1.
West Java
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West Java is a province of Indonesia. The provinces population is 46.3 million and it is the most populous, all these cities are suburban to Jakarta. The oldest human inhabitant archaeological findings in the region were unearthed in Anyer with evidence of bronze, the prehistoric Buni culture clay pottery were later developed with evidence found in Anyer to Cirebon. Artefacts, such as food and drink containers, were mostly as burial gifts. Records of Tarumanegaras administration lasted until the sixth century, which coincides with the attack of Srivijaya, the Sunda Kingdom subsequently became the ruling power of the region, as recorded on the Kebon Kopi II inscription. An Ulama, Sunan Gunung Jati, settled in Cirebon, with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in the pagan town, in the meantime, the Sultanate of Demak in central Java grew to an immediate threat against the Sunda kingdom. To defend against the threat, Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa signed a treaty with the Portuguese in 1512, in return, the Portuguese were granted an accession to build fortresses and warehouses in the area, as well as form trading agreements with the kingdom. This first international treaty of West Java with the Europeans was commemorated by the placement of the Padrao stone monument at the bank of the Ciliwung River in 1522, although the treaty with the Portuguese had been established, it could not come to realization. Sunda Kalapa harbour fell under the alliance of the Sultanate of Demak, in 1524/1525, their troops under Sunan Gunung Jati also seized the port of Banten and established the Sultanate of Banten which was affiliating with the Sultanate of Demak. The war between the Sunda kingdom with Demak and Cirebon sultanates then continued for five years until a treaty were made in 1531 between King Surawisesa and Sunan Gunung Jati. From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, alias Prabu Surya Kencana, after 1576, the kingdom could not maintain its capital at Pakuan Pajajaran and gradually the Sultanate of Banten took over the former Sunda kingdoms region. The Mataram Sultanate from central Java also seized the Priangan region, in the sixteenth century, the Dutch and the British trading companies established their trading ships in West Java after the falldown of Sultanate of Banten. For the next three hundred years, West Java fell under the Dutch East Indies administration, West Java was officially declared as a province of Indonesia in 1950, referring to a statement from Staatblad number 378. On October 17,2000, as part of nationwide political decentralization, Banten was separated from West Java, there have been recent proposals to rename the province Pasundan after the historical name for West Java. Since the creation of West Bandung Regency in 2008, the Province of West Java has been subdivided into 9 cities and 17 regencies and these 26 cities and regencies are divided into 620 districts, which comprise 1,576 urban villages and 4,301 rural villages. West Java borders Jakarta and Banten province to the west, to the north is the Java Sea. To the south is the Indian Ocean, unlike most other provinces in Indonesia which have their capitals in coastal areas, the provincial capital, Bandung, is located in the mountainous area in the centre of the province. Banten Province was formerly part of West Java Province but was created a province in 2000
2.
University of Indonesia
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Universitas Indonesia is a state university in Depok, West Java and Salemba, Jakarta, Indonesia. Universitas Indonesia is the oldest tertiary-level educational institution in Indonesia, UI is generally considered as the most prestigious university in Indonesia, along with Bandung Institute of Technology and Gadjah Mada University. In the 2015/2016 QS World Universities Ranking, UI is ranked 1st in Indonesia, 79th in Asia, the roots of UI date back to 1851. At that time, the government of the Dutch East Indies established a school to train medical assistants. Training lasted for two years, and the graduates were certified to provide medical treatments. The degree conferred was Javanese Doctor, as the graduates were certified only to open their practice in the Dutch East Indies, the program became more comprehensive, by 1864 it was expanded to three years. By 1875, the program of study had reached seven years, the next step came in 1898, when the Dutch East Indies government established a new school to train medical doctors, named STOVIA. A school building was opened in March 1902, in a building that is now the Museum of National Awakening, the prerequisite to enter STOVIA was roughly the equivalent of a junior high school diploma. The schooling took nine years, so it was a mix between high school and university education, many STOVIA graduates later played important roles in Indonesias national movement toward independence, as well in developing medical education in Indonesia. In 1924, the government again decided to open a new tertiary-level educational facility. The RHS would later evolve into the Faculty of Law, in 1927, STOVIAs status was changed to that of a full tertiary-level institution and its name was changed to GHS. The GHS occupied the main building and used the same teaching hospital as the current Faculty of Medicine. Many GHS alumni would later play roles in establishing Universitas Indonesia, after Indonesia gained independence, the Indonesian Institute for Higher Education was established in Jakarta consisting of three faculties, Medicine and Pharmacy, Letters, and Law. The institute produced its first 90 graduate students as medical doctors in the same year, when the Dutch colonial army occupied Jakarta in late 1945, the BPTRI moved to Klaten, Surakarta, Yogyakarta, Surabaya and Malang. In 1946, the Dutch colonial government established the Nood Universiteit or Emergency University at Jakarta, in 1947, the name was changed to Universiteit van Indonesië or Universitas Indonesia. Following the Indonesian National Revolution, the government established a university in Jakarta in February 1950. The name was Universiteit Indonesia, comprising the BPTRI units and the former UVI, by 1950, UI was a multi-campus university, with faculties in Jakarta, Bogor, Bandung, Surabaya, and Makassar. The Surabaya campus became the University of Airlangga in 1954, in the following year, the Makassar campus became the University of Hasanuddin
3.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
4.
