by the inclusion of pyrotechnic colorants. Calcium flares are used underwater to illuminate submerged objects, many in-service colored signal flares and spectrally balanced decoy flares contain perchlorate oxidizers. Perchlorate, a type of salt in its form, dissolves and moves rapidly in groundwater. Even in low concentrations in drinking water supplies, perchlorate is known to inhibit the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland, for example, the US Environmental Protection Agency have studied the impacts of perchlorate on the environment as well as drinking water. California has also issued guidance regarding perchlorate use, US courts have taken action regarding the use of perchlorate in manufacturing pyrotechnic devices such as flares. In the civilian world, flares are used as signals. Flares are commonly found in survival kits. Red flares, either sent as a rocket or held in the hand, are recognized as a maritime distress signal. RMS Titanic however used rocket-launched distress shells to attract assistance, emitting white stars to a great height, another type of flare is the fusee, which burns for 10–60 minutes with a bright red light. Fusees are commonly used to indicate obstacles or advise caution on roadways at night, in this usage they are called highway flares, road flares. They are commonly found in emergency kits. Fusees are also known as flares and are commonly used to perform hand signals in rail transport applications. Since they can be used once, fusees nowadays are usually intended for emergency use
29.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
30.
Radio direction finder
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A radio direction finder is a device for finding the direction, or bearing, to a radio source. The act of measuring the direction is known as direction finding or sometimes simply direction finding. RDF is widely used as a navigation system, especially with boats. For aerial use, where the horizon may extend to hundreds of kilometres, higher frequencies can be used, an automatic direction finder, often capable of being tuned to commercial AM radio transmitters, is a feature of almost all modern aircraft. For the military, RDF systems are a key component of intelligence systems. The ability to locate the position of a broadcaster has been invaluable since World War I. It is estimated that the UKs advanced huff-duff systems were directly or indirectly responsible for 24% of all U-Boats sunk during the war, modern systems often used phased array antennas to allow rapid beam forming for highly accurate results. These are generally integrated into an electronic warfare suite. Several distinct generations of RDF systems have used over time. Early systems used mechanically rotated antennas that compared signal strengths in different directions, modern systems use the comparison of phase or doppler techniques which are generally simpler to automate. Modern pseudo-Doppler direction finder systems consist of a number of small antennas fixed to a circular card, early British radar sets were also referred to as RDF, which was a deception tactic. However, the terminology was not inaccurate, the Chain Home systems used separate omnidirectional broadcasters, the earliest experiments in RDF were carried out in 1888 when Heinrich Hertz discovered the directionality of an open loop of wire used as an antenna. When the antenna was aligned so it pointed at the signal it produced maximum gain and this meant there was always an ambiguity in the location of the signal, it would produce the same output if the signal was in front or back of the antenna. Later experimenters also used dipole antennas, which worked in the sense, reaching maximum gain at right angles. RDF systems using mechanically swung loop or dipole antennas were common by the turn of the 20th century, prominent examples were patented by John Stone Stone in 1902 and Lee de Forest in 1904, among many other examples. By the early 1900s, many experimenters were looking for ways to use this concept for locating the position of a transmitter, early radio systems generally used medium wave and longwave signals. Methods of performing RDF on longwave signals was a area of research during the 1900s and 1910s. Antennas are generally sensitive to only when they have a length that is a significant portion of the wavelength
31.
