1.
Matthias Ettrich
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Matthias Ettrich is a German computer scientist known for his contributions to the KDE and LyX projects. Matthias went to School in Beilstein, as he lived with his parents in Oberstenfeld and he passed the Abitur in 1991. Ettrich studied for his MSc in Computer Science at the Wilhelm Schickard Institute for Computer Science at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen and he currently resides in Berlin, Germany. He works for Here as Distinguished Architect, Ettrich founded and furthered the LyX project in 1995, initially conceived as a university term project. LyX is a frontend to LaTeX. Since LyXs main target platform was Linux, he started to explore different ways to improve the user interface. Ettrich founded KDE in 1996, when he proposed on Usenet a consistent, on 6 November 2009, Ettrich was decorated with the Federal Cross of Merit for his contributions to Free Software. The People Behind KDE, Interview with Matthias Ettrich The People Behind KDE, Interview with Matthias Ettrich
2.
Free software
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The right to study and modify software entails availability of the software source code to its users. This right is conditional on the person actually having a copy of the software. Richard Stallman used the existing term free software when he launched the GNU Project—a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system—and the Free Software Foundation. The FSFs Free Software Definition states that users of software are free because they do not need to ask for permission to use the software. Free software thus differs from proprietary software, such as Microsoft Office, Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides or iWork from Apple, which users cannot study, change, freeware, which is a category of freedom-restricting proprietary software that does not require payment for use. For computer programs that are covered by law, software freedom is achieved with a software license. Software that is not covered by law, such as software in the public domain, is free if the source code is in the public domain. Proprietary software, including freeware, use restrictive software licences or EULAs, Users are thus prevented from changing the software, and this results in the user relying on the publisher to provide updates, help, and support. This situation is called vendor lock-in, Users often may not reverse engineer, modify, or redistribute proprietary software. Other legal and technical aspects, such as patents and digital rights management may restrict users in exercising their rights. Free software may be developed collaboratively by volunteer computer programmers or by corporations, as part of a commercial, from the 1950s up until the early 1970s, it was normal for computer users to have the software freedoms associated with free software, which was typically public domain software. Software was commonly shared by individuals who used computers and by manufacturers who welcomed the fact that people were making software that made their hardware useful. Organizations of users and suppliers, for example, SHARE, were formed to exchange of software. As software was written in an interpreted language such as BASIC. Software was also shared and distributed as printed source code in computer magazines and books, in United States vs. IBM, filed January 17,1969, the government charged that bundled software was anti-competitive. While some software might always be free, there would henceforth be an amount of software produced primarily for sale. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the industry began using technical measures to prevent computer users from being able to study or adapt the software as they saw fit. In 1980, copyright law was extended to computer programs, Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, and the Free Software Foundation was founded in October 1985
3.
KDE Plasma Workspaces
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KDE is an international free software community that develops Free and Libre software. Well-known products include the Plasma Desktop, KDE Frameworks and a range of applications designed to run on modern Unix-like. It further provides tools and documentation for developers that enables them to write software and this supporting role makes KDE a central development hub and home for many popular applications and projects like Calligra Suite, Krita or digiKam. The Plasma Desktop, being one of the most recognized projects of KDE, is the desktop environment on many Linux distributions, such as openSUSE, Mageia, Chakra, Kubuntu. It was also the default desktop environment on PC-BSD, but was replaced with Lumina. The work of the KDE community can be measured in the following figures, more than 1800 contributors participate in developing KDE software. About 20 new developers contribute their first code each month, KDE Software consists of over 6 million lines of code. KDE Software is translated in over 108 languages, KDE Software is available on more than 114 official FTP mirrors in over 34 countries. A read-only mirror of all repositories can be found on Github, K Desktop Environment was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen. At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop, among his concerns was that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the creation of not merely a set of applications but a desktop environment in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this easy to use, one of his complaints about desktop applications of the time was that it is too complicated for end user. His initial Usenet post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born, the name KDE was intended as a wordplay on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems. CDE is an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM and it was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment. The K was originally suggested to stand for Kool, but it was decided that the K should stand for nothing in particular. Therefore, the KDE initialism expanded to K Desktop Environment before it was dropped altogether in favor of KDE = Community due to the rebranding effort. The rebranding focused on de-emphasizing the desktop environment as just another product, what would have been previously known as KDE4 was split into three products, Plasma Workspaces, KDE Applications, and KDE Platform – bundled as KDE Software Compilation 4. As of today the name KDE no longer stands for K Desktop Environment, the financial and legal matters of KDE are handled by KDE e. V
4.
KDE Frameworks
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The frameworks are available for multiple operating systems. KDE Frameworks represents an effort to rework KDE Platform 4 into a set of individual and independent, the transition from KDE Platform to KDE Frameworks began in August 2013, guided by top KDE technical contributors. It should be possible to install a KDE Frameworks 5 runtime alongside a KDE Platform 4 runtime so apps can use either one, the source code in KDE Frameworks has been around since KDElibs 1. Besides the KDE Software Compilation, there may be other adopters, such as e. g. the desktop environments LXQt, MoonLightDE or Hawaii or applications such as Amarok, Avogadro, Trojitá or Subsurface. Version 3.0 of Krita, the graphics editor of the Calligra Suite. The previous version,2.8, depends on KDE Platform, since the split of the KDE Software Compilation into KDE Frameworks 5, KDE Plasma 5 and KDE Applications, each sub-project can pick its own development pace. KDE Frameworks 5 will be released on a base and use git. Platform releases are releases that begin a series. Only these major releases are allowed to break both binary and source code compatibility with the predecessor, on the other hand, releases in the minor series will guarantee source & binary portability. KDE major version numbers follow the Qt release cycle, meaning that KDE SC4 is based on Qt 4. The repository of each framework should contain a file named metainfo. yaml and this files documents the maintainer of the framework, the type, the supported operating system and other information. KConfigs maintainer is mdawson, its tier is 1, its type is functional, the Frameworks have a clear dependency structure, divided into categories and tiers. The categories refer to runtime dependencies, Functional elements have no runtime dependencies, integration designates code that may require runtime dependencies for integration depending on what the OS or platform offers. The Tiers refer to compile-time dependencies on other Frameworks, Tier 1 Frameworks have no dependencies within Frameworks and only need Qt and other relevant libraries. Tier 2 Frameworks can depend only on Tier 1, Tier 3 Frameworks can depend on other Tier 3 Frameworks as well as Tier 2 and Tier 1. The KDE Frameworks bundle consists of over 60 packages and these existed as a single large package, called kdelibs, in KDE SC4. Kdelibs was split into several individual frameworks, some of which are no part of KDE but were integrated into Qt 5.2. KDE Frameworks are grouped in four different tiers according to dependency on other libraries, Tier 1 frameworks only depend on Qt or other system libraries
5.
KDE Applications
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Previously the KDE Applications Bundle was part of the KDE Software Compilation. The bundle is composed of over 100 applications and is in the process of being ported from KDE Platform 4 to KDE Frameworks 5. Examples of prominent applications in the include the file manager Dolphin, document viewer Okular, text editor Kate, archiving tool Ark. The KDE Applications Bundle is released every four months and has bugfix releases in each intervening month, a date-based version scheme is used, which is composed of the year and month. A third digit is used for bugfix releases
6.