International Institute of Social Studies
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The International Institute of Social Studies of Erasmus University Rotterdam in The Hague is a unique, independent and international graduate school in the social sciences. The Dutch government set up a development institute, the Institute of Social Studies and it was the first of its kind in Europe, an innovative and far-reaching move that was to prove well ahead of its time. It would provide much needed assistance, influencing the thinking of future policy-makers, in January 1952, the Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation was created to facilitate and oversee the work. It is one of the oldest and largest centres for the study and research of social, political and economic development. It is not to be confused with the Institute of Social Studies Trust in Delhi, India or with the Institute of Social Studies, ISS is based in The Hague. It has around 62 academic staff and 280 full- time students. In addition to its teaching and research, ISS is active in the fields of advisory work and institutional capacity building projects. All ISS activities are characterised by an approach and are conducted by an international staff which reflects a broad range of experience. ISS is a member of The Hague Academic Coalition which is a consortium of institutions in the fields of international relations, international law. It is also affiliated with Ceres Utrecht, which is part of the Interuniversitary Research School for Resource Studies for Development, ISS is one of the founding partners of The Hague Institute for Global Justice, a newly established research institute in The Hague. ISS was founded in 1952 by the Dutch government to assist in the training and further education of professionals, especially, ISS is part of Erasmus University Rotterdam. When the ISS was created, the idea was to train and bring to the Netherlands young, bright people, mainly government employees initially, from mainly post-colonial countries. This was one way in which the Netherlands sought to develop relationships with intellectuals and policy makers in partner countries, including. More recently the profile of students who come to study for Masters, the Institutes former academic staff and students form a kind of diasporic community that often retain close ties to the Institute. Their shared concerns include thinking outside the box of conventional economic development policies, there is a shared view that good practice and good analysis should go together in the world of development. Across interests as diverse as development economics, human rights, women and gender and agrarian change, ISS students, a strong historical trend has been to study and research alternatives to mainstream thinking about development. A wide range of disciplines is represented, from economics to womens studies, across all the work of the ISS, what seems to emerge as a common theme is the question of how theory and practice connect in constructing development outcomes. ISS research is at the edge of a range of development-related areas. Many articles and books have published on a regular basis by ISS staff to share the findings of their academic work
5.