U-boat
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U-boat is the anglicised version of the German word U-Boot, a shortening of Unterseeboot, literally undersea boat. While the German term refers to any submarine, the English one refers specifically to military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in the First and Second World Wars. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons against enemy warships, they were most effectively used in an economic warfare role. Austro-Hungarian navy submarines were known as U-boats. The first submarine built in Germany, the three-man Brandtaucher, sank to the bottom of Kiel harbor on 1 February 1851 during a test dive, the inventor and engineer Wilhelm Bauer had designed this vessel in 1850, and Schweffel & Howaldt constructed it in Kiel. Dredging operations in 1887 rediscovered Brandtaucher, it was raised and put on display in Germany, there followed in 1890 the boats WW1 and WW2, built to a Nordenfelt design. The SM U-1 was a completely redesigned Karp-class submarine and only one was built, the Imperial German Navy commissioned it on 14 December 1906. It had a hull, a Körting kerosene engine. The 50%-larger SM U-2 had two torpedo tubes, the U-19 class of 1912–13 saw the first diesel engine installed in a German navy boat. At the start of World War I in 1914, Germany had 48 submarines of 13 classes in service or under construction, during that war the Imperial German Navy used SM U-1 for training. Retired in 1919, it remains on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, on 5 September 1914, HMS Pathfinder was sunk by SM U-21, the first ship to have been sunk by a submarine using a self-propelled torpedo. On 22 September, U-9 sank the obsolete British warships HMS Aboukir, HMS Cressy, for the first few months of the war, U-boat anticommerce actions observed the prize rules of the time, which governed the treatment of enemy civilian ships and their occupants. On 20 October 1914, SM U-17 sank the first merchant ship, surface commerce raiders were proving to be ineffective, and on 4 February 1915, the Kaiser assented to the declaration of a war zone in the waters around the British Isles. This was cited as a retaliation for British minefields and shipping blockades, under the instructions given to U-boat captains, they could sink merchant ships, even potentially neutral ones, without warning. In February 1915, a submarine U-6 was rammed and both periscopes were destroyed off Beachy Head by the collier SS Thordis commanded by Captain John Bell RNR after firing a torpedo, on 7 May 1915, SM U-20 sank the liner RMS Lusitania. The sinking claimed 1,198 lives,128 of them American civilians, munitions that it carried were thousands of crates full of ammunition for rifles, 3-inch artillery shells, and also various other standard ammunition used by infantry. The sinking of the Lusitania was widely used as propaganda against the German Empire, a widespread reaction in the U. S was not seen until the sinking of the ferry SS Sussex. The sinking occurred in 1915 and the United States entered the war in 1917, the initial U. S. response was to threaten to sever diplomatic ties, which persuaded the Germans to issue the Sussex pledge that reimposed restrictions on U-boat activity
32.
Palm Beach County, Florida
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Palm Beach County is a county located in the state of Florida, directly north of Broward County. As of the 2010 census, the population was 1,320,134, the largest city and county seat is West Palm Beach. Named after one of its oldest settlements, Palm Beach, the county was established in 1909, the countys modern-day boundaries were established in 1963. Palm Beach County is one of the three counties in South Florida and is part of the Miami metropolitan area, which was home to an estimated 6,012,331 people at the 2015 census. In 1928, the Okeechobee hurricane struck West Palm Beach and caused thousands of deaths, since then, a number of other tropical cyclones have impacted the area. More recently, the county acquired national attention during the 2000 presidential election, as of 2004, Palm Beach County is Floridas wealthiest county, with a per capita personal income of $44,518. It leads the state in agricultural productivity, agriculture is Palm Beach Countys 2nd largest industry, approximately 10,200 years ago, Native Americans began migrating into Florida. The tribes settling in modern-day Palm Beach County included the Ais, Calusas, Jaegas, Mayaimis, an estimated 20,000 Native Americans lived in South Florida when the Spanish arrived. Their population diminished significantly by the 18th century, due to warfare, enslavement, and diseases from Europe. In 1513, Juan Ponce de León, who led a European expedition to Florida earlier that year, became the first non-Native American to reach Palm Beach County, after landing in the modern day Jupiter area. Runaway African slaves started coming to what was then Spanish Florida in the late 17th century, during the Seminole Wars, these African-American slaves fought with the Seminoles against White settlers and bounty hunters. Portions of the Second Seminole War occurred in Palm Beach County, the oldest surviving structure, the Jupiter Lighthouse, was built in 1860, after receiving authorization to the land from President Franklin Pierce in 1854. During the American Civil War, Florida was a member of the Confederate States of America, to aid the cause of their state, Augustus O. Lang and James Paine removed the lighting mechanism, dimming the lighthouse and assisting their blockade runners. Lang was also the first white settler in Palm Beach County and he built a palmetto shack along the eastern shore of Lake Worth in 1863 after abandoning the cause of the Confederacy. After the Civil War ended, the Jupiter Lighthouse was re-lit in 1866, thirteen years later, a National Weather Service office was established at the lighthouse complex. However, the office was moved to Miami after that citys population began to rapidly grow, in October 1873, a hurricane caused a shipwreck between Biscayne Bay and the New River. The crew survived, but nearly died due to starvation because of the desolation of the area. An Act of Congress on June 20,1874, resulted in the establishment of five houses of Houses of Refuge along the east coast of Florida from the Fort Pierce Inlet southward to Biscayne Bay
33.
