1.
Karnal
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Karnal, is a city located in the NCR and the headquarters of Karnal District in the Indian state of Haryana. It is one of the Counter-Magnet cities, Karnal was also known as Karnaal, Kurnaul or Karnaul during the British Raj. This Ang Raaj was later developed by Karna which is Karnal today, Karnal has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Karnal is also the place of first Indo-American women astronaut Kalpana Chawla who went to space twice. She first flew on the Space Shuttle Columbia in 1997 as a mission specialist, in 2003, Chawla was one of the seven crew members that died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Former Chief of Naval Staff of the Pakistan Navy Admiral Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey, was also from Karnal
2.
East Punjab
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The mostly Muslim western parts of the old Punjab became Pakistans West Punjab, later renamed as Punjab Province, while the mostly Hindu and Sikh eastern parts went to India. With the partition of the British Indian Empire, the Punjab province was to be divided in two as per the Indian Independence Act passed by the parliament of the United Kingdom. The province as constituted under the Government of India Act 1935 ceased to exist, the princely states of the Punjab region all acceded to the new Dominion of India and were combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union. The northeast Hill States of the Punjab Province banded together and were declared a territory in 1950 as Himachal Pradesh. The Constitution of India, which came into effect in 1950, in 1956, the PEPSU was merged into an expanded Punjab state. At the same time, some parts of the territory of Patiala and East Punjab States Union, including Solan. Terms East and West Punjab are also used in modern India
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
Haryana
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Haryana is one of the 29 states in India, situated in North India. It was carved out of the state of East Punjab on 1 November 1966 on a linguistic basis. It stands 21st in terms of its area, which is spread about 44,212 km2, as of 2011 census of India, the state is eighteenth largest by population with 25,353,081 inhabitants. The city of Chandigarh is its capital while the NCR city of Faridabad is the most populous city of the state, Haryana is one of the most economically developed regions in South Asia, and its agricultural and manufacturing industries have experienced sustained growth since the 1970s. Since 2000, the state has emerged as the largest recipient of investment per capita in India and it is bordered by Punjab and Himachal Pradesh to the north, and by Rajasthan to the west and south. The river Yamuna defines its border with Uttar Pradesh. Haryana surrounds the countrys capital Delhi on three sides, forming the northern, western and southern borders of Delhi, consequently, a large area of south Haryana is included in the National Capital Region for purposes of planning for development. The name Haryana is found in the works of the 12th-century AD Apabhramsha writer Vibudh Shridhar, the name Haryana has been derived from the Sanskrit words Hari and ayana, meaning the Abode of God. However, scholars such as Muni Lal, Murli Chand Sharma, HA Phadke and Sukhdev Singh Chib believe that the name comes from a compound of the words Hari and Aranya. Vedic state of Brahmavarta is claimed to be located in a new research in south Haryana, manusmriti, a flood time document composed by Manu and Bhrigu is now dated 10,000 years old. Rakhigarhi village in the Hisar district is home to the largest and one of the oldest ancient Indus Valley Civilization sites, evidence of paved roads, a drainage system, a large-scale rainwater collection storage system, terracotta brick and statue production, and skilled metal working have been uncovered. According to archeologists, Rakhigarhi may be the origin of Harappan civilisation, the area that is now Haryana has been ruled by major empires of India. Panipat is known for three seminal battles in the history of India, in the First Battle of Panipat, Babur defeated the Lodis. In the Second Battle of Panipat, Akbar defeated the local Haryanvi Hindu Emperor of Delhi, hemu, had earlier won 22 battles across India from Punjab to Bengal defeating Mughals and Afghans. Hemu had defeated Akbars forces twice at Agra and Battle of Delhi in 1556 to become last Hindu Emperor of India with formal Coronation at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7th Oct.1556, in the Third Battle of Panipat, the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas. Haryana state was formed on 1 November 1966, the commission delivered its report on 31 May 1966 whereby the then-districts of Hisar, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak and Karnal were to be a part of the new state of Haryana. Further, the tehsils of Jind and Narwana in the Sangrur district—along with Naraingarh, Ambala, the commission recommended that the tehsil of Kharad, which includes Chandigarh, the state capital of Punjab, should be a part of Haryana. However, only a portion of Kharad was given to Haryana
5.