The Hague
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The Hague is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands, and the capital city of the province of South Holland. With a population of 520,704 inhabitants and more than one million including the suburbs, it is the third-largest city of the Netherlands. The Rotterdam The Hague Metropolitan Area, with a population of approximately 2.7 million, is the 12th-largest in the European Union and the most populous in the country. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation. The Hague is the seat of the Dutch government, parliament, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State, but the city is not the capital of the Netherlands, which constitutionally is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands plans to live at Huis ten Bosch and works at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, the Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and numerous other major Dutch companies. The Hague originated around 1230, when Count Floris IV of Holland purchased land alongside a pond, in 1248, his son and successor William II, King of the Romans, decided to extend the residence to a palace, which would later be called the Binnenhof. He died in 1256 before this palace was completed but parts of it were finished by his son Floris V, of which the Ridderzaal and it is still used for political events, such as the annual speech from the throne by the Dutch monarch. From the 13th century onwards, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative centre, the village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as Haga in a charter dating from 1242. In the 15th century, the smarter des Graven hage came into use, literally The Counts Wood, with connotations like The Counts Hedge, s-Gravenhage was officially used for the city from the 17th century onwards. Today, this name is used in some official documents like birth. The city itself uses Den Haag in all its communication and their seat was located in The Hague. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, the absence of city walls proved disastrous, in 1575, the States of Holland even considered demolishing the city but this proposal was abandoned, after mediation by William of Orange. From 1588, The Hague also became the seat of the government of the Dutch Republic, in order for the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, city rights have no place anymore, only in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was a puppet state of the First French Empire, was the settlement granted city rights by Louis Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars, modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to form a buffer against France, as a compromise, Brussels and Amsterdam alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, when the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The growing city annexed the rural municipality of Loosduinen partly in 1903, the city sustained heavy damage during World War II
6.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
7.
London School of Economics
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The London School of Economics is a public research university located in London, England and a constituent college of the federal University of London. LSE is located in Westminster, central London, near the boundary between Covent Garden and Holborn, the area is historically known as Clare Market. The LSE has more than 10,000 students and 3,300 staff and it had a total income of £340.7 million in 2015/16, of which £30.3 million was from research grants. 155 nationalities are represented amongst LSEs student body and the school has the highest percentage of students of all British universities. Despite its name, the school is organised into 25 academic departments and institutes which conduct teaching and research across a range of legal studies, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, the School had the highest proportion of world-leading research among research submitted of any British non-specialist university. The LSE is usually considered part of the triangle of highly research-intensive universities in southeast England. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. LSE has produced notable alumni in the fields of law, history, economics, philosophy, business, literature, media. Alumni and staff include 52 past or present heads of state or government and 20 members of the current British House of Commons. To 2016, 27% of all the Nobel Prizes in Economics have been awarded or jointly awarded to LSE alumni, current staff or former staff, LSE alumni and staff have also won 3 Nobel Peace Prizes, and 2 Nobel Prizes in Literature. Out of all European universities, LSE has educated the most billionaires according to a 2014 global census of U. S dollar billionaires, LSE graduates earn higher incomes on average than those of any other British university. The London School of Economics was founded in 1895 by Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Hutchinson, a lawyer and member of the Fabian Society, left the money in trust, to be put towards advancing its objects in any way they deem advisable. The five trustees were Sidney Webb, Edward Pease, Constance Hutchinson, William de Mattos, LSE records that the proposal to establish the school was conceived during a breakfast meeting on 4 August 1894, between the Webbs, Graham Wallas and George Bernard Shaw. The proposal was accepted by the trustees in February 1895 and LSE held its first classes in October of that year, in rooms at 9 John Street, Adelphi, in the City of Westminster. The School joined the federal University of London in 1900, and was recognised as a Faculty of Economics of the university, the University of London degrees of BSc and DSc were established in 1901, the first university degrees dedicated to the social sciences. Expanding rapidly over the years, the school moved initially to the nearby 10 Adelphi Terrace, then to Clare Market. The foundation stone of the Old Building, on Houghton Street, was laid by King George V in 1920, the 1930s economic debate between LSE and Cambridge is well known in academic circles. The dispute also concerned the question of the role
8.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
9.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
10.