Burt Reynolds
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Burton Leon Burt Reynolds is an American actor, director and producer. He has starred in films, such as Deliverance, The Longest Yard, Smokey. Reynolds is the son of Fern H. and Burton Milo Reynolds and he has English, Scottish, Scots-Irish and Dutch ancestry, and is also said to have Cherokee roots. In his 2014 book, But Enough About Me, Reynolds said his mother had Italian ancestry, during his career, Reynolds often claimed to have been born in Waycross, Georgia, but confirmed in 2015 that he was born in Lansing, Michigan. He was born on February 11,1936, and in his autobiography stated that Lansing is where his family lived when his father was drafted into the United States Army. Reynolds, his mother and sister joined his father at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, when Reynolds father was sent to Europe, the family moved to Lake City, Michigan, where his mother had been raised. In 1946, the moved to Riviera Beach, Florida. His father became Chief of Police of Riviera Beach, which is adjacent to the north of West Palm Beach, during 10th grade at Palm Beach High School, Reynolds was named First Team All State and All Southern as a fullback, and received multiple scholarship offers. After graduating from Palm Beach High in West Palm Beach, he attended Florida State University on a football scholarship, while at Florida State, Reynolds became roommates with now notable college football broadcaster and analyst Lee Corso, and also became a brother of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity. Ending his university career, Reynolds became a police officer. To keep up with his studies, he began taking classes at Palm Beach Junior College in neighboring Lake Worth, in his first term at PBJC, Reynolds was in an English class taught by Watson B. Duncan III. Duncan pushed Reynolds into trying out for a play he was producing and he cast Reynolds in the lead role based on having heard Reynolds read Shakespeare in class, leading to Reynolds winning the 1956 Florida State Drama Award for his performance. In his autobiography, Reynolds refers to Duncan as his mentor, the Florida State Drama Award included a scholarship to the Hyde Park Playhouse, a summer stock theater, in Hyde Park, New York. Reynolds saw the opportunity as an alternative to more physically-demanding summer jobs. While working there, Reynolds met Joanne Woodward, who helped him find an agent, after his Broadway debut Look, Weve Come Through, he received favorable reviews for his performance and went on tour with the cast, driving the bus and appearing on stage. After the tour, Reynolds returned to New York and enrolled in acting classes and his classmates included Frank Gifford, Carol Lawrence, Red Buttons, and Jan Murray. After the play closed, the director, John Forsythe, arranged an audition with Joshua Logan for Reynolds. Reynolds was told that he could not be in the film because he looked too much like Marlon Brando, Logan advised Reynolds to go to Hollywood, but Reynolds did not feel confident enough to do so
34.
Gift shop
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A gift shop or Souvenir gift shop is a store primarily selling souvenirs relating to a particular topic or theme. The items sold often include coffee mugs, stuffed animals, t-shirts, postcards, handmade collections, gift shops are normally found in areas visited by many tourists. Hotels and Motels in Canada and the United States often feature a shop near their entrance. These stores are sometimes a source of support for educational institutions. A gift shop can be defined as a shop which has the purpose of selling items that will be given to others for no material gain. There are many ‘mainstream’ shop businesses that target gift-buyers as their customer base. These retailers can vary in size from small independent boutiques, to chain stores, online gift shops are websites which have the primary objective of selling products online that will be given to others. These online retailers may or may not be associated to a physical shop
35.