Calligra Suite
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Calligra Suite is a graphic art and office suite by KDE split from KOffice in 2010. It is available for desktop PCs, tablet computers, and smartphones and it contains applications for word processing, spreadsheets, presentation, databases, vector graphics, and digital painting. Calligra uses the OpenDocument format as its file format for most applications and can import other formats. Calligra relies on KDE technology and is used in combination with KDE Plasma Workspaces. Calligras main platform is desktop PCs running Linux, FreeBSD, OS X, on desktop systems, the whole range of features is available. As of 2014 Calligras efforts to create touchscreen-friendly versions are centered on reusable Qt Quick components, for smartphone-like formfactors 3rd party documents viewers Coffice for Android and Sailfish Office for Sailfish OS are available that make use of these components. The Calligra project shipped Krita Sketch/Gemini and the tablet-focused Plasma Active document viewer with Calligra 2.8, Calligra 2.9 ships Calligra Gemini, an enhanced version of Calligra Active with added document editing features and runtime switching between desktop and touchscreen interfaces. Calligra was created as a result of a split in the KOffice community in 2010, following arbitration with the community members, several applications were renamed by both communities. Most developers, and all but one maintainer, of particular applications joined the Calligra project, three applications, Kexi, Krita and KPlato and the user interfaces for mobile devices have been completely moved out of KOffice and are only available within Calligra. A new application called Braindump has been added to Calligra after the split, KOffice 2.3, released 31 December 2010, along with subsequent bugfix releases was still a collaborative effort of both the KOffice and Calligra development teams. According to its developers, this version is stable enough for real use, on 18 May 2011 the Calligra team began releasing monthly snapshots while preparing for the release of Calligra 2.4. The first version of the Calligra Suite for Windows was released on 21 December 2011, the package is labeled as “highly experimental” and “not yet suitable for daily use”. The Calligra team originally scheduled to release the final 2.4 version in January 2012 but problems in the feature of Words and Stage required a partial rewrite. Calligra 2.4 was released on 11 April 2012, Calligra 2.4 launched with two mobile-oriented user interfaces, Calligra Mobile and Calligra Active. Calligra Mobiles development was initiated in summer 2009 and first shown during Akademy / Desktop Summit 2009 by KO GmbH as a port of KOffice to Maemo. Later Nokia hired KO to assist them with a mobile version. The first alpha version was available in January 2010. Along with the launch of the Nokia N9 smartphone, Nokia released its own Poppler, Calligra Active was launched in 2011 after the Plasma Active initiative to provide a document viewer similar to Calligra Mobile but for tablet computers
7.
KDevelop
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KDevelop is a free software integrated development environment for Unix-like computer operating systems and Microsoft Windows. It provides editing, navigation and debugging features for programming languages. KDevelop 5 has parser backends for C, C++, Objective-C, OpenCL and Javascript/QML, with plugins supporting PHP, Python 3, basic syntax highlighting and code folding are available for dozens of other source-code and markup formats, but without semantic analysis. KDevelop is part of the KDE project, and is based on KDE Frameworks, the C/C++ backend uses Clang to provide accurate information even for very complex codebases. KDevelop 0.1 was released in 1998, with 1.0 following in late 1999,1. x and 2. x were developed over a period of four years from the original codebase. Bernd Gehrmann started a complete rewrite and announced KDevelop 3. x in March 2001 and its first release was together with K Desktop Environment 3.2 in February 2004, and development of KDevelop 3. x continued until 2008. KDevelop 4. x, another complete rewrite with a more object-oriented programming model, was developed from August 2005, the custom C++ parser used in earlier versions, which had poor support for C++11 syntax, was replaced by a new Clang-based backend. The integrated CMakeFile interpreter was also removed in favour of JSON metadata produced by the upstream CMake tool, semantic language support was added for QML and Javascript, using the parser from Qt Creator, alongside a new QMake project-manager backend. The first stable 5. x release was KDevelop 5.0.0 in August 2016, in October 2016, official Microsoft Windows builds were released for the first time. KDevelop uses a text editor component through the KParts framework. The default editor is KDE Advanced Text Editor, which can optionally be replaced with a Qt Designer-based editor and this list focuses on the features of KDevelop itself. For features specific to the component, see the article on Kate. Source code editor with syntax highlighting and automatic indentation, C/C++ language is now supported with a Clangs backend Project management for different project types, such as Automake, CMake, qmake for Qt based projects and Ant for Java based projects. GUI Designer Front-end for the GNU Compiler Collection and GNU Debugger, wizards to generate and update class definitions and application framework. Supported systems include CVS, Subversion, Perforce, ClearCase, Git, Mercurial, when a developer makes a change, they only must compile the plugin. There is a possibility to keep several profiles each of which determines which plugins to be loaded, KDevelop does not come with a text editor, but instead uses a plugin for this purpose as well. KDevelop is programming language independent and build system-independent, supporting KDE, GNOME, and many other such as Qt, GTK+. KDevelop has supported a variety of programming languages, including C, C++, Perl, Python, PHP, Java, Fortran, Ruby, Ada, Pascal, SQL, and Bash scripting
8.
DigiKam
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DigiKam is a free and open-source image organizer and tag editor written in C++ utilizing the KDE Platform. DigiKam runs on most known desktop environments and window managers, as long as the libraries are installed. Users can also add captions and ratings to their images, search through them, plug-ins are also available to enable burning photos to a CD and the creation of web galleries. DigiKam provides functions for organizing, previewing, downloading and/or deleting images from digital cameras, basic auto-transformations can also be deployed on the fly during picture downloading. In addition, digiKam offers image enhancement tools through its KIPI framework and its own plugins, like red-eye removal, color management, image filters, digiKam is the only free photo management application on Linux that can handle 16 bit/channel images. Digital Asset Management is the mainstay of digiKam, the 0.10 version is a hallmark in development as it integrates digiKam in the KDE Platform 4 environment, which is now available on all major platforms as Unix-like, Mac OS X, and Windows. g. Camera or lens, Marble integration for geolocation, non-modal image editor, comparison of image viewers gThumb Gwenview KPhotoAlbum digiKam digiKam user wiki
9.
Amarok (software)
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Amarok /ˈæmərɒk/ is a cross-platform free and open-source music player. Although Amarok is part of the KDE project, it is released independently of the central KDE Software Compilation release cycle, Amarok is released under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2.4 versions. The program was originally named amaroK after a Mike Oldfield album of the same name, later the artwork changed to reference Amarok, a wolf in Inuit mythology. The apps capitalisation was changed to Amarok in June 2006, a new major version of Amarok, version 2.0, was released on December 12,2008. Amarok serves many functions in addition to the function of playing music files. Amarok does not play music files embedded with DRM. Associating cover art with an album, and retrieving the cover art from Amazon. Creating and editing playlists, including smart and dynamic playlists, the dynamic playlists can use such information as the score given to a song by an Amarok script, and the playcount which is stored in the database. Synchronizing, retrieving, playing, or uploading music to the digital music players, iPod, iriver iFP, Creative NOMAD, Creative ZEN, MTP, Rio Karma. Displaying artist information from Wikipedia and retrieving song lyrics, Last. fm support, including submitting played tracks to Last. fm, retrieving similar artists and playing Last. fm streams. From version 1.4.4, Amarok introduced the integration of Magnatune, a digital music store, enabling users to purchase music in Ogg, FLAC, WAV. Some of these depend on other programs or libraries that must be installed on the computer to operate. Three main window panes, playlist browser, collection and player window, song collection, which includes specific folders on the filesystem. fm and Shoutcast. Songs can be rated both dynamically and by hand, Amarok File Tracking, Stores file checksum in the collection. This allows the file be moved around in the filesystem without Amarok losing track of the song statistics, the backend of Phonon dictates which media types Amarok can play and how they play. When using Xine, Amarok supports crossfading, but not seeking in seekpointless FLAC files, when using Gstreamer, Amarok supports seeking and gapless playback, but not crossfading. Amarok can be controlled via D-Bus, Amarok Scripts, for example, when writing lyrics fetching plugins, can be written in QtScript. Amarok 2 was released on 10 December 2008, new features include, Tight integration with online services such as Magnatune, Jamendo, MP3tunes, Last. fm and Shoutcast
10.
KDE
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KDE is an international free software community that develops Free and Libre software. Well-known products include the Plasma Desktop, KDE Frameworks and a range of applications designed to run on modern Unix-like. It further provides tools and documentation for developers that enables them to write software and this supporting role makes KDE a central development hub and home for many popular applications and projects like Calligra Suite, Krita or digiKam. The Plasma Desktop, being one of the most recognized projects of KDE, is the desktop environment on many Linux distributions, such as openSUSE, Mageia, Chakra, Kubuntu. It was also the default desktop environment on PC-BSD, but was replaced with Lumina. The work of the KDE community can be measured in the following figures, more than 1800 contributors participate in developing KDE software. About 20 new developers contribute their first code each month, KDE Software consists of over 6 million lines of code. KDE Software is translated in over 108 languages, KDE Software is available on more than 114 official FTP mirrors in over 34 countries. A read-only mirror of all repositories can be found on Github, K Desktop Environment was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen. At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop, among his concerns was that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the creation of not merely a set of applications but a desktop environment in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this easy to use, one of his complaints about desktop applications of the time was that it is too complicated for end user. His initial Usenet post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born, the name KDE was intended as a wordplay on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems. CDE is an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM and it was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment. The K was originally suggested to stand for Kool, but it was decided that the K should stand for nothing in particular. Therefore, the KDE initialism expanded to K Desktop Environment before it was dropped altogether in favor of KDE = Community due to the rebranding effort. The rebranding focused on de-emphasizing the desktop environment as just another product, what would have been previously known as KDE4 was split into three products, Plasma Workspaces, KDE Applications, and KDE Platform – bundled as KDE Software Compilation 4. As of today the name KDE no longer stands for K Desktop Environment, the financial and legal matters of KDE are handled by KDE e. V
11.
