1.
Provinces of the Philippines
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The provinces of the Philippines are the primary political and administrative divisions of the Philippines. There are 81 provinces at present, further subdivided into component cities and municipalities, the National Capital Region, as well as independent cities, are independent of any provincial government. Each province is governed by a legislature called the Sangguniang Panlalawigan. The provinces are grouped into 18 regions based on geographical, cultural, fifteen of these regions are designated with numbers corresponding to their geographic location in order from north to south. The Cordillera Administrative Region, National Capital Region, Negros Island Region, each province is a member of the League of Provinces of the Philippines, an organization which aims to address issues affecting provincial and metropolitan government administrations. A provincial government is autonomous of other provinces within the Republic, each province is governed by two main elected branches of the government, executive and legislative. Judicial affairs are separated from provincial governance and are administered by the Supreme Court of the Philippines, the provincial governor is chief executive and head of each province. The vice governor acts as the president for each Sangguniáng Panlalawigan, every SP is composed of regularly elected members from provincial districts, as well as ex officio members. The number of regularly elected SP members allotted to each province is determined by its income class, first- and second-class provinces are provided ten regular SP members, third- and fourth-class provinces have eight, while fifth- and sixth-class provinces have six. Exceptions are provinces with more than five congressional districts, such as Cavite with 14 regularly elected SP members, every SP has designated seats for ex officio members, given to the respective local presidents of the Association of Barangay Captains, Philippine Councilors League, and Sangguniáng Kabataan. The vice governor and regular members of an SP are elected by the voters within the province, ex officio members are elected by members of their respective organisations. National intrusion into the affairs of each provincial government is limited by the Philippine Constitution, the President of the Philippines however coordinates with provincial administrators through the Department of the Interior and Local Government. For purposes of representation, each province is guaranteed its own congressional district. One congressional representative represents each district in the House of Representatives, senatorial representation is elected at an at-large basis and not apportioned through territory-based districts. Those classified as highly urbanized or independent component cities are independent from the province. Local government units classified as component cities and municipalities are under the jurisdiction of the provincial government, the provincial government does not have direct relations with individual barangays. Supervision over a government is the mandate of the mayor. Provinces are classified according to annual income based on the previous 4 calendar years
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
4.
Regions of the Philippines
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In the Philippines, regions, ISO 3166-2, PH) are administrative divisions that serve primarily to organize the provinces of the country for administrative convenience. Currently, the republic of the Philippines is divided into 18 regions. Most government offices are established by region instead of individual provincial offices, the regions themselves do not possess a separate local government, with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, which has an elected regional assembly and governor. The Cordillera Administrative Region was originally intended to be autonomous, since that time, other regions have been created and some provinces have been transferred from one region to another. June 22,1973, Pangasinan was transferred from Region III to Region I, july 7,1975, Region XII created and minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions. July 25,1975, Regions IX and XII declared as Autonomous Regions in Western, august 21,1975, Region IX divided into Sub-Region IX-A and Sub-Region IX-B. Minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions, november 7,1975, Metropolitan Manila created. June 2,1978, Metropolitan Manila declared as the National Capital Region, july 15,1987, Cordillera Administrative Region created. August 1,1989, Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao created, Region XII reverted to an administrative region. October 23,1989, First creation of Cordillera Autonomous Region, ratification rejected by residents in a plebiscite. October 12,1990, Executive Order 429 issued by President Corazon Aquino to reorganize the Mindanao regions, february 23,1995, Region XIII created and minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions. Sultan Kudarat transferred to Region XI,1997, Minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions. December 22,1997, Second creation of Cordillera Autonomous Region, ratification rejected by residents in a plebiscite. December 18,1998, Sultan Kudarat returned to Region XII, september 19,2001, Most Mindanao regions reorganized and some renamed. May 17,2002, Region IV-A and Region IV-B created from the former Region IV region, may 23,2005, Palawan transferred from Region IV-B to Region VI, Mimaropa renamed to Mimaro. August 19,2005, Transfer of Palawan to Region VI held in abeyance, may 29,2015, Negros Island Region created. Negros Occidental and Bacolod from Region VI and Negros Oriental from Region VII transferred to form new region, july 17,2016, Republic Act No.10879 established the Southwestern Tagalog Region from the former Region IV-B. As of May 2015, the Philippines comprises 18 administrative regions and these regions are geographically organized into the three island groups of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao
5.
Cordillera Administrative Region
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Cordillera Administrative Region, designated as CAR, is an administrative region in the Philippines situated within the island of Luzon. The only landlocked region in the country, it is bordered by the Ilocos Region in the west and southwest, and by the Cagayan Valley on the north, east, prior to the 2015 census, it is the least populated and least densely-populated Region in the country. The region comprises six provinces, Abra, Apayao, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, the regional center is the highly urbanized city of Baguio. The region, officially created on July 15,1987, covers most of the Cordillera Central mountains of Luzon, during the Spanish occupation of the Philippines, Christianization and eventual subjugation of the mountain region proved difficult for the Spanish colonial government. Several comandancias were established by the Spanish colonial government in areas of the mountain region. Among them were Amburayan, Cabugaoan, Kayapa, Quiangan, Itaves, Apayaos, Lepanto, Benguet, Bontoc, Banaue, on August 18,1908 during the American regime, Mountain Province was established by the Philippine Commission with the enactment of Act No.1876. Amburayan was later abolished in 1920 and its territories were transferred to the provinces of Ilocos Sur. Lepanto was also reduced in size and its towns were integrated into the sub-provinces of Bontoc and Benguet, and to the province of Ilocos Sur. On June 18,1966, Republic Act No.4695 was enacted to split Mountain Province and create four separate and independent provinces namely Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao, and Mountain Province. Ifugao and Kalinga-Apayao were placed under the jurisdiction of the Cagayan Valley region, with Benguet, on July 15,1987, President Corazon C. Aquino issued Executive Order 220 which created the Cordillera Administrative Region. The provinces of Abra, Benguet and Mountain Province, and Ifugao and Kalinga-Apayao were annexed as part of the newly created region. On February 14,1995, Kalinga-Apayao, one of the five provinces of the region was split into two separate and independent provinces of Apayao and Kalinga with the enactment of Republic Act No.7878. Several attempts at legalizing autonomy in the Cordillera region have failed in two separate plebiscites, the first law Republic Act No. 6766, took effect on October 23,1989 but failed to muster a majority vote in the plebiscite on January 30,1990, at present, a third organic act of the Cordillera is in the offing supported by the Cordillera Regional Development Council. In September 2000, the council of Itogon, Benguet. The San Roque Dam was to one of the biggest dams in the world and would threaten the living environment of the Igorot. The Cordillera Peoples Alliance, an indigenous rights organization in the region, in co-operation with other organizations, had resisted this project. However, in May 2001, president Arroyo declared that the San Roque Dam project would continue anyway because it had already started, time will tell whether that promise will be kept
6.
Tabuk, Kalinga
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Tabuk is a 5th class city and the capital of the province of Kalinga in the Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 110,642 people and it borders with the town of Pinukpuk in the north and the town of Rizal in the north-east. On its westernmost section it shares border with the towns of Pasil, on the south-west it borders with the town of Tanudan. Tabuk City is a city of Kalinga with the provinces of Isabela. In the east, it is bordered by the town of Quezon, Isabela, which is about 20 kilometers from the city center, the former municipal district of Tabuk was transformed into a regular municipality by Republic Act No. During the 11th Congress, Congress enacted into law 33 bills converting 33 municipalities into cities, however, Congress did not act on a further 24 bills converting 24 other municipalities into cities. During the 12th Congress, Congress enacted into law Republic Act No,9009, which took effect on 30 June 2001. RA9009 amended Section 450 of the Local Government Code by increasing the income requirement for conversion of a municipality into a city from ₱20 million to ₱100 million. After RA9009 went into effect, the House of Representatives of the 12th Congress adopted Joint Resolution No,29, which sought to exempt from the ₱100 million income requirement in RA9009 the 24 municipalities whose cityhood bills were not approved in the 11th Congress. However, the 12th Congress ended without the Senate having approved Joint Resolution No.29, during the 13th Congress, the House of Representatives re-adopted former Joint Resolution No.29 as Joint Resolution No.1 and forwarded it to the Senate for approval. However, the Senate again failed to approve the Joint Resolution, following the suggestion of Senator Aquilino Pimentel,16 municipalities filed, through their respective sponsors, individual cityhood bills. The 16 cityhood bills each contained a provision exempting it from the ₱100 million income requirement of RA9009 – Exemption from Republic Act No.9009. — The City of x x x shall be exempted from the income requirement prescribed under Republic Act No.9009, on 22 December 2006, the House of Representatives approved the cityhood bills. The Senate also approved the bills in February 2007, except that of Naga. These cityhood bills lapsed into law on various dates from March to July 2007 after President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo failed to sign them. Tabuk became the Cordillera’s second city after Baguio on June 23,2007, the Supreme Court ruled that they did not pass the requirements for cityhood. On 10 December 2008, the 16 cities affected acting together filed a motion for reconsideration with the Supreme Court. e, the cityhood laws specifically exempting a particular political subdivision from the criteria earlier mentioned. Congress, in enacting the exempting law/s, effectively decreased the already codified indicators, a previous law required towns aspiring to become cities to earn at least ₱100 million annually, which none of the 16 did
7.