Bill Nelson
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Clarence William Bill Nelson II is an American politician and a member of the Democratic Party who serves as the senior United States Senator from Florida, in office since 2001. Nelson began his career in the Florida House of Representatives, where he served from 1973 to 1979 and he then served in the United States House of Representatives from 1979 to 1991. In January 1986, Nelson became the first sitting member of the United States House of Representatives to fly in space and he flew as a Payload Specialist on the Space Shuttle Columbia. He retired from Congress in 1990 to run for Governor of Florida but was unsuccessful and he was appointed as Treasurer, Insurance Commissioner and Fire Marshal of Florida, serving from 1995 to 2001. In 2000, Nelson ran for and was elected to the U. S. Senate seat vacated by retiring Republican Senator Connie Mack III and he was re-elected in 2006 with 60% of the vote and in 2012 with 55% of the vote. In the Senate, he is considered a moderate Democrat. Nelson was born September 29,1942, in Miami, Florida and his ancestry includes Scottish, Irish, English, and Danish. His father died of an attack when Nelson was 14. Nelson grew up in Melbourne, Florida, where he attended Melbourne High School and he attended Baptist and Episcopal churches but later was baptized through immersion in a Baptist church. He served as President of Kiwanis-sponsored Key Club International in 1959–60, in 2005, he joined the First Presbyterian Church in Orlando. Nelson attended the University of Florida, where he was a member of Florida Blue Key, and he transferred to Yale University, where he was a member of the Book and Snake secret society. He received a law degree from the University of Virginia, in 1965, he joined the U. S. Army Reserve during the Vietnam War. He served on duty from 1968 to 1970, attaining the rank of captain. Nelson was admitted to the Florida bar in 1968, and began practicing law in Melbourne in 1970, in 1971, he worked as legislative assistant to Governor Reubin Askew. In 1972, Nelson married Grace Cavert, the couple have two adult children, Charles William Bill Jr. Nelson, and Nan Ellen Nelson. In 1986, Nelson became the second sitting member of Congress to travel into space and he went through NASA training with Senator Jake Garn of Utah. He was a Payload Specialist on Space Shuttle Columbias STS-61-C mission from January 12 to 18,1986, Columbia landed at Edwards AFB at 5,59 a. m. Mission elapsed time was 6 days,2 hours,45 minutes,51 seconds and it was the last successful Space Shuttle flight before the Challenger accident, as the disaster occurred only 10 days after Columbias return
36.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
37.
Ron Klein
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Ronald Ron Klein is an American politician and lawyer who is a former member of the United States House of Representatives for Floridas 22nd congressional district. He is a member of the Democratic Party and he previously served in the Florida House of Representatives and the Florida Senate. He is currently employed by the law firm Holland & Knight, Klein was born in Cleveland, Ohio. He graduated from Cleveland Heights High School in 1975, and attended Ohio State University, while at Ohio State, Klein became a member of the Alpha Epsilon Pi Fraternity. Klein also spent time during college as an intern at the Ohio General Assembly, Klein attended Case Western Reserve University School of Law and graduated with a law degree in 1982. In 1992, Klein defeated ten-year incumbent Steve Press in the Democratic primary to win a seat in the Florida House of Representatives, Klein was elected to the Florida Senate in 1996, and served as minority whip in 1998 and as minority leader in 2002–2004. S. House of Representatives in Floridas 22nd congressional district against 13-term Republican incumbent Clay Shaw, although Shaw won re-election easily in the 2004 election, John Kerry carried the district by a margin on 50-48 percent over George W. Bush in 2004. On Election Day 2006, Klein defeated Shaw by a margin of 51%-48%, Klein was aided by voter discontent over the war in Iraq and the scandal involving Republican Congressman Mark Foley in the neighboring district. On December 18,2007, the magazine Politico named Ron Klein as its Rookie of the Year, citing his willingness to cross party lines, in 2008, Klein won his race against Republican nominee Allen West with 54. 7% of the vote. Klein voted with a majority of his Democratic colleagues 97. 9% of the time during the 111th Congress, the nonpartisan National Journal rated him as 58.3 percent liberal and 41.7 conservative based on his voting record. Klein lost his bid to Republican Allen West. After leaving Congress, Klein was hired by law firm Holland & Knight, “It sort of allows me to be in a unique place to understand that. ”. Ron married Dori Dragin in 1982 and they moved to Boca Raton, Florida in 1985
38.