Second Sjahrir Cabinet
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The second Sjahrir Cabinet was the third Indonesian cabinet and the second formed by Sutan Sjahrir. It served from March to June 1946, the first Sjahrir cabinet had been forced to resign by Tan Malaka and his opposition Struggle. Sukarno, with the support of the Central Indonesian National Committee, the KNIP asked Sjahrir to form a cabinet including a wider range of opinion. Sjahrir agreed on the condition he would have the say in the choice of members. Ten of the members of the previous cabinet served in the new cabinet and it contained members from a range of political parties, but Sjahrirs group was still dominant. Darmawan Mangoenkoesoemo was appointed Minister of Welfare and Saksono as Junior Minister of Welfare, the second Sjahrir cabinet fell because of the kidnapping of Sjahrir and Darmawan Mangoenkoesoemo on 27 June 1946 by soldiers commanded by General Sudarsono. Like other opposition forces, they believed the government had betrayed the ideal of independence by negotiating with the Dutch. The rest of the cabinet held a meeting chaired by Amir Sjarifuddin, the president took control of the government by a decree issued on 28 June. This decree returned Indonesia to a system and dissolved the cabinet. N. H. Kabinet-Kabinet Republik Indonesia, Dari Awal Kemerdekaan Sampai Reformasi, Jakarta, Djambatan, pp. 29–41, ISBN 979-428-499-8
11.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
12.
Suharto
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Suharto was the second President of Indonesia, holding the office for 31 years from the ousting of Sukarno in 1967 until his resignation in 1998. Suharto was born in a village, Kemusuk, in the Godean area near the city of Yogyakarta. He grew up in humble circumstances and his Javanese Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he was passed between foster parents for much of his childhood. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, Suharto served in Japanese-organised Indonesian security forces, Indonesias independence struggle saw his joining the newly formed Indonesian army. Suharto rose to the rank of major general following Indonesian independence, an attempted coup on 30 September 1965 allegedly backed by the Indonesian Communist Party was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led an anti-communist purge which the CIA described as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century and Suharto wrested power from Indonesias founding president and he was appointed acting president in 1967, replacing Indonesian founding father Sukarno, and elected President the following year. He then mounted a campaign known as De-Soekarnoization in an effort to reduce the former Presidents influence. Support for Suhartos presidency was strong throughout the 1970s and 1980s, by the 1990s, the New Orders authoritarianism and widespread corruption were a source of discontent and, following a severe financial crisis, led to widespread unrest and his resignation in May 1998. Suharto died in 2008 and was given a state funeral, the legacy of Suhartos 31-year rule is debated both in Indonesia and abroad. Under his New Order administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government, an ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-Communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialisation, dramatically improving health, education, plans to bestow Suharto with a National Hero title are currently being considered by the Indonesian government and has been highly debated in Indonesia. According to Transparency International, Suharto is the most corrupt leader in modern history, Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 during the Dutch East Indies era, in a plaited bamboo walled house in the hamlet of Kemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean. The village is 15 kilometres west of Yogyakarta, the heartland of the Javanese. Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the child of his fathers second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage, and was a village irrigation official and his mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related to Sultan Hamengkubuwono V by his first concubine. Five weeks after Suhartos birth, his mother suffered a breakdown and he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt. Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suhartos life and both later remarried, at the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies. Over the following two years, he was back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father
13.
B. J. Habibie