Unix-like
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A Unix-like operating system is one that behaves in a manner similar to a Unix system, while not necessarily conforming to or being certified to any version of the Single UNIX Specification. A Unix-like application is one that behaves like the corresponding Unix command or shell, there is no standard for defining the term, and some difference of opinion is possible as to the degree to which a given operating system or application is Unix-like. The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark and administers the Single UNIX Specification and they do not approve of the construction Unix-like, and consider it a misuse of their trademark. Other parties frequently treat Unix as a genericized trademark, in 2007, Wayne R. Gray sued to dispute the status of UNIX as a trademark, but lost his case, and lost again on appeal, with the court upholding the trademark and its ownership. Unix-like systems started to appear in the late 1970s and early 1980s, many proprietary versions, such as Idris, UNOS, Coherent, and UniFlex, aimed to provide businesses with the functionality available to academic users of UNIX. These largely displaced the proprietary clones, growing incompatibility among these systems led to the creation of interoperability standards, including POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification. Various free, low-cost, and unrestricted substitutes for UNIX emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, including 4. 4BSD, Linux, some of these have in turn been the basis for commercial Unix-like systems, such as BSD/OS and OS X. The various BSD variants are notable in that they are in fact descendants of UNIX, however, the BSD code base has evolved since then, replacing all of the AT&T code. Since the BSD variants are not certified as compliant with the Single UNIX Specification, dennis Ritchie, one of the original creators of Unix, expressed his opinion that Unix-like systems such as Linux are de facto Unix systems. Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley have suggested there are three kinds of Unix-like systems, Genetic UNIX Those systems with a historical connection to the AT&T codebase. Most commercial UNIX systems fall into this category, so do the BSD systems, which are descendants of work done at the University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some of these systems have no original AT&T code but can trace their ancestry to AT&T designs. Trademark or branded UNIX These systems—largely commercial in nature—have been determined by the Open Group to meet the Single UNIX Specification and are allowed to carry the UNIX name, many ancient UNIX systems no longer meet this definition. Around 2001, Linux was given the opportunity to get a certification including free help from the POSIX chair Andrew Josey for the price of one dollar. Some non-Unix-like operating systems provide a Unix-like compatibility layer, with degrees of Unix-like functionality. IBM z/OSs UNIX System Services is sufficiently complete to be certified as trademark UNIX, cygwin and MSYS both provide a GNU environment on top of the Microsoft Windows user API, sufficient for most common open source software to be compiled and run. Subsystem for Unix-based Applications provides Unix-like functionality as a Windows NT subsystem, Windows Subsystem for Linux provides a Linux-compatible kernel interface developed by Microsoft and containing no Linux code, with Ubuntu user-mode binaries running on top of it
12.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
13.
Android (operating system)
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Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
14.
Krita
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Krita is a raster graphics editor based on Qt 5 and the KDE Frameworks 5. Krita is designed to be a painting application. It has been influenced to some extent by software like Corel Painter, Krita packs with some key features different from most of its kind, including the ability to work with both bitmap and vector illustration. The developers also strive to simplify user interaction and focus on features more relevant to painting and drawing, Krita is a free software distributed under GNU General Public License version 2 and above. It was initially released as a part of KOffice version 1.4.0, the early version of Kiki was submitted to KDE forum in 2012 and was first used in Krita 2. 6s introduction booklet. A revised version was used as Krita 2. 8s splash screen, as well as the merchandise shop items and Kritas Steam box art, cover art, users may change Kritas window color theme, customize icons shown in toolbars and relocate tool dockers. Keyboard shortcuts can be edited as well, Krita allows user to save a given set of dockers as a workspace and switch between them. Users can access many frequently used functions simply by holding down modifiers and it has a large set of options available to create a no-distractions canvas-only painting mode. Krita also has a wrap-around canvas mode to create seamless textures, Krita has many raster graphics and vector tools. Each tool has its own tool options, Krita has the following vector tools, path, selection, text, artistic text, calligraphy, fill and gradient. Krita is designed towards digital painting and it has a highly customizable brush system and is shipped with more than 100 brush presets. Brush settings can be saved as presets and shared, as of Krita 2.9 alpha, it also supports multibrush painting. The result of a filter can be previewed on the image itself in realtime, Krita has multiple layer modes including, raster layers, vector layers, filter layers, programmatically generated layers, group layers and file-backed layers. Layers can have transparency, filter and local selection masks, layers can be dragged and dropped within Krita, between instances of Krita or as images to and from other applications. Layers in Krita can be rotated, scaled, converted, sheared, Kritas vector layers support text, vector shapes and filters on vector shapes. Kritas generators create pixels and can be used in generator layers, Krita has the following generators, color and pattern. More generators can be added as plugins written in C++, on Linux, if the monitor is correctly set up with colord or oyranos, the display calibration will be used automatically. Krita supports the following color models for creating and editing images, RGBA, Gray, CMYKA, Law, YCbCr, Krita supports a large number of file formats
15.
Desktop environment
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The desktop environment was seen mostly on personal computers until the rise of mobile computing. Desktop GUIs help the user to access and edit files. Instead, the traditional command-line interface is used when full control over the operating system is required. A desktop environment typically consists of icons, windows, toolbars, folders, wallpapers, a GUI might also provide drag and drop functionality and other features that make the desktop metaphor more complete. While the term desktop environment originally described a style of user interfaces following the desktop metaphor and this usage has been popularized by projects such as the Common Desktop Environment, K Desktop Environment, and GNOME. On a system offers a desktop environment, a window manager in conjunction with applications written using a widget toolkit are generally responsible for most of what the user sees. The window manager supports the user interactions with the environment, while the toolkit provides developers a software library for applications with a unified look, a windowing system of some sort generally interfaces directly with the underlying operating system and libraries. This provides support for hardware, pointing devices, and keyboards. The window manager generally runs on top of this windowing system, applications that are created with a particular window manager in mind usually make use of a windowing toolkit, generally provided with the operating system or window manager. A windowing toolkit gives applications access to widgets that allow the user to interact graphically with the application in a consistent way, the first desktop environment was created by Xerox and was sold with the Xerox Alto in the 1970s. The Alto was generally considered by Xerox to be an office computer, it failed in the marketplace because of poor marketing. With the Lisa, Apple introduced a desktop environment on a personal computer. The desktop metaphor was popularized on commercial personal computers by the original Macintosh from Apple in 1984, Microsoft Windows dominates in marketshare among personal computers with a desktop environment. Among the more popular of these are Googles Chromebooks and Chromeboxes, Intels NUC, on tablets and smartphones, the situation is the opposite, with Unix-like operating systems dominating the market, including the iOS, Android, Tizen, Sailfish and Ubuntu. Microsofts Windows phone, Windows RT and Windows 10 are used on a smaller number of tablets. On systems running the X Window System, desktop environments are more dynamic. All these individual modules can be exchanged and independently configured to suit users, not all of the program code that is part of a desktop environment has effects which are directly visible to the user. Some of it may be low-level code, KDE, for example, provides so-called KIO slaves which give the user access to a wide range of virtual devices
16.
OpenSUSE
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OpenSUSE, formerly SUSE Linux and SuSE Linux Professional, is a Linux-based project and distribution sponsored by SUSE Linux GmbH and other companies. It is widely used throughout the world, the focus of its development is creating usable open-source tools for software developers and system administrators, while providing a user-friendly desktop, and feature-rich server environment. The initial release of the community project was a version of SUSE Linux 10.0. The current stable release is openSUSE Leap 42.2, the community project offers a rolling release version called openSUSE Tumbleweed, which is continuously updated with tested, stable packages. This is based on the development code base called Factory. Other tools and applications associated with the project are YaST, Open Build Service, openQA, Snapper, Machinery, Portus. Novell created openSUSE after purchasing SuSE Linux AG for US$210 million on 4 November 2003, the Attachmate Group acquired Novell and split Novell and SUSE into two autonomous subsidiary companies. After The Attachmate Group merged with Micro Focus in November 2014, the openSUSE Project community, sponsored by SUSE, develops and maintains SUSE Linux distributions components. OpenSUSE is the successor to SUSE Linux Professional, beyond the distributions and tools, the openSUSE Project provides a web portal for community involvement. OpenSUSE offers a base with its openSUSE Leap version. Users that prefer more up-to-date free software can use its rolling release distribution Tumbleweed, Users can also use the Open Build Service. Moreover, the flexibility of openSUSE makes it easy to re-purpose for specific goals like running a web- or mail server, like most Linux distributions, openSUSE includes both a default graphical user interface and a command line interface option. The companys ability to sell an open source product was due to the closed-source development process used. Although SUSE Linux had always been open product licensed with the GPL, SUSE Linux strategy was to create a technically superior Linux distribution with the large number of employed engineers, that would make users willing to pay for their distribution in retail stores. The FTP server continues to operate and has the advantage of streamlined installs, the ISO has the advantages of an easy install package, the ability to operate even if the users network card does not work out of the box, and less experience needed. The initial stable release from the openSUSE Project, SUSE Linux 10.0, was available for download just before the release of SUSE Linux 10.0. In addition, Novell discontinued the Personal version, renaming the Professional version to simply SUSE Linux, as of version 10.2, the SUSE Linux distribution was officially renamed to openSUSE. On April 27,2011, Attachmate completed its acquisition of Novell, Attachmate split Novell into two autonomous business units, Novell and SUSE
17.