Sangguniang Panlalawigan
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The Sangguniang Panlalawigan, commonly known as the Provincial Board, is the Filipino language name given to the legislatures in Philippine provinces. They are the branch of the province and their powers. Along with the governor, the executive branch of the province. Encomiendas were organized only for the purposes of collecting tribute that went in part to the Roman Catholic Church, the Spanish army, later on areas which were organized and given the designation of province were led by an appointed alcalde who performed judicial, fiscal and executive functions. American rule brought radical changes to the system of government in the country. In 1901 the Philippine Commission enacted Act No,83, known as the Provincial Government Act, which outlined the powers, responsibilities and composition of the provincial government. As civil government took hold, the governorship was made elective, the composition of provincial boards were also later modified, with the treasurer and third member taken out and replaced by two members elected by popular vote. Not all provinces had the type of government. The passage of Republic Act No, however, the Board still had limited real legislative powers, as the provincial government was merely serving as an extension of national government. Republic Act No.5185 was enacted in 1967 with the intention of decentralizing authority,51, enacted in 1979, standardized the composition of all provincial legislatures by reducing the membership of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan. All provinces were entitled to 6 elective SP members, unless they had more than one million residents or less than 100,000 residents, the powers and duties of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan was codified under Batas Pambansa Blg. 337, also known as the Local Government Code of 1983, the governor served as an ex officio member, who did not vote except only to break a tie, but had the power to veto items within, or entire, Sanggunian ordinances and resolutions. However the veto can be overridden by a vote of all voting SP members. The Sangguniang Panlalawigan was retained as the branch of all provincial governments under the 1987 Constitution. Since 1992 SP members are elected from districts to ensure geographical representation, the powers, duties and functions of the Sanggunian are outlined in Section 468 of the Local Government Code of 1991. The legislative body is tasked in general to enact ordinances, approve resolutions and appropriate funds for the welfare of the province. In the proper exercise of the powers of the province. The provincial vice-governor serves as its officer, who do not vote except in cases to break a tie
8.
Governor
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A governor is, in most cases, a public official with the power to govern the executive branch of a non-sovereign or sub-national level of government, ranking under the head of state. In federations, governor may be the title of a politician who governs a constituent state and these companies operate as a major state within a state with its own armed forces. For example, in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, there are governors, school governors. The adjective pertaining to a governor is gubernatorial, from the Latin root gubernyare, the historical female form is governess, though female officials are referred to by the gender-neutral form governor of the noun to avoid confusion with other meanings of the term. Indeed, many regions of the pre-Roman antiquity were ultimately replaced by Roman standardized provincial governments after their conquest by Rome, in Pharaonic times, the governors of each of the various provinces in the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt are usually known by the Greek word. The core function of a Roman governor was as a magistrate or judge, and the management of taxation, under the Republic and the early Empire, however, a governor also commanded military forces in his province. Republican governors were all men who had served in senior magistracies in Rome in the previous year, a special case was Egypt, a rich private domain and vital granary, where the Emperor almost inherited the theocratic status of a Pharaoh. The Emperor was represented there by a sui generis styled praefectus augustalis. Otherwise, the governors of provinces had various titles, some known as consularis, apart from Egypt and the East, each diocese was directed by a governor known as a vicarius. The prefectures were directed by praefecti praetorio and this system survived with few significant changes until the collapse of the empire in the West, and in the East, the breakdown of order with the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh century. At that stage, a new kind of governor emerged, the Strategos, today, crown colonies of the United Kingdom continue to be administered by a governor, who holds varying degrees of power. Because of the different constitutional histories of the colonies of the United Kingdom. Administrators, Commissioners and High Commissioners exercise similar powers to Governors, frequently the name Government House is given to Governors residences. The term can also be used in a generic sense, especially for compound titles which include it, Governor-general. In the United Kingdoms remaining overseas territories, the governor is normally a direct appointee of the British Government, the Governors chief responsibility is for the Defence and External Affairs of the colony. In some minor overseas territories, instead of a Governor, there is an Administrator or Commissioner, in Australia, each state has the governor as its formal representative of the Queen, as head of the state government. It is not an office but a ceremonial one. Each state governor is appointed by the Queen of Australia on the advice of the Premier, State Governors have emergency reserve powers but these are rarely used
9.
Liberal Party (Philippines)
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It was the ruling party after the election victory of Benigno Aquino III as the President of the Philippines. Abad, Jr. Franklin Drilon, Mar Roxas, and Benigno Aquino III, the Liberal Party was founded on January 19,1946 by Manuel Roxas, the first President of the Third Philippine Republic. It was formed by Roxas from what was once the Liberal Wing of the old Nacionalista Party, two more Presidents of the Philippines elected into office came from the LP, Elpidio Quirino and the redoubtable Diosdado Macapagal. Two other presidents came from the ranks of the LP, as members of the party who later chose to follow a different path by joining the Nacionalistas, Ramon Magsaysay. During the days leading to his declaration of martial law, Marcos would find his old party as a potent roadblock to his quest for one-man rule. Led by Ninoy Aquino, Gerry Roxas and Jovito Salonga, the LP would time and again hound the would-be dictator on issues like human rights, not even Marcos declaration of martial law silenced the LP, and the party continued to fight the dictatorship despite the costs. Many of its leaders and members would be prosecuted and even killed during this time and this ironically cost the party dearly, losing for it the elections of 1992. Franklin Drilon at a party meeting at the Manila Hotel. Days later, the Supreme Court proclaimed Drilon the true president of the party, during the fierce campaign battle that followed, the party was able to field new members breaking away from the then-ruling party Lakas Kampi CMD to become the largest minority party in Congress. The party ranges from the centre-left to the absolute Left-wing politics of the political spectrum, the partys ideology is known for its pro-liberalism, pro-democracy and social justice and it has its stances against populism or any right-wing aspects. Generally, the party strictly opposes conservatism especially based on socio-politics, economy, libertarianism was one of prominent ideologies of the party
10.
Nacionalista Party
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The Nacionalista Party is the oldest political party in the Philippines today and was responsible for leading the country throughout the majority of the 20th century since its founding in 1907. The Nacionalista Party was the party from 1935–1944, 1944–1946, 1953–1957, 1957–1961. In practice, the differences between both parties are obscure as changing of party allegiance by individual politicians, especially prior to elections, has become a norm in Philippine politics. The original “Nacionalista” Party that was founded on August 21,1901 in Calle Gunao, Quiapo, Santos, Pio H. Santos, Salustiano Cruz, Valentin Solis and Jose Palma. During the Japanese Occupation political parties were replaced by the KALIBAPI, in 1978, in a throwback to the Japanese Occupation, political parties were asked to merge into the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan, although the Nacionalistas preferred to go into hibernation. Eventually, the party was revived during the late 1980s and early 1990s by the Laurel family, **in coalition with PDP-Laban Throughout their careers, many of the countrys politicians, statesmen, and leaders were, in whole or in part, Nacionalistas. Remulla Elias K. Bulut, Sr. Wenceslao Peewee B, the Nacionalistas fielded Senator Manuel Villar, Jr. and running with fellow Senator Loren Legarda who is a member of the NPC. It became the dominant minority party after a resolution passed by the COMELEC, on April 21, however it was blocked by the Supreme Court after a suit filed by the rival Liberal Party. On May 6,2010, the Supreme Court nullified the merger and it was based on a resolution by the COMELEC giving political parties to be accredited by August 17,2009. However it is being challenged by the Liberal Party calls the said alliance a bogus alliance, as well, several local races are being challenged from both parties therefore causing confusion in those races. List of political parties in the Philippines Filipino nationalism Liberal Party The Jones Act Official party site
11.