Alcee Hastings
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Alcee Lamar Hastings /ˈælsiː/ is the U. S. Representative for Floridas 20th congressional district, serving in Congress since 1993, the district, numbered as the 23rd District from 1993 to 2013, includes most of the majority-black precincts in and around Fort Lauderdale and West Palm Beach. He is a member of the Democratic Party and he served as a judge on the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida from 1979, until his impeachment and removal from that post in 1989. Born in Altamonte Springs, Florida, Hastings was educated at Howard University in Washington, D. C. and Fisk University in Nashville and he earned his bachelors degree in zoology and botany from Fisk in 1958. He attended Howard University School of Law from 1958 to 1960, while in school, he became a member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. He was admitted to the bar in 1963, and began to practice law,1970 U. S. Senate election Hastings decided to run for U. S. Senate in 1970 after incumbent Spessard Holland decided to retire. He failed to win the Democratic primary, or make the run-off election and he ranked fourth out of five candidates, receiving 13% of the vote. Governor Farris Bryant ranked first with 33% of the vote, lawton Chiles ranked second with 26% of the vote. Chiles defeated Bryant in the election and won the November general election. In 1977, he became a judge of the court of Broward County. In 1979, he was appointed by President Jimmy Carter as a U. S. district judge for the Southern District of Florida. In 1983, he was acquitted by a jury after his alleged co-conspirator, William Borders, refused to testify in court, resulting in a jail sentence for Borders. In 1988, the Democratic-controlled U. S. House of Representatives took up the case and he was then convicted in 1989 by the United States Senate becoming the sixth federal judge in the history of the United States to be removed from office by the Senate. The Senate, in two hours of calls, voted on 11 of the 17 articles of impeachment. It convicted Hastings of eight of the 11 articles, the vote on the first article was 69 for and 26 opposed. The Senate had the option to forbid Hastings from ever seeking federal office again and he further added that Hastings had a right to trial by the full Senate. Hastings attempted to make a comeback by running for Secretary of State of Florida. In a three-way Democratic primary, he placed second with 33% of the vote, in the runoff, which saw a large dropoff in turnout, Minter defeated him, 67%-33%
39.
United States Department of the Interior
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The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
40.
Bureau of Land Management
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President Harry S. Truman created the BLM in 1946 by combining two existing agencies, the General Land Office and the Grazing Service. Most BLM public lands are located in these 12 western states, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. The mission of the BLM is to sustain the health, diversity, originally BLM holdings were described as land nobody wanted because homesteaders had passed them by. All the same, ranchers hold nearly 18,000 permits, the agency manages 221 wilderness areas,23 national monuments and some 636 other protected areas as part of the National Landscape Conservation System totaling about 30 million acres. There are more than 63,000 oil and gas wells on BLM public lands, total energy leases generated approximately $5.4 billion in 2013, an amount divided among the Treasury, the states, and Native American groups. The BLMs roots go back to the Land Ordinance of 1785 and these laws provided for the survey and settlement of the lands that the original 13 colonies ceded to the federal government after the American Revolution. As additional lands were acquired by the United States from Spain, France and other countries, the United States Congress directed that they be explored, surveyed, during the Revolutionary War, military bounty land was promised to soldiers who fought for the colonies. After the war, the Treaty of Paris of 1783, signed by the United States, England, France, in the 1780s, other states relinquished their own claims to land in modern-day Ohio. By this time, the United States needed revenue to function, Land was sold so that the government would have money to survive. In order to sell the land, surveys needed to be conducted, the Land Ordinance of 1785 instructed a geographer to oversee this work as undertaken by a group of surveyors. The first years of surveying were completed by trial and error, once the territory of Ohio had been surveyed, in 1812, Congress established the General Land Office as part of the Department of the Treasury to oversee the disposition of these federal lands. By the early 1800s, promised bounty land claims were finally fulfilled, over the years, other bounty land and homestead laws were enacted to dispose of federal land. Several different types of patents existed and these include cash entry, credit, homestead, Indian, military warrants, mineral certificates, private land claims, railroads, state selections, swamps, town sites, and town lots. A system of land offices spread throughout the territories, patenting land that was surveyed via the corresponding Office of the Surveyor General of a particular territory. This pattern gradually spread across the entire United States, the laws that spurred this system with the exception of the General Mining Law of 1872 and the Desert Land Act of 1877 have since been repealed or superseded. The Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 allowed leasing, exploration, and production of selected commodities, such as coal, oil, gas, the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 established the United States Grazing Service to manage the public rangelands by establishment of advisory boards that set grazing fees. The Oregon and California Revested Lands Sustained Yield Management Act of 1937, commonly referred as the O&C Act, in 1946, the Grazing Service was merged with the General Land Office to form the Bureau of Land Management within the Department of the Interior. It took several years for new agency to integrate and reorganize
41.