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Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie pronunciation is an Indonesian engineer who was President of Indonesia from 1998 to 1999. He succeeded Suharto, who resigned in 1998 and his presidency is seen as a transition to the post-Suharto era. Upon becoming president, he liberalized Indonesias press and political party laws, and held an early election in 1999. His presidency was the third, and the shortest, after independence, Habibie was born in Parepare, South Sulawesi Province to Alwi Abdul Jalil Habibie and R. A. Tuti Marini Puspowardojo. His father was an agriculturist from Gorontalo descent and his mother was a Javanese noblewoman from Yogyakarta and his parents met while studying in Bogor. Habibies father died when he was 14 years old, in 1960, Habibie received a engineers degree in Germany with the title Diplom-Ingenieur. He remained in Germany as an assistant under Hans Ebner at the Lehrstuhl und Institut für Leichtbau. In 1962, Habibie returned to Indonesia for three months on sick leave, during this time, he was reacquainted with Hasri Ainun, the daughter of R. Mohamad Besari. Habibie had known Hasri Ainun in childhood, junior school and in senior high school at SMA Kristen Dago. The two married on 12 May 1962, returning to Germany shortly afterwards, Habibie and his wife settled in Aachen for a short period before moving to Oberforstbach. In May 1963 they had a son, Ilham Akbar Habibie, when Habibies minimum wage salary forced him into part-time work, he found employment with the automotive marque Talbot, where he became an advisor. Habibie worked on two projects received funding from Deutsche Bundesbahn. Due to his work with Makosh, the head of train constructions offered his position to Habibie upon retirement three years later, but Habibie refused. In 1965, Habibie delivered his thesis in engineering and received the grade of very good for his dissertation. During the same year, he accepted Hans Ebners offer to continue his research on Thermoelastisitas and work toward his Habilitation and his thesis about light construction for supersonic or hypersonic states also attracted offers of employment from companies such as Boeing and Airbus, which Habibie again declined. Habibie did accept a position with Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm in Hamburg, there, he developed theories on thermodynamics, construction, and aerodynamics known as the Habibie Factor, Habibie Theorem, and Habibie Method, respectively. He worked for Messerschmit on the development of the Airbus A-300B aircraft, in 1974, he was promoted to vice president of the company. In 1974, Suharto recruited Habibie to return to Indonesia as part of Suhartos drive to industrialize, Habibie initially served as a special assistant to Ibnu Sutowo, the CEO of state oil company Pertamina
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Abdurrahman Wahid
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Abdurrahman Wahid, born Abdurrahman ad-Dakhil, colloquially known as Gus Dur, was an Indonesian Muslim religious and political leader who served as the President of Indonesia from 1999 to 2001. The long-time president of the Nahdlatul Ulama and the founder of the National Awakening Party and his popular nickname Gus Dur, is derived from Gus, a common honorific for a son of kyai, from short-form of bagus, and Dur, short-form of his name, Abdurrahman. Abdurrahman ad-Dakhil Wahid was born on the day of the eighth month of the Islamic calendar in 1940 in Jombang, East Java to Abdul Wahid Hasyim. This led to a belief that he was born on 4 August, instead, using the Islamic calendar to mark his birth date meant that he was born on 4 Shaaban. He was named after Abd ar-Rahman I of the Umayyad Caliphate who brought Islam to Spain and was thus nicknamed ad-Dakhil and his name is stylized in the traditional Arabic naming system as Abdurrahman, son of Wahid. His family is Javanese of mixed Chinese-Arabic origins with some native blood and he was the oldest of his five siblings, and was born into a very prestigious family in the East Java Muslim community. His paternal grandfather, Hasyim Asyari was the founder of Nahdlatul Ulama while his maternal grandfather, Wahids father, Wahid Hasyim, was involved in the nationalist movement and would go on to be Indonesias first Minister of Religious Affairs. At the end of the war in 1949, Wahid moved to Jakarta as his father had been appointed Minister of Religious Affairs and he was educated in Jakarta, going to KRIS Primary School before moving to Matraman Perwari Primary School. Wahid was also encouraged to read books, magazines. He stayed in Jakarta with his family even after his fathers removal as Minister of Religious Affairs in 1952, in April 1953, Wahids father died after being involved in a car crash. In 1954, Wahid began Junior High School and that year, he failed to graduate to the next year and was forced to repeat. His mother then made the decision to him to Yogyakarta to continue his education. In 1957, after graduating from Junior High School, he moved to Magelang to begin Muslim Education at Tegalrejo Pesantren and he completed the pesantren course in two years instead of the usual four. In 1959, he moved back to Jombang to Pesantren Tambakberas, there, while continuing his own education, Wahid also received his first job as a teacher and later on as headmaster of a madrasah affiliated with the pesantren. Wahid also found employment as a journalist for such as Horizon. In 1963, Wahid received a scholarship from the Ministry of Religious Affairs to study at Al Azhar University in Cairo and he left for Egypt in November 1963. Instead of attending classes, Wahid spent 1964 enjoying life in Egypt, Wahid was also involved with the Association of Indonesian Students and became a journalist for the associations magazine. In Egypt, Wahid found employment with the Indonesian Embassy and it was during his stint with the embassy that coup attempt was launched by the 30 September Movement, which the Communist Party of Indonesia was accused of leading