Mount Binuluan
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Mount Binuluan is a remote volcano in the Kalinga province of the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines. The 2, 329-metre-high mountain is part of the Cordillera Central mountain range on Luzon island, Binuluan exhibits active volcanism through numerous fumarole fields, solfataras and hot springs on its slope. There were reports of eruptions in 1952 and 1986. Mount Binuluan is one of the highest peaks in the area, the mountain is surrounded by the municipalities of Lubuagan, Pasil and Tinglayan in Kalinga province. Mount Binuluan belongs to a range of mountains situated between the two rivers, trending southwest to northeast. Just southwest of Binuluan is Mount Mosimus 2,178 m, followed by Mount Cauitan 2,569 m and Mount Alchan 2,567 m, the 19th and 20th tallest mountain in the Philippines. South of this line of mountains are Mount Chumangil 1,996 m and Mount Patoc 1,819 m, the Smithsonian Institutions Global Volcanism Program list Binuluan under Ambalatungan Group. The dacitic little-known cluster of volcanoes was described as consisting of three volcanoes constructed along a roughly E-W line, Binuluan volcano contains a steep-walled crater with hot springs and vigorous sulfur-encrusted fumarolic vents that produce loud noises. Bumabag volcano,3 kilometres east of Binuluan, has two craters that also show strong fumarolic activity, Podakan volcano,1 kilometre SE of Bumabag, also has a large steam vent. The Bumabag and Podakan volcanoes could possibly be flank vents of Mount Binuluan, the Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology lists Binuluan or Ambalatungan as an inactive volcano. Mount Binuluan is usually covered in cloud or mist and so photographs could be difficult to obtain, the village of Bangtitan in Upper Uma in Lubuagan is a good vantage point for views and photography of the mountain on the rare occasions when the primary peak is not mist-enshrouded. It is not known if Binuluan itself has ever been climbed as access to the site is very difficult, the terrain is rugged and undeveloped. Further groundwork was abandoned due to conflicts on the southwest flank. Mount Binuluan exhibits a number of geothermal features. The steep area is located at approximately 17°21. 078′N 121°05. 676′E at an elevation of about 754 metres above sea level. There are two active steam vents with yellow sulfuric water flowing out, as well as some other locations in the field. The rocks along the Pasil River are heavily stained orange-yellow both upstream and downstream from the Bu-ot fumarole field, Bum-bag fumarole fields, are located approximately 3 kilometres east of Bu-ot, on Batong Buhay tribal land in Pasil. The fields are on the side of the Pasil River valley at an elevation of about 1,437 metres above sea level
12.
Cities of the Philippines
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A city is one of the units of local government in the Philippines. As of December 12,2015, there are 145 cities, Cities are entitled to at least one representative in the Philippine House of Representatives if its population reaches 250,000. They are allowed to use a common seal, only an Act of Congress can create or amend a city charter, and with this city charter Congress confers on a city certain powers that regular municipalities or even other cities may not have. A citys local government is headed by an elected by popular vote. The vice mayor serves as the officer of the Sangguniang Panlungsod. Upon receiving their charters, cities also receive a full complement of executive departments to serve their constituents. Some departments are established on a basis, depending on the needs of the city. Source, Local Government Code of 1991, Cities, like municipalities, are composed of barangays, which can range from urban neighborhoods, to rural communities. Barangays are sometimes grouped into officially defined administrative districts, examples of such are the cities of Manila, Davao, Iloilo, and Samal. Some cities such as Caloocan, Manila and Pasay even have a level between the district and barangay levels, called a zone. However, geographic districts and zones are not political units, there are no elected city government officials in these city-specific administrative levels, rather they only serve to make city planning, statistics-gathering other administrative tasks easier and more convenient. Cities are classified according to annual income based on the previous four calendar years. There are currently 33 highly urbanized cities in the Philippines,16 of which are located in Metro Manila, Component Cities, Cities which do not meet the preceding requirements are deemed part of the province in which they are geographically located. If a component city is located along the boundaries of two or more provinces, it shall be considered part of the province of which it used to be a municipality, majority of the remaining cities are considered component cities. The five exceptions are listed below, independent Component Cities, Cities of this type have charters that explicitly prohibit their residents to vote for provincial officials. These cities are considered independent from the province in which they are geographically located, there are five such cities, Cotabato, Dagupan, Naga, Ormoc and Santiago. There are 38 independent cities in the Philippines, all of which are classified as highly urbanized or independent component cities. Some independent cities are still grouped with their provinces for the purposes of representation in the Congress of the Philippines
13.
Municipalities of the Philippines
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A municipality is a local government unit in the Philippines. Municipalities are also usually called towns and they are distinct from cities, which are a different category of local government unit. Provinces of the Philippines are divided into cities and municipalities, which in turn, are divided into barangays, as of June 2015, there are 1,490 municipalities across the country. A municipal district is a local government unit, previously certain areas were created first as municipal districts before they were converted into municipalities. Municipalities have some autonomy from the National Government of the Republic of the Philippines under the Local Government Code of 1991 and they have been granted corporate personality enabling them to enact local policies and laws, enforce them, and govern their jurisdictions. They can enter into contracts and other transactions through their elected and appointed officials and they are tasked with enforcing all laws, whether local or national. The National Government assists and supervises the local government to make sure that they do not violate national law, the Judicial Branch of the Republic of the Philippines also caters to the needs of local government units. Local governments, such as a municipalities, do not have their own judicial branch and these responsibilities shall be under approval of the Sangguniang Bayan. The vice mayor shall sign all warrants drawn on the municipal treasury, in circumstances where the mayor permanently or temporarily vacates the position, he shall assume executive duties and functions. While vice mayor presides over the legislature, he cannot vote unless the necessity of tie-breaking arises, laws or ordinances proposed by the Sangguniang Bayan, however, may be approved or vetoed by the mayor. If approved, they become local ordinances, if the mayor neither vetoes nor approves the proposal of the Sangguniang Bayan for ten days from the time of receipt, the proposal becomes law as if it had been signed. If vetoed, the draft is sent back to the Sangguniang Bayan, the latter may override the mayor by a vote of at least two-thirds of all its members, in which case, the proposal becomes law. A municipality, upon reaching a certain requirements – minimum population size, first, a bill must be passed in Congress, then signed into law by the President and then the residents would vote in the succeeding plebiscite to accept or reject cityhood. One benefit in being a city is that the city government gets more budget, but taxes are much higher than in municipalities
14.
Balbalan, Kalinga
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Balbalan, officially the Municipality of Balbalan is a 3rd class municipality in the province of Kalinga, Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 12,195 people and this town draws its name from an ancient practice. It was said that war parties coming from areas in northern Kalinga used to meet by a creek when mapping out their plan of attack against or when regrouping after attacking a certain village. Since they would wash their blood-stained bodies and weapons in the creek. Since its tribal war days, Balbalan has become one of the most peaceful place in Kalinga as dramatized by the selection of one of its ethnic sub-groups, the Salegseg. This period saw the rise of community leaders often mentioned in Balbalan orature, Sagaoc, Balutoc, Masadao, Gaddawan, Dawegoy, Lang-ayan, Bayudang, Gammong. When the Americans imposed their system of government over the archipelago, Kalinga was immediately reorganized into five municipal districts — Lubuagan, Balbalan, Tabuk, Tinglayan, and Pinukpuk — each led by presidents. Puyao did not run for office during the first local elections in the area in 1934, three years later, municipal chief executives became known as “Municipal District Mayors. The old Mountain Province was regularized as a “first class province” in 1959, in Balbalan, Pedro Sagalon was elected mayor. From the birth of the new Mountain Province on 18 June 1966 to 1988, from 1988 to the present, however, government records list the following as mayors, Leonardo Banganan, Edward Calumnag, Rosendo Dakiwag, and Allen J. C. Mangaoang. The present leadership of Balbalan has special significance to those who feared that the death of Juan Puyao in 1948 meant the end of his political bloodline, in the words of Kalinga historian Miguel Sugguiyao, Balbalan is politically subdivided into 14 barangays. In the 2015 census, the population of Balbalan was 12,195 people, balbalasang-Balbalan National Park Books Bacdayan, Albert. The Peace Pact System of the Kalingas in the Modern World, ann Arbor, MI, University Microfilms, Inc.1967. The Kalingas, Their Institutions and Custom Law, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press,1949. De Los Reyes, Angelo J. & Aloma M. De Los Reyes, Igorot, A People Who Daily Touch the Earth and Sky. Baguio City, Cordillera Schools Group,1986, Cordillera Almanac Vol.1, Local Government Units. Mountain Arbiters, The Changing Life of a Philippine Hill People, tucson, AZ, The University of Arizona Press,1966. The Kalinga of Northern Luzon, Philippines, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1967
15.
Lubuagan, Kalinga
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Lubuagan is a fourth-class municipality in the province of Kalinga, Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 8,733 people and it is 460 kilometres north of Manila and 50 kilometres from Tabuk. It is located at 800 metres above sea level in the part of Kalinga. It has an area of 23,420 hectares. Some of its younger generation have migrated either in the plains of Tabuk or in other provinces in search for income. Lubbuagan municipality has 9 barangays, as listed below with the 2010 census population shown in brackets, Governor E. A. Eckman, an American ex-soldier was the Chief Executive of the sub-province. Sometimes in 1907, Kalinga was separated and organized as a distinct sub-province from the Lepanto-Bontoc sub-province, Franklin Walter Hale was appointed the first Lt. Governor to establish a government in Kalinga. Bulanao Barrio, a big community of Tubog at the time. Governor Hale as the center of this Administration of government in Kalinga sub-province, but shortly thereafter, the great cholera and malaria epidemic broke out in the later part of 1907 and continued in 1908 which almost wiped out the town populace. Governor Hales was himself attacked with malaria so that he and his family were forced to leave Bulanao because those who survived the epidemic among the natives left. Governor Hale and his came up to Lubuagan in the early part of 1909 and established their quarters. Governor Hale served Kalinga up to the end of July 1915, in 1924, Deputy Governor Nicasio Balinag took over the reign of Sub-Provincial Executive of Kalinga. The colonial Civil Government notably beginning with the administration of Lt, Governor Franklin Walter Hale up to the Commonwealth government is considered the golden years of Lubuagan, the capital town of the sub-province of Kalinga. Lubuagan at that time was the center of education, culture, commerce, the Japanese Imperial army occupation came to Lubuagan in May 1942. In 1945 during the war of liberation, Lubuagan was bombed by American planes resulting in the destruction of the Lubuagan Central School which was occupied by the enemy. Lubuagan was once the capital of Kalinga sub-province before Tabuk rose to its present status as the center of learning and it is also in Lubuagan where the first instruction of higher learning in the old Mt. Province was established. In the 2015 census, the population of Lubuagan, Kalinga, was 8,733 people, st. Theresitas School, an old CICM school established in 1927, was once the educational center of the Cordillera
16.