Space Shuttle Columbia
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Space Shuttle Columbia was the first space-rated orbiter in NASAs Space Shuttle fleet. It launched for the first time on mission STS-1 on April 12,1981, construction began on Columbia in 1975 at Rockwell Internationals principal assembly facility in Palmdale, California, a suburb of Los Angeles. It is also named after the Command Module of Apollo 11, Columbia was also the female symbol of the United States. After construction, the arrived at Kennedy Space Center on March 25,1979. Columbia was originally scheduled to lift off in late 1979, however the date was delayed by problems with both the SSME components, as well as the thermal protection system. On March 19,1981, during preparations for a ground test, workers were asphyxiated while working in Columbias nitrogen-purged aft engine compartment, resulting in two or three fatalities. Columbia spent 610 days in the Orbiter Processing Facility, another 35 days in the Vehicle Assembly Building, Columbia then undertook three further research missions to test its technical characteristics and performance. Its first operational mission, with a crew, was STS-5. At this point Columbia was joined by Challenger, which flew the next three missions, while Columbia underwent modifications for the first Spacelab mission. At that time the fleet was expanded to include Discovery. Columbia returned to space on January 12,1986, with the launch of STS-61-C, the missions crew included Dr. Franklin Chang-Diaz, as well as the first sitting member of the House of Representatives to venture into space, Bill Nelson. The next shuttle mission, STS-51-L, was undertaken by Challenger and it was launched on January 28,1986, ten days after STS-61-C had landed, and ended in disaster 73 seconds after launch. In the aftermath NASAs shuttle timetable was disrupted, and Columbia was not flown again until 1989, sTS-93, launched on July 23,1999, was the first U. S. space mission with a female commander, Lt. Col. Eileen Collins. This mission deployed the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Columbias final successful mission was STS-109, the fourth servicing mission for the Hubble Space Telescope. Its next mission, STS-107, culminated in the loss when it disintegrated during reentry. Consequently, President Bush decided to retire the Shuttle orbiter fleet by 2010 in favor of the Constellation program, the Constellation program was later cancelled with the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 signed by President Obama on October 11. Due to its weight, Columbia could not have used the planned Centaur-G booster, the retention of the internal airlock allowed NASA to use Columbia for the STS-109 Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, along with the Spacehab double module used on STS-107. The upgrade also involved replacing many of the white LRSI tiles on the surfaces with Advanced Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation blankets that had been used on Discovery
6.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
9.
PEC University of Technology
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PEC University of Technology, formerly known as Punjab Engineering College, is an engineering institute located in the city of Chandigarh, India. Founded in 1921, it is one of the oldest educational institutes in India, the university was originally established as Mugalpura Engineering College at Lahore on 9 November 1921. The name of the college was changed to Maclagan Engineering College in March 1924. In the year 1931, the college was affiliated to Punjab University, after partition in 1947, the college was relocated to Roorkee in India and was renamed as East Punjab College of Engineering. In the year 1950 the word East was dropped, towards the end of December 1953, the college shifted to its present campus in Chandigarh to function under the Government of Punjab. In 1966, with the formation of the Union Territory of Chandigarh, in October 2003, the Government of India recognized the college as a Deemed University and thereafter it became known as Punjab Engineering College. In 2009, the Board of Governors renamed the institution as PEC University of Technology, in 1994 this institution was adjudged the best technical college in India by the National Foundation of Engineers. It occupies an area of 146 acres, up to 1962, the college consisted of three departments of Civil, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering. Thereafter the college expanded and offers Bachelor of Engineering degrees in various specializations, highway Engineering was the first post-graduate course offered by the college, commencing in 1957. Presently there are eleven post-graduate courses leading to a Masters of Engineering degree, facilities for post-graduate studies exist for regular as well as for part-time students. The college has facilities for work leading to the award of Ph. D. degree in engineering in certain selected fields of different disciplines. The college also offers services in different disciplines. The university was ranked #9 in the limited participation CSR-GHRDC Engineering Colleges Survey 2013 and it was ranked #16 in the Mint Top 50 Government Engineering Colleges Survey of 2009. The college has collaborated with national and international institutions for student exchange programs. MoUs have been signed with corporates to attract projects and internships. I. M, the institute also awards minor degrees to students in fields other than their main stream of study. PECFEST is the cultural and technical fest of PEC University of Technology. The festival started off as an event in 2003 and has since. In 2014, PECFEST merged with Vyom and consequently, now acts as a festival for both cultural and technical events and competitions
10.