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Megawati Sukarnoputri
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Megawati is the leader of the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, one of Indonesias largest political parties. She is the daughter of Indonesias first president, Sukarno, Megawati has been Indonesias only female president and the sixth woman to lead a Muslim-majority country. She is also the first Indonesian leader to be born after Indonesia proclaimed independence, after serving as vice-president to Abdurrahman Wahid, Megawati became president when Wahid was removed from office in 2001. She ran for re-election in the 2004 presidential election, but was defeated by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and she sought a rematch in the 2009 presidential election, losing again to Yudhoyono. Megawati was born in Yogyakarta to Sukarno, who had declared Indonesias independence from the Netherlands in 1945 and Fatmawati, Megawati was Sukarnos second child and first daughter. She grew up in her fathers Merdeka Palace and she danced for her fathers guests and developed a gardening hobby. Megawati was 19 when her father relinquished power in 1966 and was succeeded by a government which came to be led by President Suharto. Sukarnos family was pushed into the background by the new government, Megawati attended Padjadjaran University in Bandung to study agriculture but dropped out in 1967 to be with her father following his fall. In 1970, the year her father died, Megawati went to the University of Indonesia to study psychology and she is a practising Muslim but also follows traditional Javanese beliefs. Sukarnoputri is a patronymic, not a name, Javanese often do not have family names. She is often referred to as simply Megawati or Mega, derived from Sanskrit meaning cloud goddess, in a speech to the students of the Sri Sathya Sai Primary School, she mentioned that Biju Patnaik, former Chief minister of Odisha, India, named her at Sukarnos request. In 1986, Suharto gave the status of Proclamation Hero to Sukarno in a ceremony attended by Megawati, Suhartos acknowledgment enabled the Indonesian Democratic Party, a government-sanctioned party, to campaign on Sukarno nostalgia in the lead-up to the 1987 legislative elections. Up to that time, Megawati had seen herself as a housewife, PDI accepted Megawati to boost their own image. Megawati quickly became popular, her status as Sukarnos daughter offsetting her lack of oratorical skills, although PDI came last in the elections, Megawati was elected to the DPR. Like all members of the DPR she also became a member of the Peoples Consultative Assembly, Megawati was not reelected, but continued as a PDI member. In December 1993, PDI held a National Congress, as was always the case when New Order opposition parties held their congresses, the Government actively interfered. As the Congress approached, three individuals contended for the Chair of PDI, the incumbent, Suryadi, had become critical of the Government. The second was Budi Harjono a Government-friendly figure whom the Government backed and her candidacy received such overwhelming support that her election at the Congress became a formality
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Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
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Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono GCB AC DUT is an Indonesian politician and retired Army general officer who was the President of Indonesia from 2004 to 2014. He is currently the chairman of the Democratic Party of Indonesia and President of the Assembly, Yudhoyono won the 2004 presidential election, defeating incumbent President Megawati Sukarnoputri. Widely known in Indonesia by his initials SBY, he was sworn into office on 20 October 2004 and he was born in Tremas, a village in Arjosari, Pacitan Regency, East Java, to a lower-middle-class family and is the son of Raden Soekotjo and Siti Habibah. His name is Javanese, with Sanskrit roots, Susilo comes from the words su-, meaning good and -sila, meaning behaviour, conduct or moral. Bambang is a male name in Javanese, meaning knight. Yudhoyono comes from the words yuddha -meaning battle, fight, and yana, thus his name roughly translates to well behaved knight. Yudhoyono had wanted to join the army since he was a child, in school, he developed a reputation as an academic achiever, excelling in writing poems, short stories, and play-acting. Yudhoyono was also talented in music and sport, reflected when he and his friends established a club called Klub Rajawali. When he was in grade, Yudhoyono visited the Indonesian Armed Forces