Pasil, Kalinga
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Pasil is a fifth class municipality in the province of Kalinga, Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 9,644 people, Pasil is politically subdivided into 14 barangays. In the 2015 census, the population of Pasil, Kalinga, was 9,644 people, in an earlier time, Kabunian–the supreme deity of the Kalinga–left a drop of water upon an ancient tree he passed on one of his travels. This drop trickled down and with a force akin to magnetism, attracted nearby brooks. Pasil LGU Profile on the Local Governance Performance Management System Philippine Census Information
17.
Pinukpuk, Kalinga
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Pinukpuk is a first-class municipality in the province of Kalinga, Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 32,026 people and it is in the northern part of Kalinga province, which is a gateway to Tuao, Cagayan, and Conner, Apayao. Pinukpuk is politically subdivided into 23 barangays. In the 2015 census, the population of Pinukpuk was 32,026 people, with a density of 43 inhabitants per square kilometre or 110 inhabitants per square mile
18.
Tinglayan, Kalinga
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Tinglayan, officially the Municipality of Tinglayan is a 4th class municipality in the province of Kalinga, Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 12,868 people. Tinglayan is politically subdivided into 20 barangays. In the 2015 census, Tinglayan is famous for its local celebrity, Whang-od, who is the last mambabatok. Tourists often visit Tinglayan to see her and have their bodies tattooed, Tinglayan Travel Guide Philippine Standard Geographic Code Philippine Census Information Local Governance Performance Management System
19.
Barangay
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A barangay, formerly referred to as barrio, is the smallest administrative division in the Philippines and is the native Filipino term for a village, district or ward. In colloquial usage, the term refers to an inner city neighbourhood. The word barangay originated from balangay, a kind of boat used by a group of Austronesian peoples when they migrated to the Philippines, as of June 2015, there were 42,029 barangays throughout the Philippines. When the first Spaniards arrived in the Philippines in the 16th century, the name barangay originated from balangay, a Malay word meaning sailboat. The first barangays started as small communities of around 50 to 100 families. By the time of contact with Spaniards, many barangays have developed into large communities, some of these barangays had large populations. In Panay, some barangays had 20,000 inhabitants, in Leyte,15,000 inhabitants, in Cebu,3,500 residents, in Vitis,7,000 inhabitants, there were smaller barangays with less number of people. But these were generally inland communities, or if they were coastal and these smaller barangays had around thirty to one hundred houses only, and the population varies from one hundred to five hundred persons. According to Legazpi, he found communities with twenty to thirty people only, traditionally, the original “barangays” were coastal settlements of the migration of these Malayo-Polynesian people from other places in Southeast Asia. Most of the ancient barangays were coastal or riverine in nature and this is because most of the people were relying on fishing for supply of protein and for their livelihood. They also travelled mostly by water up and down rivers, trails always followed river systems, which were also a major source of water for bathing, washing, and drinking. The coastal barangays were more accessible to trade with foreigners and these were ideal places for economic activity to develop. Business with traders from other countries also meant contact with cultures and civilizations, such as those of Japan, Han Chinese, Indian people. These coastal communities acquired more cosmopolitan cultures, with developed social structures, during the Spanish rule, through a resettlement policy called the Reducción, smaller scattered barangays were consolidated to form compact towns. Each barangay was headed by the cabeza de barangay, who formed part of the Principalía - the elite ruling class of the municipalities of the Spanish Philippines and this position was inherited from the first datus, and came to be known as such during the Spanish regime. The Spanish Monarch ruled each barangay through the Cabeza, who collected taxes from the residents for the Spanish Crown. When the Americans arrived, slight changes in the structure of government was effected. Later, Rural Councils with four councilors were created to assist, now renamed Barrio Lieutenant, it was later renamed Barrio Council, the Spanish term barrio was used for much of the 20th century until 1974, when President Ferdinand Marcos ordered their renaming to barangays
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House of Representatives of the Philippines
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The House of Representatives of the Philippines, is the lower house of the Congress of the Philippines. It is often informally called Congress, Members of the House are officially styled as Representative and sometimes informally called Congressmen/Congresswomen and are elected to a three-year term. They can be re-elected, but cannot serve more than three consecutive terms, around eighty percent of congressmen are district representatives, representing a particular geographical area. There are 234 legislative districts in the country, each composed of about 250,000 people, there are also party-list representatives elected through the party-list system who constitute not more than twenty percent of the total number of representatives. The House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker, currently Pantaleon Alvarez of Davao del Norte, the official headquarters of the House of Representatives is at the Batasang Pambansa located in the Batasan Hills in Quezon City in Metro Manila. The building is simply called Batasan and the word has also become a metonym to refer to the House of Representatives. At the beginning of American colonial rule, from March 16,1900, william Howard Taft was chosen to be the first American civilian Governor-General and the first leader of this Philippine Commission, which subsequently became known as the Taft Commission. This bicameral legislature was inaugurated in October 1907, under the leadership of Speaker Sergio Osmeña and Floor Leader Manuel L. Quezon, the Rules of the 59th United States Congress was substantially adopted as the Rules of the Philippine Legislature. It is this body, founded as the Philippine Assembly, that would continue in one form or another, in 1916, the Jones Act, officially the Philippine Autonomy Act, changed the legislative system. The Philippine Commission was abolished and a new fully elected, bicameral Philippine Legislature consisting of a House of Representatives, the legislative system was changed again in 1935. The 1935 Constitution established a unicameral National Assembly, but in 1940, through an amendment to the 1935 Constitution, a bicameral Congress of the Philippines consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate was adopted. The Liberal bloc of the Nacionalistas permanently split from their ranks and these two will contest all of the elections in what appeared to be a two-party system. This set up continued until President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law, the 1987 Constitution restored the presidential system of government together with a bicameral Congress of the Philippines. Corazon Aquino who nominally had no party, supported the Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino, with the victory of Fidel V. This also meant the restoration of Lakas-NUCD as the top party in the chamber, the same would happen when Benigno Aquino won in 2010, which returned the Liberals into power. The presiding officer is the Speaker, the members of the House of Representatives who are also its officers are also ex officio members of all of the committees and has a vote. The Speaker is the head of the House of Representatives, the speaker is elected by majority of all the members of the house, including vacant seats. The speaker is elected at the convening of each Congress
21.
Legislative district of Kalinga
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The Legislative district of Kalinga is the representation of the province of Kalinga in the various national legislatures of the Philippines. The province is represented in the lower house of the Congress of the Philippines through its lone congressional district. Prior to gaining separate representation, areas now under the jurisdiction of Kalinga were represented under the former Mountain Province, Kalinga became a separate province following the passage and subsequent ratification of Republic Act No.7878 on 8 May 1995. In accordance with Section 9 of R. A.7878 the new province began electing its own representative in the 1998 elections, population,201,613 Legislative district of Mountain Province Legislative district of Kalinga-Apayao
22.
Philippine Standard Time
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Philippine Standard Time, also known as Philippine Time and informally Juan Time, is the official name for the time in the Philippines. The country only uses one time zone, and for a short period, geographically, the Philippines lies within 116°40′ and 126°34′ east of the Prime Meridian, and is physically located within the UTC+08,00 time zone. Philippine Standard Time is maintained by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration, the Philippines shares the same time zone with Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, most parts of China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Brunei, central Indonesia, and Western Australia. Philippine Standard Time was instituted through Batas Pambansa Blg,8, approved on 2 December 1978 and implemented on 1 January 1983. The Philippines is one of the few countries to officially and almost exclusively use the 12-hour clock in non-military situations. From 1521 to 1844, the Philippines had the date as Mexico. Monday,30 December 1844 was immediately followed by Wednesday,1 January 1845 and this meant that International Date Line moved from going west of the Philippines to go on the east side of the country. At the time, local time was used to set clocks, meaning that every place used its own local time based on its longitude. Television and radio stations in the Philippines display the time, in September 2011, the Department of Science and Technology proposed to synchronise time nationwide in an effort to discourage tardiness. On May 15,2013, President Benigno Aquino III signed Republic Act No,10535, better known as the The Philippine Standard Time Act of 2013 as a last step to finally implement the Juan Time. Effective June 1,2013, all government offices and media networks will be required to use Philippine Standard Time as a basis to set their timepieces, in addition, the first week of January will be regularly observed as the National Time Consciousness Week. The IANA time zone database contains one zone for the Philippines in the file zone. tab, hapon starts at 1,00 PM and ends 5,59 PM. Gabí starts at 6,00 PM and ends 12,00 AM which is Hatinggabi, madalíng Araw starts at 12,01 AM and ends 4,59 AM. Except in very formal situations, Filipinos rarely use the numbers in telling time. - Alas otso kwarenta y uno ng gabí or Apatnapút-isá makalipas ng ikawaló ng gabí5,30 A. M, - Alas singko y medya ng umaga or Tatlumpûng minuto makalipas ng ikalimá ng umaga or ikalimá at kalaháti ng umaga 3,00 P. M. - Alas tres ng hapon o Ikatló ng hapon 12,00 P. M, - Alas dose ng tanghalì o Ikalabíndalawá ng tanghalì12,00 A. M. - Alas dose ng hatinggabi o Ikalabíndalawá ng hatinggabí2,00 A. M
23.