Mageia
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Mageia is a Linux based operating system, distributed as free and open source software. It is forked from the Mandriva Linux distribution, Mageia was the first Linux distribution where MariaDB replaced Oracles MySQL. The Greek term mageía means enchantment, fascination, glamour, wizardry, the first release of the software distribution, Mageia 1, took place in June 2011. Mageia was created in 2010 as a fork of Mandriva Linux, by a group of employees of Mandriva S. A. Like many other distributions, Mageia uses all major desktop environments, similar to Mandrake/Mandriva Linux, KDE is the main and the most used environment. End-users can choose from KDE and GNOME for the small installation DVD edition, any environment in full DVD edition, Mageia is planned to be released on a 9-month release cycle, with each release to be supported for 18 months. The latest stable version is Mageia 5.1, released in December,2016
18.
Chakra (operating system)
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Chakra is a Linux distribution originally based on Arch Linux and focused on the latest KDE software, intending to provide a KDE/Qt minimizing use of other widget toolkits where possible. It has been received by critics. In June 2006 a group of Arch Linux users initiated the KDEmod packaging project to improve, in December 2008 the group released their first custom made ISO with a preconfigured Arch + KDEmod + Tribe. After several releases lead developer Jan Mette suggested to split from Arch to allow for a closer integration with KDE software. On August 30,2010 the first independent version, called Chakra 0.2 was released and this ended the development on KDEmod and the project was renamed to The Chakra Project. Chakra includes both free and proprietary software, though the latter may be disabled during installation and it is only available for the x86_64 architecture, with support for i686 having been dropped in August 2012. It is based on KDE Software Compilation, Chakra does not schedule releases for specific dates but uses a Half-Rolling release system. This means that the packages of Chakra are frozen and only updated to fix any security problems. These packages are updated after the latest versions have been tested before being moved to permanent repository. This allows stable base to ensure stability to the rest of the programs, the other applications are updated following the rolling release model and are generally available immediately after their release. The Chakra website supplies ISO images that can be run from CD, the ISO images provide two versions, full edition and minimal edition. The graphical Chakra installation program is called Calamares, currently, the following main repositories exist, core, which contains all the packages needed to set up a base system. Desktop, which contains KDE Software Compilation packages and Chakra tools, gtk, which contains various well-known GTK applications. Lib32, a repository for x86_64 users to more readily support 32-bit applications in a 64-bit environment. And, testing repositories that include package candidates for other repositories, currently, the following testing repositories exist, testing, with packages for stable repositories. There are also unstable repositories that include applications that are considered to be unstable. There are also packages built right from the git, not waiting for an official release, currently, the following unstable repositories exist, unstable, which contains development versions of general packages. Kde-unstable, which contains development versions of KDE Software Compilation packages, CCR packages simplify building from source by explicitly listing and checking for dependencies and configuring the install to match the Chakra architecture
19.
Kubuntu
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Kubuntu is an official flavour of the Ubuntu operating system which uses the KDE Plasma Desktop instead of the Unity graphical environment. As part of the Ubuntu project, Kubuntu uses the underlying systems. Every package in Kubuntu shares the same repositories as Ubuntu, Kubuntu was sponsored by Canonical Ltd. until 2012, and then directly by Blue Systems. Now employees of Blue Systems contribute upstream, to KDE and Debian, during the changeover, Kubuntu retained the use of Ubuntu project servers and existing developers. Kubuntu is a trademark held by Canonical. It is derived from the name Ubuntu, prefixing a K to represent the KDE platform Kubuntu is built upon, reportedly, the same word by coincidence also takes the meaning of free in Kirundi. Kubuntu typically only differs from Ubuntu in graphical applications and tools, Desktop effects are integrated in the standard KWin installation, and enabled by default. Because Ubuntu and Kubuntu use the sources, any application intended for one is installable and runnable on the other. Consequently, it is common to see situations such as Firefox running on Kubuntu. The birth date of Kubuntu was the 10th December 2004 at the Ubuntu Mataro Conference in Mataró, Canonical employee Andreas Mueller, from Gnoppix, had the idea to make a Ubuntu KDE deviate and got the allowance from Mark Shuttleworth to start the first Ubuntu deviate, called Kubuntu. On the same evening Chris Halls from the Openoffice project and Jonathan Riddell from KDE started volunteering to the newborn Project, the Kubuntu team released the first edition, Hoary Hedgehog, on April 8,2005. K Desktop Environment 3 was used as default interface until Kubuntu 8.04 and that version included KDE Plasma Desktop as unsupported option which became default in the subsequent release,8.10. On February 6,2012, Canonical employee Jonathan Riddell announced the end of Canonicals Kubuntu sponsorship, on April 10,2012, Blue Systems was announced on the Kubuntu website as new sponsor. As a result, both employed by Canonical to work on Kubuntu – Jonathan Riddell and Aurélien Gâteau – transferred to Blue Systems. Kubuntu follows the same naming/versioning system as Ubuntu, with each release having a code name, Canonical provides support and security updates for Kubuntu components that are shared with Ubuntu for 18 months – five years in case of long-term support versions – after release. Both a desktop version and an alternative version are available, Kubuntu CDs were also available through the ShipIt service. The desktop version of Kubuntu currently supports the Intel x86 and the AMD64 architectures, some releases support other architectures including, SPARC, PowerPC, IA-64, and PlayStation 3. The minimum system requirements for a desktop installation are a 700 MHz x86 processor,512 MB of RAM,5 GB of hard drive space, if Desktop effects are desired, a supported GPU is required
20.
PCLinuxOS
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PCLinuxOS, often shortened to PCLOS, is a Linux distribution, with KDE Plasma Desktop as its default user interface. It is a free software operating system for personal computers aimed at ease of use. It is considered a rolling release, the precursor to PCLinuxOS was a set of RPM packages created to improve successive versions of Mandrake Linux. These packages were created by Bill Reynolds, a better known as Texstar. From 2000 to 2003, Texstar maintained his repository of RPM packages in parallel with the PCLinuxOnline site, in an interview, Reynolds said he started PCLinuxOS to provide an outlet for crazy desire to package source code without having to deal with egos, arrogance and politics. In October 2003, Texstar created a fork of Mandrake Linux 9.2, working closely with The Live CD Project, Texstar has since developed that fork independently into a full-fledged distribution. The initial releases were numbered as previews, p5, p7, p8 up to p81a, then p9, p91, p92. Although it retains a similar look and feel to Mandriva Linux, the code was officially forked from Mandrake 9.2 into an independent project in 2003. After three years of development, the developers took advantage of further development in Mandriva in late in 2006 for PCLinuxOS2007. In the releases before 2007, it was necessary to perform a re-installation. For 2007, PCLinuxOS used a source code snapshot from Mandriva to produce a new independent code base. This implied a shift to a modern code, which required a complete reinstallation to this version. The new version featured a new look and built-in 3D effects, a new logo was also designed for the new version, and was incorporated into the boot screen. A new login screen was designed, entitled Dark, the final/official PCLinuxOS2007 version was released on May 21,2007. The last version of the 2009 Live CD, PCLinuxOS2009.2, was released on June 30,2009, improvements included bug fixes, new backgrounds, sounds, and start-up screen, as well as quicker start-up times. It was the last PCLinuxOS live CD to ship with K Desktop Environment 3, remasters of PCLinuxOS, featuring the Xfce, LXDE, and Gnome desktops were also made available. The 2010 version of the Live CD was released on April 19,2010 and it includes the new KDE SC4.4.2, a new graphical theme and a new version of the Linux Kernel. It is also the first PCLinuxOS Live CD to include the file system support
21.