Academy. After seeing the training there and perhaps inspired by his own fathers career, Yudhoyono became determined to join Indonesian Armed Forces. Yudhoyono planned to enlist after graduating high school in 1968, however. There, he was able to prepare everything for the phase of his education at Akabri. Yudhoyono officially entered AKABRI in 1970 after passing the test in Bandung, Yudhoyono spent three years at Indonesian Armed Forces Academy and became the Commander of the Cadet Corps Division there. He graduated from AKABRI as second lieutenant in 1973, and as the best graduate of the year, after graduating, Yudhoyono joined the Army Strategic Reserve and became a platoon commander in the 330th Airborne Battalion. Aside from leading his troops, Yudhoyono was also tasked with giving the battalion soldiers lessons on general knowledge, Yudhoyonos proficiency in English was one of the reasons why he was sent to the United States to undertake the Airborne and Ranger Courses at Fort Benning in 1975. Yudhoyono returned to Indonesia in 1976 where he became a commander in the 305th Battalion. Yudhoyono had several tours of duty there and, like many other Indonesian officers involved in the occupation of East Timor, was accused of committing war crimes, however, Yudhoyono has never been charged with any specific act. From East Timor, Yudhoyono became a platoon commander in 1977, an operations officer for an airborne brigade from 1977 to 1978
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Purnomo Yusgiantoro
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Alumni Loyola College High School, Semarang Engineering Degree, Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia,1974 MA. Economics, University of Colorado at Boulder Main Campus, Colorado, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, USA,1986. Mineral/ Natural Resources Economics, Colorado School of Mines at Golden, Colorado, National Defense Institute, Regular Course XXV, First Rank Award Wibawa Seroja Nugraha,1992. Professor of Development Economics Atma Jaya University and Bandung Institute of Technology, Chairman of the ASEAN Defence Ministers Meeting 2011. Chairman of the Defence Industry Policy Committee, 2010-2014, Chairman of the Meeting on the ASEAN Economic Ministers on Energy,2004. Secretary General & President OPEC, 2001-2004, vice Chairman of the Presidential Decree 133 - Restructuring of National Infrastructure, 2000-2004. Chairman of the Board of Pertamina Commissioners, 2000-2002, deputy Governor of National Defense Institute, 1998-2000. Advisory/Special Staff of the Minister of Mines and Energy, Development Cabinet VI, OPEC Governor, Vienna, Austria, from 1996 to 1998. Chairman of Working Group II for the Domestic and Foreign Marketing, Board of Pertamina Commissioners, expert team of PAHs I, MPR Working Body in preparing the Guidelines Pelita VII, 1997-1998. Working Group of the National Security & Defense Council, in preparing the Guidelines Pelita VII, members of the Department of Mines and Energy Committee in Formulating the Guidelines Mining and Energy PELITA VII. Lecturer in various courses, LEMHANNAS, SESKOGAB, SUSPIM Pertamina and PLN, SESPANAS. Consultants for Domestic/International on Natural Resources, Economic Development and Financial Management, together with another Authors, Indonesian Economic Analysis and Methodology Authored a book, International Financial Management. Authored a book, Energy Economics, Theory and Practice, awarded 15 Medals, from various institutions and organisations, domestic and abroad. Purnomo Yusgiantoro - Menteri Pemberani Tidak Populis
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Wiranto
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Wiranto is a retired Indonesian army General. He was the Commander of the military of Indonesia from February 1998 to October 1999, on 27 July 2016 Wiranto was appointed to the position of Coordinating Minister for Political, Legal, and Security Affairs, replacing Luhut Binsar Panjaitan. Both the United Nations and domestic groups have gathered evidence on this, in January 2000, an Indonesian commission placed general responsibility for these injustices on Wiranto. Some claim that Wiranto played a key role as an influence during the turbulent times of 1998 when Suharto resigned. He had the power to military rule, but refused to do so. Taufik Darusman labeled him a military reformist because Wiranto reduced the role in Indonesian politics. He initiated the reduction of their seats in parliament and separated the police from the military, nonetheless, more than 2,000 East Timorese were killed in violence under his watch, as well as 500,000 forced into displacement. Wiranto was born on 4 April 1947 in Yogyakarta to RS Wirowijoto and he was the sixth out of nine children. Only one month old, Wiranto and his family moved from Yogyakarta to Boyolali near Surakarta for safety reasons as the Dutch were planning to launch an attack on Yogyakarta, at Surakarta, Wiranto completed his primary and secondary education. When he was a child, Wiranto dreamed of a military career, however, training to become an architect was not feasible financially, so