Telephone numbers in the Philippines
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Telephone numbers in the Philippines follow an open telephone numbering plan and an open dial plan. Both plans are regulated by the National Telecommunications Commission, an agency under the Department of Information. The Philippines is assigned an international dialling code of 63 by ITU-T, telephone numbers are fixed at seven digits, with area codes fixed at one, two, or three digits. Mobile phone numbers are always 10 digits, when making long-distance calls in the Philippines, the prefix 0 for domestic calls and 00 for international calls are used. Some smaller carriers concentrated within a geographic area may issue four- or five-digit area codes. Occasionally, an area may change area codes. For example, the City of Bacoor in Cavite has been included in the coverage area of area code 2 per the National Telecommunications Commissions Memorandum Order No. 08-09-2011, although almost all fixed-lines in the city use the old 46 area code due to the poor compliance of PLDT. Sometimes area codes are shared by a number of government entities to maximise their use. In extreme cases, area codes are shared across an island like in Leyte and Samar, or even entire regions, in order to identify the calls point of origin, the three-digit telephone exchange prefix is checked. Since the Philippines employs an open plan, telephone numbers dialled within a given area code do not require the area code. When dialling other area codes, the long distance access prefix 0 is added, but when dialling from overseas. However, the code indicates the service provider and not necessarily a geographic region. Unlike fixed-line telephones, the telephone dialling format is always observed when using a mobile phone. Therefore, mobile phone numbers always have the format +63 xxx-xxxx for international callers and 0 xxx-xxxx for domestic callers. Some of the first area codes to be assigned for mobile phones were 912 for Mobiline/Piltel,915 for Islacom,917 for Globe Telecom,918 for Smart Communications, and 973 for Express Telecom. As service began growing rapidly since the 1990s, new codes have been added to meet demand as existing codes have since been exhausted, newer codes often come immediately after the last code exhausted, but this might not be the case if the next code is already in use. 955/956 are the latest codes and are used for Globe & TM, areas codes are grouped by provider with no single contiguous block of codes for a single provider
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Kalinga language
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Kalinga is a dialect continuum of Kalinga Province in the Philippines, spoken by the Igorot people, alongside Ilocano. The Banao Itneg variety is not one of the neighboring Itneg languages, ronald Himes divides Kalinga into 3 dialects. Masadiit Northern Kalinga South-Central Kalinga Ethnologue reports the following locations for each of the 8 Kalinga languages, Banao Itneg is classified by Ethnologue as Kalinga rather than Itneg. Butbut Kalinga, spoken in Kalinga Province, Tinglayan and Butbut, Buscalan, Bugnay, Loccong, and Ngibat, Tabuk City, Lucnang, Pakak, Kataw, also in Rizal Province, Annenang, Malapiat, Andaraya, and Bua.15,000 speakers. Limos Kalinga, spoken in Kalinga Province and Conner municipality, Apayao Province, lubuagan Kalinga, spoken in Kalinga Province. Dialects are Guinaang, Balbalasang, Ableg-Salegseg, and Balatok-Kalinga, mabaka Valley Kalinga, spoken in Conner municipality, Apayao Province, as well as western Abra Province and northern Kalinga Province. Majukayang Kalinga, spoken in Tabuk City, Kalinga Province and in Paracelis municipality, southern Kalinga, spoken in Kalinga Province and Mountain Province. Dialects are Mallango, Sumadel, Bangad, and Tinglayan, Tanudan Kalinga, spoken at the southern end of the Tanudan valley in southern Kalinga Province. Dialects are Minangali, Tinaloctoc, Pinangol, Dacalan, and Lubo, Banao Itneg, spoken in Kalinga Province and Abra Province. Dialects are Malibcong Banao, Banao Pikekj, and Gubang Itneg
25.
Ilocano language
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Ilocano is the third most-spoken native language of the Philippines. An Austronesian language, it is related to languages as Malay, Tetum, Chamorro, Fijian, Maori, Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Paiwan. It is closely related to some of the other Austronesian languages of Northern Luzon, and has slight mutual intelligibility with the Balangao language, Ilocano, like all Philippine languages, is an Austronesian language, a very expansive language family believed to originate in Taiwan. Ilocano comprises its own branch within the Philippine Cordilleran language subfamily and it is spoken as first language by seven million people. The language is spoken in northwest Luzon, the Babuyan Islands, Cordillera Administrative Region, Cagayan Valley, parts of Central Luzon, the language is also spoken in the United States, with Hawaii and California having the largest amount of speakers. It is the third most spoken language in Hawaii after Tagalog and Japanese. They used a system that is termed as an abugida, or an alphasyllabary and it was similar to the Tagalog and Pangasinan scripts, where each character represented a consonant-vowel, or CV, sequence. Before the addition of the virama, writers had no way to designate coda consonants, in the Spanish system words of Spanish origin kept their spellings. Native words, on the hand, conformed to the Spanish rules of spelling. Nowadays, only the generation of Ilocanos use the Spanish system. In the system based on that of Tagalog there is more of a phoneme-to-letter correspondence, the letters ng constitute a digraph and counts as a single letter, following n in alphabetization. As a result, numo humility appears before ngalngal to chew in newer dictionaries, Words of foreign origin, most notably those from Spanish, need to be changed in spelling to better reflect Ilocano phonology. Words of English origin may or may not conform to this orthography, a prime example using this system is the weekly magazine Bannawag. The following are two versions of the Lords Prayer, the one on the left is written using the Spanish-based orthography, while the one on the right uses the Tagalog-based system. It is recognized by the Commission on the Filipino Language as one of the languages of the Philippines. Constitutionally, Ilocano is an official language in the regions where it is spoken. In recent years, a movement in both the Lower and the Upper House of the Congress pressed for the usage of the tongue as a medium of instruction until the sixth grade. Ilocano animistic past offers a background in folklore, mythology
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Tagalog language
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Tagalog is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and as a second language by the majority. Its standardized form, officially named Filipino, is officially the national language, the word Tagalog is derived from the endonym taga-log, composed of tagá- and ilog. Linguists such as Dr. David Zorc and Dr. Robert Blust speculate that the Tagalogs, the first written record of Tagalog is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which dates to 900 CE and exhibits fragments of the language along with Sanskrit, Old Malay, Javanese and Old Tagalog. The first known book to be written in Tagalog is the Doctrina Christiana. Tagalog differs from its Central Philippine counterparts with its treatment of the Proto-Philippine schwa vowel *ə, in Bikol and Visayan, this sound merged with /u/ and. In Tagalog, it has merged with /i/, for example, Proto-Philippine *dəkət is Tagalog dikít and Visayan & Bikol dukot. Proto-Philippine *r, *j, and *z merged with /d/ but is /l/ between vowels, Proto-Philippine *ŋajan and *hajək became Tagalog ngalan and halík. Proto-Philippine *R merged with /ɡ/. *tubiR and *zuRuʔ became Tagalog tubig, the first substantial dictionary of the Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Clain spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. Tagalog was declared the language by the first constitution in the Philippines. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ, in 1959, the language was further renamed as Pilipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine. The regional languages are the official languages in the regions. In secondary school, Filipino and English become the primary languages of instruction and it is the first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and a second language by the majority. Tagalog is a Central Philippine language within the Austronesian language family, being Malayo-Polynesian, it is related to other Austronesian languages, such as Malagasy, Javanese, Malay, Tetum, and Yami. It is closely related to the languages spoken in the Bicol Region and the Visayas islands, such as the Bikol group and the Visayan group, including Hiligaynon and Cebuano. At present, no comprehensive dialectology has been done in the Tagalog-speaking regions, though there have been descriptions in the form of dictionaries and grammars of various Tagalog dialects. Some example of differences are, Many Tagalog dialects, particularly those in the south, preserve the glottal stop found after consonants
27.