Qt (software)
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Qt is available with both commercial and open source GPL2.0, GPL3.0, and LGPL3.0 licenses. Qt is used for developing applications and graphical user interfaces, however, programs without a GUI can be developed, such as command-line tools. An example of a program using Qt is the Cutelyst web framework. GUI programs created with Qt can have an interface, in which case Qt is classified as a widget toolkit. Qt supports many compilers, including the GCC C++ compiler and the Visual Studio suite, Qt also provides Qt Quick, that includes a declarative scripting language called QML that allows using JavaScript to provide the logic. With Qt Quick, rapid development for mobile devices became possible. Qt can be used in other programming languages via language bindings. It runs on the major platforms and some of the mobile platforms. Non-GUI features include SQL database access, XML parsing, JSON parsing, thread management, several GUIs and desktop environments utilize Qt as widget toolkit. This made the work easier because very few classes in Qt depended really on the target platform, however. On some platforms Qt is the native API, some other portable graphical toolkits have made different design decisions, for example, wxWidgets uses the toolkits of the target platform for its implementations. Signals and slots A language construct introduced in Qt for communication between objects which makes it easy to implement the observer pattern while avoiding boilerplate code. The concept is that GUI widgets can send signals containing event information which can be received by other controls using special functions known as slots, metaobject compiler The metaobject compiler, termed moc, is a tool that is run on the sources of a Qt program. It interprets certain macros from the C++ code as annotations, and this meta information is used by Qt to provide programming features not available natively in C++, signals and slots, introspection and asynchronous function calls. Qt works on different platforms, the following are officially supported. There are also ports of Qt that may be available. These platforms are listed in List of platforms supported by Qt, there are four editions of Qt available, Community, Indie Mobile, Professional and Enterprise. Qt is available under the free software licenses, GPL3.0, LGPL3.0
22.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
23.
Application software
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An application program is a computer program designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an application include a processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, a media player, an aeronautical flight simulator. The collective noun application software refers to all applications collectively and this contrasts with system software, which is mainly involved with running the computer. Applications may be bundled with the computer and its software or published separately. Apps built for mobile platforms are called mobile apps, in information technology, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. An application thus differs from a system, a utility. Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, some application packages focus on a single task, such as word processing, others, called integrated software include several applications. User-written software tailors systems to meet the specific needs. User-written software includes templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics. Even email filters are a kind of user software, users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. The delineation between system software such as operating systems and application software is not exact, however, and is occasionally the object of controversy. As another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, the above definitions may exclude some applications that may exist on some computers in large organizations. For an alternative definition of an app, see Application Portfolio Management, the word application, once used as an adjective, is not restricted to the of or pertaining to application software meaning. Sometimes a new and popular application arises which only runs on one platform and this is called a killer application or killer app. There are many different ways to divide up different types of application software, web apps have indeed greatly increased in popularity for some uses, but the advantages of applications make them unlikely to disappear soon, if ever. Furthermore, the two can be complementary, and even integrated, Application software can also be seen as being either horizontal or vertical. Horizontal applications are more popular and widespread, because they are general purpose, vertical applications are niche products, designed for a particular type of industry or business, or department within an organization. Integrated suites of software will try to handle every aspect possible of, for example, manufacturing or banking systems, or accounting
24.
Usenet
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Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose UUCP dial-up network architecture, tom Truscott and Jim Ellis conceived the idea in 1979, and it was established in 1980. Users read and post messages to one or more categories, known as newsgroups, Usenet resembles a bulletin board system in many respects and is the precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSs, though posts are stored on the server sequentially, the name comes from the term users network. One notable difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the absence of a server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers that store, individual users may read messages from and post messages to a local server operated by a commercial usenet provider, their Internet service provider, university, employer, or their own server. Usenet has significant cultural importance in the world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely recognized concepts and terms such as FAQ, flame. The name Usenet emphasized its creators hope that the USENIX organization would take a role in its operation. The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, for instance, sci. math and sci. physics are within the sci. * hierarchy, for science. Or, talk. origins and talk. atheism are in the talk. * hierarchy, when a user subscribes to a newsgroup, the news client software keeps track of which articles that user has read. In most newsgroups, the majority of the articles are responses to some other article, the set of articles that can be traced to one single non-reply article is called a thread. Most modern newsreaders display the articles arranged into threads and subthreads, when a user posts an article, it is initially only available on that users news server. Each news server talks to one or more servers and exchanges articles with them. In this fashion, the article is copied from server to server, the later peer-to-peer networks operate on a similar principle, but for Usenet it is normally the sender, rather than the receiver, who initiates transfers. Usenet was designed under conditions when networks were much slower and not always available, many sites on the original Usenet network would connect only once or twice a day to batch-transfer messages in and out. This is largely because the POTS network was used for transfers. The format and transmission of Usenet articles is similar to that of Internet e-mail messages, today, Usenet has diminished in importance with respect to Internet forums, blogs and mailing lists. The groups in alt. binaries are still used for data transfer
25.
Common Desktop Environment
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The Common Desktop Environment is a desktop environment for Unix and OpenVMS, based on the Motif widget toolkit. It was part of the UNIX98 Workstation Product Standard, and was long the classic Unix desktop associated with commercial Unix workstations. After a long history as proprietary software, CDE was released as software on 6 August 2012, under the GNU Lesser General Public License. Since its release as free software, CDE has been ported to Linux, hewlett-Packard, IBM, SunSoft, and USL announced CDE in June 1993 as a joint development within the Common Open Software Environment initiative. Each development group contributed its own technology to CDE, HP contributed the primary environment for CDE, HP VUE was itself derived from the Motif Window Manager. IBM contributed its Common User Access model from OS/2s Workplace Shell, Sun contributed its ToolTalk application interaction framework and a port of its DeskSet productivity tools, including mail and calendar clients, from its OpenWindows environment. USL provided desktop manager components and scalable systems technologies from UNIX System V, after its release, HP endorsed CDE as the new standard desktop for Unix, and provided documentation and software for migrating HP VUE customizations to CDE. OSF became part of the newly formed Open Group in 1996, in February 1997, the Open Group released their last major version of CDE, version 2.1. Red Hat Linux was the only Linux distribution to which proprietary CDE was ported, in 1997, Red Hat began offering a version of CDE licensed from TriTeal Corporation. In 1998, Xi Graphics, a company specializing in the X Windowing System, offered a version of CDE bundled with Red Hat Linux and these were phased out, and Red Hat moved to the GNOME desktop. In 2001, Sun Microsystems announced that they would phase out CDE as the standard Solaris desktop environment in favor of GNOME, Solaris 10, released in early 2005, includes both CDE and the GNOME-based Java Desktop System. The Solaris 11 release in November 2011 only contains GNOME as a desktop, though some CDE libraries, such as Motif and Tooltalk. The OpenSolaris open source project did not include CDE, and had no intent to make Solaris CDE available as open source, IBM AIX Digital UNIX HP-UX, from version 10.10, released in 1996. IRIX, for a short time CDE was an alternative to IID, OpenVMS Solaris, available starting with 2.3, standard in 2.6 to 10. Tru64 UNIX UnixWare UXP/DS Red Hat Linux, Two versions ported by Triteal and Xi Graphics From its launch until 2012, Motif, the toolkit on which CDE is built, was released by The Open Group in 2000 as Open Motif, under a revenue sharing license. That license did not meet either the source or free software definitions. The Open Group had wished to make Motif open source, in 2006, a petition was created asking The Open Group to release the source code for CDE and Motif under a free license. On August 6,2012, CDE was open-sourced under the LGPL free software license, the CDE source code was then released to SourceForge
26.
Motif (software)
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Motif is the toolkit for the Common Desktop Environment and was thus the standard widget toolkit for Unix. Closely related to Motif is the Motif Window Manager, after many years as proprietary software, Motif was released in 2012, as free software under the GNU Lesser General Public License. The independent group formed to maintain and develop the software went through several manifestations, from X/Open through Open Software Foundation to its current name, Motif is the basic building block of the Common Desktop Environment, which was the standard desktop for commercial Unix. The IEEE1295 standard defines the Motif API, as of version 2.1, Motif supports Unicode, which made it widely used in several multilingual environments. The Motif look and feel is distinguished by its use of square, chiseled, three-dimensional effects for its various user interface elements – menus, buttons, sliders, text boxes, Motif was originally made available under a license requiring royalty payments. During the time when Motif was closed source software, the LessTif project was created with the aim of creating a software implementation. In October 2012, Motif was released as a source code distribution under the GNU LGPL v2.1, motifs source code is available on SourceForge
27.