University of Texas at Arlington
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The University of Texas at Arlington is a public research university located in Arlington, Texas. The campus is in the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, and is adjacent to downtown Arlington, the university was founded in 1895 and was in the Texas A&M University System for several decades until joining The University of Texas System in 1965. In fall 2016, the student population of 39,714 was the largest in North Texas, the Carnegie Foundation in 2016 classified UT Arlington as one of 115 universities in the category of R-1, Doctoral Universities – Highest Research Activity. The Chronicle of Higher Education named UT Arlington one of the fastest growing research universities in the nation. Times Higher Education ranks UT Arlington #123 in its list of best universities in the US for 2016, the Center for World University Rankings places UT Arlington at #175 in the US for 2016. The university is the third largest producer of college graduates in Texas and offers 85 baccalaureate,74 masters, UT Arlington participates in 14 intercollegiate sports as a Division I member of the NCAA and Sun Belt Conference. UT Arlington sport teams are known as the Mavericks. The university traces its roots back to the opening of Arlington College in September 1895, Arlington College was established as a private school for primary through secondary level students, equivalent to the modern 1st–10th grades. At the time, the school system in the city of Arlington was underfunded and understaffed. Local merchant Edward Emmett Rankin organized fellow citizens of the city to donate materials, Rankin also convinced the two co-principals of the public school in Arlington, Lee Morgan Hammond and William H. Trimble, to invest in and hold the same positions at Arlington College. In the first few years, between 75 and 150 students were enrolled in the college, the public school began to rent space at Arlington College, and was eventually sold to the city in 1900. Although the public system was set to improve, Arlington College was closed. Carlisle was already established as an educator in the North Texas region. His program consisted of a balance between work and military training. Enrollment increased to 150 students by 1905, and he began an expansion of the campus. Baseball, football, basketball, and track teams were begun between 1904–1908, around the same time, new barracks, a track, a gymnasium, and an indoor pool were built. The academy became known as one of the best at its level in the country, unfortunately, enrollment did not continue to increase with the expansion in facilities and Carlisle ran into serious financial problems. Lawsuits for the mortgages on the property were filed in 1911, in the fall of 1913, Henry Kirby Taylor moved from Missouri where he was president of the Northwest State Teachers College to set up another military academy called Arlington Training School
11.