Ilokano language
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Ilocano is the third most-spoken native language of the Philippines. An Austronesian language, it is related to languages as Malay, Tetum, Chamorro, Fijian, Maori, Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Paiwan. It is closely related to some of the other Austronesian languages of Northern Luzon, and has slight mutual intelligibility with the Balangao language, Ilocano, like all Philippine languages, is an Austronesian language, a very expansive language family believed to originate in Taiwan. Ilocano comprises its own branch within the Philippine Cordilleran language subfamily and it is spoken as first language by seven million people. The language is spoken in northwest Luzon, the Babuyan Islands, Cordillera Administrative Region, Cagayan Valley, parts of Central Luzon, the language is also spoken in the United States, with Hawaii and California having the largest amount of speakers. It is the third most spoken language in Hawaii after Tagalog and Japanese. They used a system that is termed as an abugida, or an alphasyllabary and it was similar to the Tagalog and Pangasinan scripts, where each character represented a consonant-vowel, or CV, sequence. Before the addition of the virama, writers had no way to designate coda consonants, in the Spanish system words of Spanish origin kept their spellings. Native words, on the hand, conformed to the Spanish rules of spelling. Nowadays, only the generation of Ilocanos use the Spanish system. In the system based on that of Tagalog there is more of a phoneme-to-letter correspondence, the letters ng constitute a digraph and counts as a single letter, following n in alphabetization. As a result, numo humility appears before ngalngal to chew in newer dictionaries, Words of foreign origin, most notably those from Spanish, need to be changed in spelling to better reflect Ilocano phonology. Words of English origin may or may not conform to this orthography, a prime example using this system is the weekly magazine Bannawag. The following are two versions of the Lords Prayer, the one on the left is written using the Spanish-based orthography, while the one on the right uses the Tagalog-based system. It is recognized by the Commission on the Filipino Language as one of the languages of the Philippines. Constitutionally, Ilocano is an official language in the regions where it is spoken. In recent years, a movement in both the Lower and the Upper House of the Congress pressed for the usage of the tongue as a medium of instruction until the sixth grade. Ilocano animistic past offers a background in folklore, mythology
28.
Filipino language
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Filipino /ˌfɪlɪˈpiːnoʊ/, in this usage, refers to the national language of the Philippines. Filipino is also designated, along with English, as a language of the country. It is the register of the Tagalog language, an Austronesian. As of 2007, Tagalog is the first language of 28 million people, or about one-third of the Philippine population, Filipino is among the 185 languages of the Philippines identified in the Ethnologue. Filipino is ideally a pluricentric language, in reality, however, Filipino has been variously described as simply Tagalog in syntax and grammar, with no grammatical element or lexicon coming from. Other major Philippine languages, and as essentially a version of Tagalog. In most contexts, Filipino is understood to be a name for Tagalog. There was no language in the Philippine archipelago when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. The four major trade languages were Visayan, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, as the Philippine languages are all closely related and therefore easy for Filipinos to learn, most speakers of smaller languages spoke two or more of such regional languages. The first dictionary of Tagalog was written by the Franciscan Pedro de San Buenaventura, a latter book of the same name was written by Czech Jesuit missionary Paul Klein at the beginning of the 18th century. Klein spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. On November 13,1936, Commonwealth act No, on November 12,1937, the First National Assembly of the Philippine Commonwealth approved the law for the establishment of the Surián ng Wikang Pambansâ. This institute would be responsible for surveying and researching existing native languages in order to determine among them the basis for a national language of the Philippines. Then-president Manuel L. Quezon later appointed representatives for each major regional language to form NLI, sales Rodriguez, Hadji Butu, and Cecilio Lopez. On December 13,1937, Presisis of the new national language, Spanish was the language of the 1896 Revolution and the Katipunan, but the revolution was led by people who also spoke Tagalog. In 1959, the became known as Pilipino in an effort to dissociate it from the Tagalog ethnic group. However, neither the nor the amended version specified either Tagalog or Pilipino as the basis for Filipino. Instead they tasked the National Assembly to, take steps toward the development and this move has drawn much criticism from the nations other ethnic groups
29.
Luzon
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Luzon (/luːˈzɒn/, Tagalog pronunciation, is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. It is ranked 15th largest in the world, with a population of 52.99 million as of 2015, it is the fourth most populous island in the world, containing about 53% of the countrys total population. Luzon may also refer to one of the three island groups in the country. The name Luzon is thought to derive from the Tagalog word lusong, from just before the first millennium, the Tagalog and Kapampangan peoples of south and central Luzon had established several Indianized kingdoms, notably among them those of Tundok and Namayan. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the first Philippine document written in 900AD, names places in and these kingdoms were based on leases between village rulers and landlords or Rajahs, to whom tributes and taxes were levied. These kingdoms were coastal thalassocracies based on trade with neighboring Asian political entities at that time, some parts of Luzon were Islamized when the Sultanate of Brunei expanded its realms from Borneo to the Philippines and set up the Kingdom of Maynila as its puppet-state. In addition, other kingdoms like the Wangdom of Pangasinan had become tributary states to China and were largely Sinified kingdoms, certain kilns were renowned over others and prices depended on the reputation of the kiln. Of this flourishing trade, the Burnay jars of Ilocos are the large clay jar manufactured in Luzon today with origins from this time. The Yongle Emperor instituted a Chinese Governor on Luzon during Zheng Hes voyages, China also had vassals among the leaders in the archipelago. China attained ascendancy in trade with the area in Yongles reign, in the 1500s, people from Luzon were called Lucoes and were actively employed in trading, seafaring and military campaigns across Southeast Asia. The Portuguese were the first European explorers who recorded it in their charts as Luçonia or Luçon, edmund Roberts, who visited Luzon in the early 19th century, wrote that Luzon was discovered in 1521. Many people from Luzon had active-employment in Portuguese Malacca and his father and wife carried on his maritime trading business after his death. Another important Malacca trader was Curia de Raja who also hailed from Luzon, the surname of de Raja or diraja could indicate that Regimo and Curia, and their families, were of noble or royal descent as the term is an abbreviation of Sanskrit adiraja. Pinto noted that there were a number of Lucoes in the Islamic fleets that went to battle with the Portuguese in the Philippines during the 16th century, the Sultan of Aceh gave one of them the task of holding Aru in 1540. Pinto also says one was named leader of the Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands after the Portuguese conquest in 1511, pigafetta notes that one of them was in command of the Brunei fleet in 1521. However, the Luções did not only fight on the side of the Muslims, pinto says they were also apparently among the natives of the Philippines who fought the Muslims in 1538. On Mainland Southeast Asia, Lusung/Lucoes warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547 AD, at the same time, Lusung warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese capital at Ayuthaya. Scholars have thus suggested that they could be valued by all sides
30.
Odisha
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Odisha (/ɒˈrɪsə, ɔː-, oʊ-/, is one of the 29 states of India, located in the eastern coast. It is surrounded by the states of West Bengal to the north-east, Jharkhand to the north, Chhattisgarh to the west and north-west, Odisha has 485 kilometres of coastline along the Bay of Bengal on its east, from Balasore to Malkangiri. It is the 9th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population and it is also the 3rd most populous state of India in terms of tribal population. Odia is the official and most widely spoken language, spoken by 33.2 million according to the 2001 Census. The ancient kingdom of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE resulting in the Kalinga War, the modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April 1936, as a province in British India, and consisted predominantly of Odia-speaking regions. April 1 is celebrated as Odisha Day, the region is also known as Utkala and is mentioned in Indias national anthem, Jana Gana Mana. Cuttack was made the capital of the region by Anantavarman Chodaganga in c,1135, after which the city was used as the capital by many rulers, through the British era until 1948. Thereafter, Bhubaneswar became the capital of Odisha, the term Odisha is derived from the ancient Prakrit word Odda Visaya as in the Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra Chola I, which is dated to 1025. Sarala Das, who translated the Mahabharata into the Odia language in the 15th century, calls the region Odra Rashtra, the inscriptions of Kapilendra Deva of the Gajapati Kingdom on the walls of temples in Puri call the region Odisha or Odisha Rajya. After a brief debate, the house, Lok Sabha, passed the bill. On 24 March 2011, Rajya Sabha, the house of Parliament, also passed the bill. Prehistoric Acheulian tools dating to Lower Paleolithic era have been discovered in places in the region. Kalinga has been mentioned in ancient texts like Mahabharata, Vayu Purana, the Sabar people of Odisha have also been mentioned in the Mahabharata. Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as not yet being influenced by Vedic traditions, Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty conquered Kalinga in the bloody Kalinga War in 261 BCE, which was the eighth year of his reign. According to his own edicts, in that war about 100,000 people were killed,150,000 were captured, the resulting bloodshed and suffering of the war is said to have deeply affected Ashoka. He turned into a pacifist and converted to Buddhism, by c.150 CE, emperor Kharavela, who was possibly a contemporary of Demetrius I of Bactria, conquered a major part of the Indian sub-continent. He also built the monastery atop the Udayagiri hill, subsequently, the region was ruled by monarchs, such as Samudragupta and Shashanka. It was also a part of Harshas empire, later, the kings of the Somavamsi dynasty began to unite the region
31.