Rebranding
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Often, this involves radical changes to a brands logo, name, legal names, image, marketing strategy, and advertising themes. Rebranding can be applied to new products, mature products, or even products still in development, rebranding can also refer to a change in a company/ corporate brand that may own several sub-brands for products or companies. Rebranding has become something of a fad at the turn of the millennium, the rebranding of Philip Morris to Altria was done to help the company shed its negative image. Other rebrandings, such as the British Post Offices attempt to itself as Consignia, have proved such a failure that millions more had to be spent going back to square one. According to Sinclair, business the world over acknowledges the value of brands. “Brands, it seems, alongside ownership of copyright and trademarks, computer software and specialist know-how, are now at the heart of the intangible value investors place on companies. ”As such, companies in the 21st century may find it necessary to relook their brand in terms of its relevancy to consumers and the changing marketplace. Successful rebranding projects can yield a better off than before. Due to the impact that renaming and rebranding a company can have, it is critical to take the client through the process with great sensitivity. The new company identity and brand should also be launched in a subtle and methodical manner in order to avoid alienating old customers, marketing develops the awareness and associations in consumer memory so that customers know which brands best serve their needs. Corporations often rebrand in order to respond to external and/or internal issues, firms commonly have rebranding cycles in order to stay current with the times or set themselves ahead of the competition. Companies also utilize rebranding as a marketing tool to hide malpractices of the past. Corporations such as Citigroup, AOL, American Express, and Goldman Sachs all utilize third-party vendors that specialize in brand strategy, companies invest valuable resources into rebranding and third-party vendors because it is a way to protect them from being blackballed by customers in a very competitive market. Dr. Roger Sinclair, an expert on brand valuation and brand equity practice worldwide stated, “A brand is a resource acquired by an enterprise that generates future economic benefits. ”Once a brand has negative connotations associated with it, it can only lead to decreased profitability. Companies differentiate themselves from competitors by incorporating practices from changing their logo to going green, differentiating from competitors is important in order to attract more customers and an effective way to draw in more desirable employees. The need to differentiate is especially prevalent in saturated markets such as the services industry. Organisations may rebrand intentionally to shed negative images of the past, research suggests that concern over external perceptions of the organisation and its activities can function as a major driver in rebranding exercises. In a corporate context, managers can utilize rebranding as a marketing strategy to hide malpractices and avoid or shed negative connotations. Corporations such as Philip Morris USA, Blackwater and AIG rebranded in order to shed negative images, in 2008, AIGs image became damaged due to its need for a Federal bailout during the financial crisis
28.
Konqi
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Konqi Konqueror is the current mascot for the KDE community, a small cheerful green dragon. He appears in KDE software, and on websites, including the KDE homepage. The name Konqi was chosen after Konqueror, the KDE web-, Konqi appears in 3. x versions of KDE. In KDE2. x, the mascot was a wizard called Kandalf, the design was changed after a competition, with the creator of the new Konqi being Tyson Tan. The competition winners Konqi became used officially with the releases of Frameworks. The Konqi character has a girlfriend named Katie, Katie is also the mascot of the KDE womens project. Konqi and Katie made their appearance at the KDE4.0 Release Event in Mountain View, California, USA. Her appearance was changed at the time as Konqis. Kandalf was the mascot for the KDE community during its 2. x versions. He was subsequently replaced by Konqi, a dragon, possibly due to copyright infringement issues related to Kandalfs similarity to the wizard Gandalf. List of mascots Konqi Blender Source Konqi and the Magical Rope of Curiosity video and Blender Source Files Screenshots of KDE2.0 showing Kandalf
29.
Mascot
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Mascots are also used as fictional, representative spokespeople for consumer products, such as the rabbit used in advertising and marketing for the General Mills brand of breakfast cereal, Trix. In the world of sports, mascots are used for merchandising. Team mascots are often confused with team nicknames, while the two can be interchangeable, they are not always the same. For example, the teams of the Auburn University are nicknamed the Auburn Tigers. Costumed mascots are commonplace, and are used as goodwill ambassadors in the community for their team, company. It was originally sporting organisations that first thought of using animals as a form of mascot to bring entertainment and excitement for their spectators, before mascots were fictional icons or people in suits. Animals were mostly used in order to bring a different feel to the game. The event that prompted these changes was the invention of the Muppets in the late 1960s, the puppets offered something different to what everyone was used too. It allowed to people to not only have visual enjoyment but also allowed them to interact physically with the mascots, marketers quickly realized the great potential in three-dimensional mascot and took on board the Muppet-like idea. This change encouraged other companies to start creating their own mascots, resulting in mascots being a necessity amongst not only the sporting industry, the word mascot originates from the French term mascotte which means lucky charm. This was used to describe anything that brought luck to a household, the word was first recorded in 1867 and popularised by a French composer Edmond Audran who wrote the opera La Mascotte, performed in December 1880. But didnt enter into the English language until the year after in 1881, however, before this, the terms were familiar to the people of France as a slang word used by gamblers. The term is a derivative of the word masco meaning sorceress or witch, before the 19th century, the word mascot was associated with inanimate objects that would be commonly seen such as a lock of hair or a figurehead on a sailing ship. But from then on until the present day, the term was seen to be associated with good luck animals. Often the choice of mascot reflects a desired quality, an example of this is the fighting spirit. In the United States, controversy surrounds some mascot choices, especially those using human likenesses, Mascots based on Native American tribes are particularly contentious, as many argue that they constitute offensive exploitations of an oppressed culture. However several Indian tribes have come out in support of keeping the names. For example, the Utah Utes and the Central Michigan Chippewas are sanctioned by local tribes, similarly, the Florida State Seminoles are supported by the Seminole Tribe of Florida in their use of Osceola and Renegade as symbols
30.
Gandalf
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Gandalf /ˈɡændɑːlf/ is a fictional character and one of the protagonists in J. R. R. Tolkiens novels The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. He is a wizard, member of the Istari order, as well as leader of the Fellowship of the Ring, in The Lord of the Rings, he is initially known as Gandalf the Grey, but returns from death as Gandalf the White. Tolkien discusses Gandalf in his essay on the Istari, which appears in the work Unfinished Tales. Merry he could be, and kindly to the young and simple, yet quick at times to sharp speech and the rebuking of folly, but he was not proud, and sought neither power nor praise. Mostly he journeyed tirelessly on foot, leaning on a staff, as one of the Maiar, Gandalf would have participated in the Music of the Ainur at the creation of the world. However he does not attain any prominence until the Valar settle in Valinor, in Valinor, Gandalf was known as Olórin. As recounted in the Valaquenta in The Silmarillion, he was one of the Maiar of Valinor, specifically, of the people of the Vala Manwë, and was said to be the wisest of the Maiar. He was also associated with two other Valar, Irmo, in whose gardens he lived, and Nienna, the patron of mercy. When the Valar decided to send the order of the Wizards to Middle-earth in order to counsel and assist all those who opposed Sauron, Olórin was proposed by Manwë. Olórin initially begged to be excused as he feared Sauron and lacked the strength to face him, as one of the Maiar, Gandalf was not a mortal Man but an angelic being who had taken human form. As one of those spirits, Olórin was in service to the Creator, along with the other Maiar who entered into the world as the five Wizards, he took on the specific form of an aged old man as a sign of his humility. Gandalf the Grey was the last of the Istari landing in the Havens of Mithlond. He seemed the oldest and least in stature of them, but Círdan the Shipwright felt that he had the highest inner greatness on their first meeting in the Havens, and gave him Narya, Saruman, the chief Wizard, later learned of the gift and resented it. Gandalf hid the ring well, and it was not widely known until he left with the other ring-bearers at the end of the Third Age that he, Gandalfs relationship with Saruman, the head of their Order, was strained. The Wizards were commanded to aid Men, Elves, and Dwarves, in Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age and The Istari, Tolkien fleshes out the background and the history briefly tabulated by date in Appendix B of The Lord of the Rings. Gandalf suspected early on that the Necromancer of Dol Guldur was not a Nazgûl and he went to Dol Guldur to discover the truth, but the Necromancer withdrew before him. The Necromancer returned to Dol Guldur with greater force in T. A.2460, Galadriel had hoped Gandalf would lead the Council, but Gandalf refused, declining to be bound by any but the Valar who sent him. Saruman was chosen instead, as being most knowledgeable about Saurons work in the Second Age, Gandalf returned to Dol Guldur in T. A.2850 at great peril and learned that the Necromancer was indeed Sauron returned
31.