University of Colorado Boulder
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The University of Colorado Boulder is a public research university located in Boulder, Colorado, United States. It is the university of the University of Colorado system and was founded five months before Colorado was admitted to the Union in 1876. In 2015, the university consisted of nine colleges and schools and offered over 150 academic programs, twelve Nobel Laureates, nine MacArthur Fellows, and 20 astronauts have been affiliated with CU Boulder as students, researchers, or faculty members in its history. The university received nearly $454 million in sponsored research in 2010 to fund programs like the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, the Colorado Buffaloes compete in 17 varsity sports and are members of the NCAA Division I Pac-12 Conference. The Buffaloes have won 28 national championships,20 in skiing, seven total in mens and womens cross country, approximately 1,500 students participate in 34 intercollegiate club sports annually as well. Two cities competed for the site of the University of Colorado, Boulder, the consolation prize for the losing city was to be home of the new Colorado State Prison. Cañon City was at a disadvantage as it was already the home of the Colorado Territorial Prison, the cornerstone of the building that became Old Main was laid on September 20,1875. The doors of the university opened on September 5,1877, at the time, there were few high schools in the state that could adequately prepare students for university work, so in addition to the University, a preparatory school was formed on campus. In the fall of 1877, the student body consisted of 15 students in the proper and 50 students in the preparatory school. There were 38 men and 27 women, and their ages ranged from 12–23 years, during World War II, Colorado was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission. The main CU Boulder campus is located south of the Pearl Street Mall and it consists of academic and residential buildings as well as research facilities. The East Campus is about a mile from the main campus and is composed mainly of athletic fields. CU Boulders distinctive architecture style, known as Tuscan Vernacular Revival, was designed by architect Charles Klauder. A month or so after approval, however, Klauder updated his design by sketching in a new wrap of rough, textured sandstone walls with sloping, multi-leveled red-tiled roofs and Indiana limestone trim. This formed the basis of a style which was used in the design of fifteen other buildings between 1921 and 1939. The sandstone used in the construction of all the buildings on campus was selected from a variety of front range mountain quarries. In 2011, Travel+Leisure named the Boulder campus as one of the most beautiful campuses in the United States. Currently Freshmen and others attending the University of Colorado Boulder have an option of 24 on-, Residence halls have 17 varieties of room types from singles to four-person rooms and others with apartment style amenities
12.
STS-87
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STS-87 was a Space Shuttle mission launched from Launch Complex 39B of the Kennedy Space Center on 19 November 1997. It was the 88th flight of the Space Shuttle, and the 24th flight of Columbia, the mission goals were to conduct experiments using the United States Microgravity Payload, conduct two EVAs, and to deploy the SPARTAN-201 experiment. This mission marked the first time an EVA was performed from Columbia, an EVA from Columbia was originally planned for STS-5 in 1982, but was cancelled due to spacesuit problems. It also marked the first EVA conducted by a Japanese astronaut, mid-deck experiments included the Middeck Glovebox Payload and the Collaborative Ukrainian Experiment. The United States Microgravity Payload is a Spacelab project managed by Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, the complement of microgravity research experiments is divided between two Mission-Peculiar Experiment Support Structures in the payload bay. The extended mission capability offered by the Extended Duration Orbiter kit provides an opportunity for additional science gathering time, spartan 201-04 is a Solar Physics Spacecraft designed to perform remote sensing of the hot outer layers of the suns atmosphere or corona. It is expected to be deployed on orbit 18 and retrieved on orbit 52, the objective of the observations are to investigate the mechanisms causing the heating of the solar corona and the acceleration of the solar wind which originates in the corona. Two primary experiments are the Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, spartan 201 has three secondary experiments. This link was used to provide a fine pointing adjustment to the WLC based on solar images downlinked real time, the Video Guidance Sensor Flight Experiment is a laser guidance system which tested a key component of the Automated Rendezvous and Capture system. Solidification is the process of freezing materials, in the type of directional solidification to be used in AADSF, the liquid sample, enclosed in quartz ampoules, will be slowly solidified along the long axis. A mechanism will move the sample through varying temperature zones in the furnace, to start processing, the furnace melts all but one end of the sample towards the other. Once crystallized, the remains in the furnace to be examined post-flight. The solidification front is of particular interest to scientists because the flows found in the liquid material influence the composition and structure of the solid. The Confined Helium Experiment provides a test of theories of the influence of boundaries on matter by measuring the capacity of helium as it is confined to two dimensions. The Isothermal Dendritic Growth Experiment is a materials science experiment that researchers will use to investigate a particular type of solidification called dendritic growth. Dendritic solidification is one of the most common forms of solidifying metals, when materials crystallize or solidify under certain condition, they freeze unstably, resulting in tiny, tree-like crystalline forms called dendrites. Scientist are particularly interested in dendrite size, shape, and how the branches of the dendrites interact with each other and these characteristics largely determine the properties of the material. In the first sample, the fluctuations of the moving solidification are measured electrically
13.