Mountain Province
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Mountain Province, is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Mountain Province was formerly referred to as Mountain in some foreign references, the name is usually shortened by locals to Mt. Province. The province was named so for being in the Cordillera Central mountain range found in the realms of Luzon island. Mountain Province was also the name of the province that included most of the current Cordillera provinces. This old province was established by the Philippine Commission in 1908, the province is also known for its mummy caves, which contain naturally mummified bodies, and for its hanging coffins. The area of the Cordillera mountains proved difficult to control by the Spaniards, from 1566 to 1665, they sent expeditions to conquer the land but the rugged terrain and hostile indigenous population at the time were major obstacles to complete subjugation. Formerly called La Montañosa by the Spanish colonizers due to its mountainous terrain, in August 19,1908, during the American rule, the Philippine Commission enacted Act No. 1876, which organized the area of the Cordilleras into one large province. The first governor was Samuel Cane, and the town of Bontoc was made the capital and it was originally composed of the sub-provinces of Amburayan, Apayao, Benguet, Lepanto-Bontoc, Ifugao and Kalinga. Amburayan was later abolished in 1920 and its territories were transferred to the provinces of Ilocos Sur. Lepanto was also reduced in size and its towns were integrated into the sub-provinces of Bontoc and Benguet, and to the province of Ilocos Sur. Effective on April 7,1967, Republic Act No.4695 abolished the old Mountain Province, converting its sub-provinces into 4 independent provinces, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao and Mountain Province. On June 15,1987, the Cordillera Administrative Region was established upon the issuance of Executive Order 220 by then-President Corazon Aquino, Mountain Province covers a total area of 2,157.38 square kilometres occupying the central section of the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. The province is bordered on the north by Kalinga, south by Ifugao, southwest by Benguet, west by Ilocos Sur, situated within the Cordillera Central, Mountain Province is 83% mountainous while 17% make up hills and levels. The province has many rivers, waterfalls, mountains, and caves, the central and western areas of the province are characterized by rugged mountains and steep cliffs, while the eastern portion has generally sloping terrain. Mountain Province comprises ten municipalities, all encompassed by a legislative district. Mountain Province has 144 barangays comprising its 10 municipalities, as of 2010, the most populous barangay in the province is Poblacion in the municipality of Paracelis, with a total of 5,687 inhabitants. Balintaugan in the municipality of Bauko has the least population with only 144, the population of Mountain Province in the 2015 census was 154,590 people, with a density of 72 inhabitants per square kilometre or 190 inhabitants per square mile
32.
Abra (province)
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Abra is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Bangued, and is bordered by Ilocos Norte on the northwest, Apayao on the northeast, Kalinga on the mid-east, Mountain Province on the southeast, the first inhabitants of Abra were the ancestors of the Bontocs and the Ifugaos. These inhabitants eventually left to settle in the old Mountain Province, other early inhabitants were the Tingguians, or Itnegs, as they are also known. In 1598, a Spanish garrison was established in Bangued to protect Christian Ilocanos from Tingguian raids, originally the area was called El Abra de Vigan. During the British Occupation of the Philippines, Gabriela Silang and her army fled to Abra from Ilocos and continued the revolt begun by her slain husband and she was captured and hanged by the Spanish in 1763. In 1818, the Ilocos region, including Abra, was divided into Ilocos Norte, in 1846, Abra was created as a political-military province with Lepanto as a sub-province. It remained so until the arrival of the Americans in 1899, in 1908, the Philippine Commission again annexed Abra to Ilocos Sur in an attempt to resolve Abras financial difficulties. On March 9,1917, the Philippine Assembly re-established Abra as a province, in 1942, the Japanese forces occupied the Philippines and entered Abra. Abra was liberated by the Philippine Commonwealth forces and local Cordilleran guerrillas during the Battle of Abra in 1945, the revolutionary Marxist priest, Conrado Balweg, who fought for the rights of the Cordillera tribes, began his crusade in Abra. After successfully negotiating a peace accord with Balwegs group in 1987, the Philippine government created the Cordillera Administrative Region, Abra is situated in the mid-western section of the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. It is bordered by the provinces of Ilocos Norte on the northwest, Apayao on the northeast, Kalinga on the mid-east, Mountain Province on the southeast, Abra has a total land area of 4,165.25 square kilometres or 1,608.21 square miles. The province is hemmed in by the mountain ranges of the Ilocos in the west. The Abra River runs from the south in Benguet to the west and central areas and it is joined by the Tineg River originating from the eastern uplands at a point near the municipality of Dolores. Abra comprises 27 municipalities, all encompassed by a legislative district. The 27 municipalities of the province comprise a total of 303 barangays, with Poblacion in La Paz as the most populous in 2010, and Pattaoig in San Juan as the least. The population of Abra in the 2015 census was 241,160 people, Abras inhabitants are mostly descendants of Ilocano settlers and members of the Tingguian tribe. Based on the 2000 census survey, Ilocanos comprised 71. 94% of the provincial population of 209,146. Tingguians came in second at 18. 7%, while other groups in the province were the Ibanag at 4. 46%, Itneg at 3. 17%
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Isabela (province)
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Isabela is the second largest province of the Philippines, and the largest on the island of Luzon in land area. Its capital is the city of Ilagan and this primarily agricultural province is the rice and corn granary of Luzon due to its plain and rolling terrain. In 2012, the province was declared as the top producer of corn with 1,209,524 metric tons. Isabela is the 10th richest province in the Philippines in 2011, the province has four trade centers in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan, Santiago and the municipality of Roxas. Prior to 1856, the Cagayan Valley was divided into two provinces, Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. The Province of Cagayan at that time consisted of all towns from Tumauini to Aparri in the north, all other towns from Ilagan southward to Aritao comprised the Province of the old Nueva Vizcaya. The province was placed under the jurisdiction of a governor with Ilagan as the capital and it was initially called Isabela de Luzón to differentiate from other places in the Philippines bearing the name of Isabela. The new province was named after Queen Isabella II of Spain, Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American military government through Act No. The Americans built schools and other buildings and instituted changes in the political system. However, the economy remained particularly agricultural with rice replacing corn. World War II stagnated the provinces economic growth but it recovered dramatically after the war, in 1942, Imperial Japanese occupied Isabela. A new wave of immigration began in the late 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of the Ilokano who came in large numbers and they now constitute the largest group in the province. Other ethnic groups followed that made Isabela the Melting Pot of the Northern Philippines, in 1995, Republic Act Number 7891 was passed legislating that Isabela be divided into two new provinces, Isabela del Norte and Isabela del Sur. A referendum was held on the year with a strong majority voting against partitioning the province. In 2012, the town of Ilagan officially became a city. The night after the plebiscite, Ilagan was declared as a component city of the province, Isabela comprises an aggregate land area of 12,414.93 square kilometres, representing almost 40 percent of the regional territory. It is the largest province in the island of Luzon and the second largest province in the Philippines by land area, to the east lies the Philippine Sea, making Isabela one of the typhoon-prone provinces in the country. The province is divided into three physiographic areas, the eastern area, straddled by the Sierra Madre mountain range, is rugged and thickly forested
34.
Cagayan
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Cagayan is a province of the Philippines in the Cagayan Valley region in the northeast of Luzon Island, and includes the Babuyan Islands to the north. The province borders Ilocos Norte and Apayao to the west, and Kalinga, Cagayan was one of the early provincias that existed during the Spanish Colonial Period. The former capital was Nueva Segovia, which served as the seat of the Diocese of Nueva Segovia. Today, only 9,295.75 square kilometres remain of the vastness of the province. The entire region, however, is referred to as Cagayan Valley. In 2013, Cagayan was host to the 27th and 28th seasons of the American reality game show, present-day chroniclers hold that the name was originally derived from the tagay, a plant that grows abundantly in the northern part of the province. The term Catagayan, the place where the tagay grows was shortened to Cagayan, perhaps more conventionally, etymological scholars hold that cagayan comes from an ancient word that means river. Variations of this word—karayan, kayayan, and kalayan—all mean river, Cagayan has a prehistoric civilization with rich and diverse culture. According to archaeologists, the earliest man in the Philippines probably lived in Cagayan thousands of years ago, evidences to this effect are now convincing beyond scientific doubt to consider it as an incontestable fact. From available evidences, the Atta or Negrito - a short dark-skinned nomad - was the first man in Cagayan. They were later moved to the uplands by the Malays who eventually became the Ibanags, Itawes, Yogads, Gaddangs, Irayas and these are the people found by the Spaniards in the different villages along the rivers all over Cagayan. Cagayan is also the site of a Wokou state when the Japanese pirate-lord Tay Fusa, the expeditionary force was sent to explore the Cagayan Valley, to convert the natives to Catholicism, and to establish ecclesiastical missions and towns throughout the valley. On 29 June 1583, Spanish conquistador Juan de Salcedo traced the northern coastline of Luzon and set foot on the Massi, Tular, the provincias territorial delineation encompassed the present provinces of Batanes, Isabela, Quirino, Nueva Vizcaya, including portions of Kalinga and Apayao. The Spanish friars soon established mission posts in Camalaniugan and Lal-lo, the see was moved in 1758 to Vigan because of its relative distance. The Spanish influence can still be seen in the massive churches, in 1839, Nueva Vizcaya was established as a politico-military province and was separated from Cagayan. Later, Isabela was founded as a province on May 1,1856, its areas carved from southern Cagayan. During the late 18th century, the New Spain government encouraged the expansion of trade and he worked in the Philippines as Minister of the Indies from 1776 to 1787, constructing a similar monopoly there under Governor-General Basco y Vargas. The Spanish development of industry affected all their economic gains in the Philippines
35.