KDE e.V.
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KDE e. V. is a registered non-profit organization that represents the KDE community in the legal and financial entities. The association supports KDE’s work in cash, hardware, and other donations, and then the use of donations to help the KDE development, “e. V. ” stands for “eingetragener Verein” which means “registered association”. The three flags on top of the KDE e. V. logo represent the three tasks of the KDE e. V. supporting the community, representing the community. In August 1997, KDE One was held in Arnsberg, Germany and its the first KDE community meeting with 15 participants, and budget is 14000 DEM. Matthias Kalle Dalheimer realized that it wasnt an idea to channel thousands of money through his personal account to run the meeting. In November 1997, Matthias Ettrich and Matthias Kalle Dalheimer registered KDE e. V. as association in Tübingen under German law, additionally they had to drag in housemates and girlfriends to reach the minimum number of persons needed to create an eingetragener Verein. On 15 October 2006, Mark Shuttleworth had become the first Patron of KDE, on 28 February 2007, Trolltech become the first corporate Patron of KDE. On 3 July 2007, KDAB becomes Patron of KDE, on 7 July 2007, Intel Corporation and Novell had also become Patron of KDE. On 4 April 2008, the KDE e. V. and Wikimedia Deutschland have opened shared offices in Frankfurt, in September 2009, KDE e. V. and Free Software Foundation Europe moved into shared offices in Berlin. In January 2010, Google becomes supporting member, on 9 June 2010, KDE e. V. launched the Join the Game campaign. KDE e. V. includes three types of memberships, Active members, Extraordinary members and Supporting Members, both natural persons and legal bodies may become members. The Active members have contributed to KDE community, the supporting members are supporting the KDE through financial contributions, consist of, basysKom GmbH, Digia, Sirius Corporation Ltd, and Google. The Patron of KDE is the highest level of supporting member, are, SUSE, Klarälvdalens Datakonsult AB, all association’s members are invited to attend the general assembly. The general assembly is often as part of Akademy, the board of directors are responsible for the operation of the association. The board of directors has five members via election held by general assembly, KDE e. V. office is located in Berlin. It has 1 paid administrative employee, called business manager, the business manager is full-time responsible for daily operations, resource acquisition and managing interns. KDE e. V. offers internships to qualified students, in Spain, the official representative of KDE e. V. is KDE España. KDE e. V. is an organization of the FSFE
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Trademark
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The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, for the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. A trademark identifies the owner of a particular product or service. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy, the owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action, the United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks. A trademark may be designated by the symbols, ™ ℠ ® A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these categories, such as those based on colour, smell. Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nations trademark law, the term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, in other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use, certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark. Different goods and services have been classified by the International Classification of Goods, in trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have used for a long time include Löwenbräu. The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266, the first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France the first comprehensive system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the Manufacture. In Britain, the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it an offense to imitate anothers trade mark with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud. In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark, in the United States, Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870
33.
Sponsor (commercial)
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Sponsoring something is the act of supporting an event, activity, person, or organization financially or through the provision of products or services. The individual or group provides the support, similar to a benefactor, is known as sponsor. Sponsorship is a cash and/or in-kind fee paid to a property in return for access to the commercial potential associated with that property. While the sponsoree may be nonprofit, unlike philanthropy, sponsorship is done with the expectation of a commercial return, while sponsorship can deliver increased awareness, brand building and propensity to purchase, it is different from advertising. Unlike advertising, sponsorship can not communicate specific product attributes, nor can it stand alone, as sponsorship requires support elements. A range of psychological and communications theories have been used to explain how commercial sponsorship works to impact consumer audiences, cornwell, Weeks and Roy have published an extensive review of the theories so far used to explain commercial sponsorship effects. Title sponsor is highest status of sponsorship and it characterizes the most significant contribution to a company in organizing and hosting an event. Often the name of sponsor is placed next to the name of competition, teams. In case of title sponsors presence the general sponsor position may remain free, general sponsor is a sponsor that makes one of the largest contributions and that receives for it the right to use the image of competition as well as extensive media coverage. If necessary, the status of the sponsor may be supplemented by the general sponsors for certain categories. Official sponsor is a sponsor that makes a part of raised funds. Typically, the status may be granted by category. Technical sponsor is a sponsor which promotes organization of sporting events through the partial or full payment of goods, participating sponsor is a company, the sponsorship fee size of which usually does not exceed 10% of total raised funds. Informational sponsor is an organization that provides support through media coverage, conducting PR-actions, joint actions. All sponsorship should be based on contractual obligations between the sponsor and the sponsored party, sponsors and sponsored parties should set out clear terms and conditions with all other partners involved, to define their expectations regarding all aspects of the sponsorship deal. Sponsorship should be recognisable as such, the terms and conduct of sponsorship should be based upon the principle of good faith between all parties to the sponsorship. There should be clarity regarding the rights being sold and confirmation that these are available for sponsorship from the rights holder. Sponsored parties should have the right to decide on the value of the sponsorship rights that they are offering
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Mark Shuttleworth
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Mark Richard Shuttleworth is a South African entrepreneur and space tourist who became the first citizen of an independent African country to travel to space. Shuttleworth funded and founded Canonical Ltd. in 2004 and as of 2013 and he currently lives on the Isle of Man and holds dual citizenship of South Africa and the United Kingdom. Shuttleworth obtained a Bachelor of Business Science degree in Finance and Information Systems at the University of Cape Town, as a student, he became involved in the installation of the first residential Internet connections at the university. Shuttleworth founded Thawte Consulting in 1995, a currently running company which specialized in digital certificates, in December 1999, Thawte was acquired by VeriSign, earning Shuttleworth R3.5 billion. In September 2000, Shuttleworth formed HBD Venture Capital, a business incubator, in March 2004 he formed Canonical Ltd. for the promotion and commercial support of free software projects, especially the Ubuntu operating system. In December 2009, Shuttleworth stepped down as the CEO of Canonical, in the 1990s, Shuttleworth participated as one of the developers of the Debian operating system. In 2004, he returned to the software world by funding the development of Ubuntu. In 2005, he founded the Ubuntu Foundation and made an investment of 10 million dollars. In the Ubuntu project, Shuttleworth is often referred to with the tongue-in-cheek title Self-Appointed Benevolent Dictator for Life, in September 2005, he purchased a 65% stake of Impi Linux. On 15 October 2006, it was announced that Mark Shuttleworth became the first patron of KDE and this patronship ended in 2012, together with financial support for Kubuntu, the Ubuntu variant with KDE as main desktop. On 17 December 2009, Mark announced that, effective March 2010, he would step down as CEO of Canonical to focus energy on product design, partnership, jane Silber, COO at Canonical since 2004, took on the job of CEO at Canonical. In September 2010, he received a degree from the Open University for this work. Shuttleworth and Kenneth Rogoff took part in a debate opposite Garry Kasparov and Peter Thiel at the Oxford Union, on 25 October 2013, Shuttleworth and Ubuntu were awarded the Austrian anti-privacy Big Brother Award for sending local Ubuntu Unity Dash searches to Canonical servers by default. A year earlier in 2012 Shuttleworth had defended the method used. Shuttleworth gained worldwide fame on 25 April 2002, as the second self-funded space tourist, flying through Space Adventures, he launched aboard the Russian Soyuz TM-34 mission as a spaceflight participant, paying approximately US$20 million for the voyage. Two days later, the Soyuz spacecraft arrived at the International Space Station, on 5 May 2002, he returned to Earth on Soyuz TM-33. In order to participate in the flight, Shuttleworth had to undergo one year of training and preparation, including seven months spent in Star City, Russia. While in space he had a conversation with Nelson Mandela and a 14-year-old South African girl, Michelle Foster
35.