Wiranto decided to join the National Military Academy. Wiranto graduated from AMN in 1968 and spent the part of his military career in North Sulawesi. There he worked his way up from being a Platoon Commander to a Battalion Commander in 1982, from there he worked in the ABRI Headquarters for two years before joining Kostrad in 1985 as a Brigade Chief of Staff in East Java. In 1987, he was transferred to Jakarta where became Deputy Operations Assistant to the Kostrad Chief of Staff, in 1989, his career had a major break when he was selected to become an aide-de-camp to President Suharto. The position of presidential aide-de-camp was a one in the New Order regime as it became a launching pad for officers to have successful military careers. By Wirantos own accounts,2 Army Commanders,3 Armed Services Chiefs of Staffs, in 1993, Wiranto became KODAM Jaya Chief of Staff and became commander of KODAM Jaya in 1994. Two years later, he became commander of Kostrad and in 1997, was appointed Army Chief of Staff, Wirantos appointment as Commander of ABRI in February 1998 came at a crucial time. Indonesia was suffering from the effects of the Asian Financial Crisis, nevertheless, Suharto was re-elected for a seventh term as president by the Peoples Consultative Assembly as the situation continued to deteriorate. In Suhartos new Cabinet, Wiranto was named as the Minister of Defense, as the situation worsened, Wiranto tried to calm the situation down through dialogue
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Mohammad Mahfud
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Mohammad Mahfud MD is an Indonesian politician and lawyer. He is of Madurese descent, born in Sampang, a city on Madura Island and he completed his five-year term as chief justice back in April 2013 and has announced that he will not seek reelection as chief justice. Mahfud holds a degree in political science and a doctorate in constitutional law from Gadjah Mada University in Yogyakarta. Since 1984, he has also been a professor of law at the faculty of law at the Islamic University of Indonesia in Yogyakarta. He has also taught in a number of universities in Indonesia. Mahfud was appointed as Minister of Defense by President Abdurrahman Wahid on August 23,2000, following a cabinet shuffle on 20 July 2001 Mahfud moved from the defense portfolio and was appointed Minister of Justice and Human Rights. He held office briefly until Wahids impeachment by the Peoples Consultative Assembly the following month, in 2004, Mahfud became one of the National Awakening Partys nominees for the 2004 parliament election. He was successful in the elections and become a member of the Peoples Representative Council during the period 2004-2008 and he sat on a number of parliamentary commissions during his term in parliament. He served in the position until his term ended in April 2013, Mahfud attracted considerable publicity during his period at the court. Mahfud has been married to Zaizatun Nihayati since 1982, the couple has three children, Ikhwan Zein, Vina Amalia, and Royhan Akbar. Mahfud is well known as a commentator and public speaker and he often comments on issues concerning human rights in Indonesia. More recently, in September 2012 he was critical of a proposal from the National Counterterrorist Agency to certify Islamic clerics, towards the end of 2012 there was increased speculation about the possibility that Mahfud would become a candidate in the 2014 presidential elections in Indonesia. Several polls indicated high support for Mahfud amongst some groups of voters, in November 2012 he stood for, and was elected to, the position of chair of the Islamic Students Alumni Association, an influential Moslem organisation. Mohammad Mahfud MD Ketua Mahkamah Kosntitusi 2008-2011
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Marty Natalegawa
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Raden Mohammad Marty Muliana Natalegawa, more commonly known as Marty Natalegawa, is an Indonesian diplomat and was the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Second United Indonesia Cabinet. Natalegawa went to school at Ellesmere College and Concord College in the United Kingdom, from 1976 to 1981 and he earned a BSc at the London School of Economics in 1984. He then went on to study at Corpus Christi College, University of Cambridge where he was awarded a Master of Philosophy in 1985, Natalegawa also obtained a Doctor of Philosophy at the Australian National University in 1993. Natalegawa was born in Bandung, West Java and he is the youngest son of Sonson Natalegawa, who was a former director of a state-owned bank. He has also worked at the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia where he came into office in 1986, there, he worked in its Research and Development division. Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono appointed him Minister of Foreign Affairs on October 21,2009, Natalegawa is married to the Thai-born Sranya Bamrungphong. The couple have three children, Anantha, Annisa, and Andreyka
21.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Media related to Juwono Sudarsono at Wikimedia Commons