Apayao
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Apayao is a landlocked province in the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. The province borders Cagayan to the north and east, Abra and Ilocos Norte to the west, prior to 1995, Kalinga and Apayao comprised a single province named Kalinga-Apayao, which was partitioned to better service the needs of individual ethnic groups. With a population of 119,184 covering an area of 4,413.35 square kilometres, as early as 1610, the Dominican friars established a mission in what is now the town of Pudtol. In 1684, the friars again made attempts to convert the people, the Spanish authorities were then able to establish in Cagayan the comandancias of Apayao and Cabugaoan in 1891, which covered the western and eastern portions of what is now Apayao. The comandancias, however, failed to bring control and the Spanish government only maintained a loose hold over the area. The Americans established the Mountain Province on August 13,1908, Apayao, along with Amburayan, Benguet, Bontoc, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Lepanto, became sub-provinces of this new province. In 1942, Japanese Imperial forces entered Apayao, starting a three-year occupation of the province during the Second World War, on June 18,1966, the huge Mountain Province was split into four provinces with the enactment of Republic Act No.4695. The four provinces were Benguet, Bontoc, Kalinga-Apayao and Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao, along with Ifugao, became one of the provinces of the Cagayan Valley region in 1972. On July 15,1987, the Cordillera Administrative Region was established, finally, on February 14,1995, Kalinga-Apayao was split into two independent provinces with the passage of Republic Act No.7878. Apayao is basically situated within the Cordillera Central mountains, traversed by many rivers, plains and valleys are used for farming. Apayao is basically composed of farmlands, the prevailing climate in the province falls under Coronas Type III Classification. It is characterized by dry and wet seasons, from November to April. Heaviest rain occurs during December to February while the month of May is the warmest, Apayao comprises 7 municipalities, all encompassed by a lone legislative district. The 7 municipalities of the province comprise a total of 133 barangays, with Barangay Malama in Conner as the most populous in 2015, and Eleazar in Calanasan as the least. The population of Apayao in the 2015 census was 119,184 people, based on the 2000 census survey, Ilocanos comprised 49,328 of the total provincial population of 97,058, while almost 1/3 of the population were Isnag at 29,071. Other ethnic groups in the province were the Malaueg at 3,580, Isneg at 3,380, Kalinga at 2,992, Kankanaey at 1,208, Bontoc at 1,014, and Ibaloi at 979. Apayao is devoted to production, particularly food and industrial crops such as palay, corn, coffee, root crops. Fruits produced include lanzones, citrus, bananas and pineapples, durian, santol, rambutan, coconut, rice production totaled 98,489 metric tons in 2011
36.
Partition (politics)
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In politics, a partition is a change of political borders cutting through at least one territory considered a homeland by some community. Partition, multiple times, of the Roman Empire into the Eastern Roman Empire, in the 1757 Second Treaty of Versailles, France agreed upon the partition of Prussia Partition of the United States during the American Civil War. Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth in the 18th century
37.
Kalinga-Apayao
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Kalinga-Apayao was a province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in the island of Luzon. It was divided into the two provinces of Kalinga and Apayao with the passage of Philippine Republic Act No.7878 on February 14,1995 and this RA amended the earlier Republic Act No. 4695, passed on June 18,1966, which formed the provinces of Kalinga-Apayao, Benguet, Ifugao, during the Second World War, Japanese fighter and bomber planes invaded the province of Kalinga-Apayao. The bombings and air raids destroyed the towns and municipalities on December 1941 during the Japanese Invasion of the Philippines and this happened prior to Japanese air raid at Camp John Hay in Baguio City on December 8,1941. The soldiers of the Japanese Imperial Army occupied provinces of Kalinga-Apayao, the Igorot and Cordilleran soldiers of the 11th Infantry Division, Philippine Commonwealth Army, USAFFE, endured four months of battle culminating in their surrender to the Japanese on April 9,1942. Many Igorot and Cordilleran men and women joined the group of guerrilla resistance fighters in Kalinga-Apayao which fought against the Japanese Imperial forces in Northern Luzon. Meanwhile, many Igorot and Cordilleran men joined the Philippine Commonwealth Army under the U. S, the Philippine Commonwealth army and Philippine Constabulary deployed special operations units in Kalinga-Apayao to aid in the campaign against the Japanese Imperial Army
38.
Topography
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Topography is the study of the shape and features of the surface of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. The topography of an area could refer to the shapes and features themselves. This field of geoscience and planetary science is concerned with detail in general, including not only relief but also natural and artificial features. This meaning is common in the United States, where topographic maps with elevation contours have made topography synonymous with relief. The older sense of topography as the study of place still has currency in Europe, topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms. This is also known as geomorphometry, in modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form. It is often considered to include the representation of the landform on a map by a variety of techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints. The term topography originated in ancient Greece and continued in ancient Rome, the word comes from the Greek τόπος and -γραφία. In classical literature this refers to writing about a place or places, in Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense. Detailed military surveys in Britain were called Ordnance Surveys, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys, the earliest scientific surveys in France were called the Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations. The term topographic surveys appears to be American in origin, the earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the “Topographical Bureau of the Army, ” formed during the War of 1812, which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838. In the 20th century, the term started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where mapping in a broader sense is used. An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude, identifying features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field. There are a variety of approaches to studying topography, which method to use depend on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys. Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, in areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program, the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be cleaned to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it forms a valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. The original American topographic surveys involved not only recording of relief, remote sensing is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area. Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features, certainly they have become more and more a part of geovisualization, whether maps or GIS systems
39.
Grassland
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Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses, however sedge and rush families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica, grasslands are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. For example, there are five terrestrial ecoregion classifications of the grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Grassland vegetation can vary in height from short, as in chalk grassland, to quite tall, as in the case of North American tallgrass prairie, South American grasslands. Woody plants, shrubs or trees, may occur on some grasslands – forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, as flowering plants and trees, grasses grow in great concentrations in climates where annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 900 mm. The root systems of perennial grasses and forbs form complex mats that hold the soil in place, graminoids are among the most versatile life forms. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread, following the Pleistocene ice ages, grasslands expanded in range in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide. Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation between 600 mm and 1,500 mm and average annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C. However, some occur in colder and hotter climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in habitats that are disturbed by grazing or fire. Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities can be called natural or semi-natural habitats. The majority of grasslands in temperate climates are semi-natural and these grasslands contain many species of wild plants – grasses, sedges, rushes and herbs –25 or more species per square metre is not unusual. Chalk downlands in England can support over 40 species per square metre, in many parts of the world, few examples have escaped agricultural improvement. For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Some of the worlds largest expanses of grassland are found in African savanna, grasslands may occur naturally or as the result of human activity. Grasslands created and maintained by human activity are called anthropogenic grasslands, hunting peoples around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands, and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the U. S. Midwest may have been extended eastward into Illinois, Indiana, much grassland in northwest Europe developed after the Neolithic Period, when people gradually cleared the forest to create areas for raising their livestock. Grassland types by Schimper, meadow steppe savannah Grassland types by Ellenberg & Mueller-Dombois, terrestrial herbaceous communities A. Savannas and related grasslands B
40.
Tropical rainforest
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True rainforests are typically found between 10 degrees north and south of the equator, they are a sub-set of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28 degree latitudes. Within the World Wildlife Funds biome classification, tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest that includes the more extensive tropical seasonal forests. Tropical rainforests can be characterized in two words, hot and wet, mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 1,680 mm and this high level of precipitation often results in poor soils due to leaching of soluble nutrients in the ground. Tropical rainforests exhibit high levels of biodiversity, around 40% to 75% of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. Rainforests are home to half of all the animal and plant species on the planet. Two-thirds of all flowering plants can be found in rainforests, a single hectare of rainforest may contain 42,000 different species of insect, up to 807 trees of 313 species and 1,500 species of higher plants. Tropical rainforests have been called the worlds largest pharmacy, because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered within them and it is likely that there may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to large-scale fragmentation as a result of human activity, habitat fragmentation caused by geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past, and have been identified as important drivers of speciation. However, fast human driven habitat destruction is suspected to be one of the causes of species extinction. Tropical rain forests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century, tropical rainforests have existed on earth for hundreds of millions of years. Most tropical rainforests today are on fragments of the Mesozoic era supercontinent of Gondwana, the separation of the landmass resulted in a great loss of amphibian diversity while at the same time the drier climate spurred the diversification of reptiles. The division left tropical rainforests located in five regions of the world, tropical America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Madagascar. However, the specifics of the origin of rainforests remain uncertain due to a fossil record. Several biomes comprise the general term tropical forest, Lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests are forests which receive rainfall throughout the year. These true rainforests occur in a belt around the equator, with the largest areas in the Amazon basin of South America, the Congo Basin of Central Africa, Borneo, Mindanao, Indonesia, and New Guinea. Moist tropical seasonal forests receive high rainfall with a warm summer wet season. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the dry season
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