Yaquina Head
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Yaquina Head is a headland extending into the Pacific Ocean north of Newport, in the U. S. state of Oregon. It is the site of the Yaquina Head Light, and is managed as Yaquina Head Outstanding Natural Area by the Bureau of Land Management and it is part of the National Landscape Conservation System, commonly known as the National Conservation Lands. The United States Congress named the 100-acre headland an Outstanding Natural Area in 1980, the areas average elevation is 108 feet above sea level. The headland is along U. S. Route 101, and is about 55 miles west of Corvallis, possible activities include hiking the areas five trails, each shorter than 0.5 miles, near the ocean or through forests of Douglas fir and Sitka spruce. Other attractions include whale-watching, bird-watching, visiting the sites interpretive center, Oregon Coast Yaquina Head Light Yaquina, Oregon Yaquina River
42.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
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Piedras Blancas Light Station
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Piedras Blancas Light Station is located at Point Piedras Blancas, about 5.5 miles west by northwest of San Simeon, California. The first-order Fresnel lens at Piedras Blancas was first illuminated on February 15,1875, the Piedras Blancas lighthouse was originally 100 feet high to the top of the ventilator ball, but earthquakes damaged the structure over the years. On December 31,1948, final damage from an earthquake centered 6 miles off the point led to the decision to remove the three floors, the fourth landing, watch room, and lantern. Missing the ornate upper floors, the lighthouse now stands about 70 feet tall. The lens was moved and is on display in the community of Cambria. A sound signal was added in 1906, in 1939, management was transferred from the United States Lighthouse Service to the United States Coast Guard. In 1975, the light was automated, the sound signal removed, a group of biologists with the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service received permission to establish a biological research station in 1977. The Piedras Blancas Light Station Association is a partner of the BLM, helping to raise funds for restoration. The lighthouse continues to serve as an aid to navigation, a Vega VRB-25 produces a flash every 10 seconds. The light station is managed as a park and wildlife sanctuary. The Piedras Blancas Light Station has been designated as an Outstanding Natural Area, access to the 19-acre site is by guided tours, available every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday year round. From June 15 through August 31, tours are offered Mondays through Saturdays, the fee is $10 for adults, $5 for ages 6 to 17, and free for ages 5 and under. Special tours for parties of 10 or more may be arranged, the tour lasts two hours and includes the historic lighthouse and support buildings, wildlife viewing, and spectacular scenery along an easy half-mile interpretive trail. The largest elephant seal rookery on the West Coast is located about a mile south of the lighthouse along California Highway One, a large parking area and boardwalk offer easy access to view the elephant seals. Docents from Friends of the Elephant Seal provide insight as to what the visitor is viewing, Piedras Blancas State Marine Reserve and Marine Conservation Area are marine protected areas offshore from Piedras Blancas Light Station. Like underwater parks, these protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife. The 1959 movie The Monster of Piedras Blancas was not shot at Point Piedras Blancas,2008, Arcadia Images of America series. ISBN 978-0738558196 United States Coast Guard Piedras Blancas Light Station Outstanding Natural Area, Bureau of Land Management Piedras Blancas Light Station Association