STS-107
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STS-107 was the 113th flight of the Space Shuttle program, and the disastrous final flight of Space Shuttle Columbia. The seven members of the crew were killed on February 1 when Columbia disintegrated during reentry into the atmosphere, during re-entry the damaged wing slowly overheated and came apart, eventually leading to loss of control and disintegration of the vehicle. The cockpit window frame is now exhibited in a memorial inside the Space Shuttle Atlantis Pavilion at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, sTS-107 carried the SPACEHAB Double Research Module on its inaugural flight, the Freestar experiment, and the Extended Duration Orbiter pallet. SPACEHAB was first flown on STS57, one of the experiments, a video taken to study atmospheric dust, may have detected a new atmospheric phenomenon, dubbed a TIGER. The copy was in the possession of Ilan Ramon and was lost in the disintegration, Ramon also traveled with a dollar bill received from the Lubavitcher Rebbe. An Australian experiment, conducted by students from Glen Waverley Secondary College, was designed to test the reaction of zero gravity on the web formation of the Garden Orb Spider, examples of some of the experiments and investigations on the mission. Because much of the data was transmitted during the mission, there was still large return on the mission even though it was lost on re-entry. Some of the experiments were also found on the ground, KSC landing was planned for Feb.1 after a 16-day mission, but Columbia and crew were lost during reentry over East Texas at about 9 a. m. EST,16 minutes prior to the scheduled touchdown at KSC, the loss of the spacecraft and crew triggered a 7-month investigation and a search for debris, and over 85,000 pieces were collected over the course of the initial investigation. This amounted to roughly 38 percent of the orbiter vehicle, the central element of the patch is the microgravity symbol, µg, flowing into the rays of the astronaut symbol. The mission inclination is portrayed by the 39 degree angle of the symbol to the Earths horizon. The sunrise is representative of the experiments that are the dawn of a new era for continued microgravity research on the International Space Station. The breadth of science and the exploration of space is illustrated by the Earth, the constellation Columba was chosen to symbolize peace on Earth and the Space Shuttle Columbia. The seven stars represent the mission crew members and honor the original astronauts who paved the way to make research in space possible. Six stars have five points, the seventh has six points like a Star of David, an Israeli flag is adjacent to the name of Payload Specialist Ramon, who was the first Israeli in space. The crew insignia or patch design was initiated by crew members Dr. Laurel Clark, first-time crew member Clark provided most of the design concepts as Chawla led the design of her maiden voyage STS-87 insignia. Clark also pointed out that the dove in the Columba constellation was mythologically connected to the explorers The Argonauts who released the dove, william H. Starbuck, Moshe Farjoun, Organization at the Limit, Lessons from the Columbia Disaster
14.
Congressional Space Medal of Honor
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The highest award given by NASA, it is awarded by the President of the United States in Congresss name on recommendations from the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The award is a decoration from the Medal of Honor. In such cases, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor is worn as a following all United States Armed Forces decorations. To be awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, an astronaut must perform feats of extraordinary accomplishment while participating in space flight under the authority of NASA, typically, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor is awarded for scientific discoveries or actions of tremendous benefit to mankind. The decoration may also be awarded for bravery during a space emergency or in preventing a major space disaster. As of 2014,28 astronauts have been honored with the award, seventeen were honored posthumously,14 died in either the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster or the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, and the other three died in the Apollo 1 fire. An asterisk indicates a posthumous award, awards and decorations of the United States government Category, Recipients of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor
15.