Georg Greve
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Georg C. F. Greve is a self-taught software developer, academically trained physicist and author. He has been working on technology politics since 2001 when he founded the Free Software Foundation Europe, Greve has been working full-time as president for FSFE since early 2001. In June 2009 he handed over the presidency of the FSFE to Karsten Gerloff, in addition, Georg Greve also worked as a consultant, representing Google in the OOXML standardisation process at ISO and as a project reviewer for the European Commission. Greve is married and currently lives in Switzerland, in 2010 Greve was awarded the Cross of Merit on ribbon of the Federal Republic of Germany. Greve has a degree of Physics in biophysics, with physical oceanography and his interdisciplinary diploma thesis was written in the field of nanotechnology on scanning probe microscopy. Greves first software development was when he was 12 years old and his first publication of a program was in a professional journal in 1992. In 1993 he came across free software, the GNU Project, in 1998, he was the European speaker for the GNU Project and began writing the Brave GNU World, a monthly column on free computer software featuring interesting GNU projects each month. It was published on the Internet in as many as ten languages, the name Brave GNU World is a reference to Aldous Huxleys novel Brave New World. He has also networked with the Civil Society working groups on European level as well as for the working group on patents, copyrights, trademarks. Since 2009 he got the position of a CEO in Kolab Systems AG in Zürich, Switzerland, since 2010 he is also the President of the Board
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Free Software Foundation Europe
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The Free Software Foundation Europe was founded in 2001 to support all aspects of the free software movement in Europe. FSFE is a registered association under German law, and has registered chapters in several European countries. It is as an official European sister organization of the US-based Free Software Foundation, FSF and FSFE are financially and legally separate entities. FSFE believes that access to and control of software determines who may participate in a digital society, therefore, the freedoms to use, copy, modify and redistribute software, as described in The Free Software Definition, are necessary for equal participation in the Information Age. The focus of FSFEs work is political, legal, and social with the aim of promoting Free Software, in particular, it is actively promoting Free Software politically as Europe-based global competence center in dialog with politicians and press. Follows and seeks to influence legal and political activities that are contrary to the goals, provides a contact point and orientational help on all issues regarding Free Software. Works closely together with lawyers active in the Free Software area in Universities and practices in order to follow, also it cooperates with lawyers throughout Europe to maximize the legal security of Free Software. Supports, coordinates and develops projects in the Free Software area and it also provides computer resources to Free Software developers to enable them to continue their developments. Helps companies to develop business models based on Free Software or fit existing models to it, it encourages companies in their evolution to Free Software. To make it easier for companies based on Free Software to be commercially successful, helps coordinating and networking other initiatives in the Free Software area. Software patents are considered by the FSFE to be a menace to society and economy, European Union v. Microsoft In 2001 the European Union, through the DG Competition of the European Commission, started investigating Microsofts dominant position in the desktop operating systems. The Free Software Foundation Europe was invited by the EC to represent the stance of the Free Software movement and it provided strong evidence in court thanks to the effort volunteers like Andrew Tridgell, Jeremy Allison, Volker Lendeke and their lawyer, Carlo Piana. The case is now considered one of the cases in European antitrust. World Intellectual Property Organization The World Intellectual Property Organization is one of 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations system of organisations and its role is to administer 24 international treaties dealing with different aspects of limited monopolies on knowledge. As an observer to WIPO and together with a coalition of other players with similar goals. FSFE Legal Team The legal branch of FSFE that helps individuals, projects, businesses and government agencies find Free Software legal information, experts and support. FSFE Legal provides compliance, best practice, procurement and governance resources in-house, in partnership with FSFE’s associate organisations and its mission is to spread knowledge, solve problems and encourage the long-term growth of Free Software. Each month, FSFE publishes a newsletter, in multiple languages and we form a non-profit non-governmental organisation and network that itself is part of a global network of people with common goals and visions
37.
Minas Gerais
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Minas Gerais is a state in the north of Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product, Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of Brazilian presidents. With an area of 586,528 square kilometres —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. In the south, the tourist points are the mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde. The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazils most famous caverns are located there, in recent years, the state has emerged as one of the largest economic forces of Brazil, exploring its great economic potential. Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais and it comes from Minas dos Matos Gerais, the former name of the colonial province. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history, the region of the mines, and these corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access from the mining spots. The confusion comes from the fact that the term Gerais is taken as an adjective to Minas in the first version, Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeastern subdivision of Brasil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and it also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal. Minas Gerais is situated between 14°1358 and 22°5400 S latitude and between 39°5132 and 51°0235 W longitude and it is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain. Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds. Each region of the state has a character, geographically. The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining, recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. Vale do Aços largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo, now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching
38.
Bahia
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Bahia is one of the 26 states of Brazil and is located in the northeastern part of the country on the Atlantic coast. It is the 4th-largest Brazilian state by population and the 5th-largest by area, Bahias capital is the city of Salvador, located on a spit of land separating the Bay of All Saints from the Atlantic. Once a monarchial stronghold dominated by agricultural, slaving, and ranching interests, the name of the state derives from the earlier captaincy of Bahia de Todos os Santos, named for Bay of All Saints, a major feature of its coastline. The bay itself was named by the explorer Amerigo Vespucci during his second voyage and he named it after his parish church in Florence, San Salvatore di Ognissanti. Over time, the bay became distinguished as the Bay of All Saints, the state as Bahia, Bahia is bordered on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, with its Bay of All Saints the largest in Brazil. In the north, it is now bordered by Sergipe, Alagoas, Pernambuco, in the northwest, it is bordered by Tocantins. In the southwest, it borders Goiás, and in the south it is bordered by Espírito Santo, the state is crossed from north to south by the Diamantina Tableland, which divides it into two distinct geographical zones. To the east, the soil is fertile and the rain falls regularly, the western area is more arid and its predominate vegetation the cerrado. The natural aridity was greatly worsened over the 19th century by the habit of starting wildfires each year to improve the quality of the grass. The Green Road, a road that connects Mangue Seco in the far north to Praia do Forte, for this reason, the route is sometimes more than 10 km from the beach. At Praia do Forte, the road meets the Coconut Road leading to Salvador, passing through spots, in this region is located Deputado Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport. The largest bay on the Brazilian coast, the Bay of All Saints has a number of islands with tropical beaches. It is the largest navigable bay in Brazil and one of the most favorite spots for sports, due to its regular breezes, medium annual temperature of 26 °C. Major popular events and sport activities occur throughout the year, beginning on January 1, the islands of the bay are a separate attraction. Some are privately owned, others were declared a state heritage, other islands are the patrimony of 12 municipalities located around the bay. Only a few are uninhabited and many have small communities where the live on fishing. All have common characteristics, such a sea, dense vegetation, especially coconuts. Of the 56 islands, the most important are Itaparica, Madre de Deus, Maré, Frades, Medo, the Dendê Coast, south of Salvador, is surrounded by verdant vegetation, clear waters, islands, bays, coral reefs and a very diversified fauna
39.
Rio Grande do Sul
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Rio Grande do Sul is a state located in the southern region of Brazil. It is the fifth most populous state and the ninth largest by area, the capital and largest city is Porto Alegre. The state has a Gaúcho culture like its foreign neighbors and it was originally inhabited by Guarani people. The first Europeans there were Jesuits, followed by settlers from the Azores, in the 19th century it was the scene of conflicts including the Farroupilha Revolution and the Paraguayan War. Large waves of German and Italian migration have shaped the state, Rio Grande do Sul is bordered to the north by the Brazilian State of Santa Catarina, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Uruguay, and to the west by Argentina. A range of low mountains extends southward from the Serra do Mar of Santa Catarina, west of this range is a vast grassy plain devoted principally to stock-raising – the northern and most elevated part being suitable in pasturage and climate for sheep, and the southern for cattle. The coast is one great sand beach, broken only by the outlet of the two lakes, called the Rio Grande, which affords an entrance to navigable inland waters and several ports. There are two river systems in Rio Grande do Sul – that of the eastern slope draining to the lagoons. The larger rivers of the group are the Jacuí, Sinos, Caí, Gravataí and Camaquã, which flow into the Lagoa dos Patos. The Guaíba River is broad, comparatively deep and about 56 kilometres long, the Jaguarão, which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay, is navigable 42 km up to and beyond the town of Jaguarão. Its width varies from 35 to 58 km, the lake is comparatively shallow and filled with sand banks, making its navigable channels tortuous and difficult. The Lagoa Mirim occupies a position farther south, on the Uruguayan border. It is more irregular in outline and discharges into Lagoa dos Patos through a channel known as the São Gonçalo Channel. A part of the lies in Uruguayan territory, but its navigation, as determined by treaty. Both of these lakes are evidently the remains of an ancient depression in the coastline shut in by sand beaches built up by the action of wind. They are of the level as the ocean, but their waters are affected by the tides and are brackish only a short distance above the Rio Grande outlet. Fully one-third of the state belongs to the Río de la Plata drainage basin, the Uruguay River itself is formed by the confluence of the Canoas and Pelotas rivers. Rio Grande do Sul lies within the temperate zone and is predominantly humid subtropical
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Wiki
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A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