Robotic arm
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A robotic arm is a type of mechanical arm, usually programmable, with similar functions to a human arm, the arm may be the sum total of the mechanism or may be part of a more complex robot. The links of such a manipulator are connected by joints allowing either rotational motion or translational displacement, the links of the manipulator can be considered to form a kinematic chain. The terminus of the chain of the manipulator is called the end effector. The end effector, or robotic hand, can be designed to any desired task such as welding, gripping, spinning etc. depending on the application. For example, robot arms in automotive assembly lines perform a variety of such as welding and parts rotation. In some circumstances, close emulation of the hand is desired, as in robots designed to conduct bomb disarmament. Cartesian robot / Gantry robot, Used for pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations, handling machine tools and its a robot whose arm has three prismatic joints, whose axes are coincident with a Cartesian coordinator. Cylindrical robot, Used for assembly operations, handling at machine tools, spot welding and its a robot whose axes form a cylindrical coordinate system. Spherical robot / Polar robot Used for handling tools, spot welding, diecasting, fettling machines, gas welding. Its a robot whose axes form a coordinate system. SCARA robot, Used for pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations and this robot features two parallel rotary joints to provide compliance in a plane. Articulated robot, Used for assembly operations, diecasting, fettling machines, gas welding, arc welding and its a robot whose arm has at least three rotary joints. Parallel robot, One use is a mobile platform handling cockpit flight simulators and its a robot whose arms have concurrent prismatic or rotary joints. Anthropomorphic robot, It is shaped in a way that resembles a hand, i. e. with independent fingers. The Curiosity rover on the planet Mars also uses a robotic arm, in the decade of 2010 the availability of low-cost robotic arms increased substantially. Although such robotic arms are mostly marketed as hobby or educational devices, applications in laboratory automation have been proposed, robot Arm Types How to build your printed robot arm assistant
16.
Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
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On February 1,2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated upon reentering Earths atmosphere, killing all seven crew members. The disaster was the tragedy in the Space Shuttle program after Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986. During the launch of STS-107, Columbias 28th mission, a piece of foam broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank. A few previous shuttle launches had seen damage ranging from minor to major from foam shedding, NASA managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed. After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, as they had been after the Challenger disaster. Commander, Rick D. Husband, a U. S. Air Force colonel and mechanical engineer, payload Commander, Michael P. Anderson, a U. S. Air Force lieutenant colonel, physicist, and mission specialist who was in charge of the science mission. Payload Specialist, Ilan Ramon, a colonel in the Israeli Air Force, Mission Specialist, Kalpana Chawla, aerospace engineer who was on her second space mission. Mission Specialist, David M. Brown, a U. S. Navy captain trained as an aviator, Mission Specialist, Laurel Blair Salton Clark, a U. S. Navy captain and flight surgeon. The shuttles main fuel tank is covered in thermal insulation foam intended to prevent ice from forming when the tank is full of liquid hydrogen and oxygen, such ice could damage the shuttle if shed during lift-off. Mission STS-107 was the 113th Space Shuttle launch, planned to begin on January 11,2001, the mission was delayed 18 times and eventually launched on January 16,2003, following STS-113. About 82 seconds after launch from Kennedy Space Centers LC-39-A, a piece of foam broke off from the External Tank. At the time of the strike, the orbiter was at an altitude of about 66,000 feet. The Left Bipod Foam Ramp is an approximately three-foot long aerodynamic component made entirely of foam, the foam, not normally considered to be a structural material, is required to bear some aerodynamic loads. Because of these requirements, the casting-in-place and curing of the ramps may be performed only by a senior technician. Bipod Ramp insulation had been observed falling off, in whole or in part, on four flights, STS-7, STS-32, STS-50. All affected shuttle missions completed successfully, NASA management came to refer to this phenomenon as foam shedding. This phenomenon was termed normalization of deviance by sociologist Diane Vaughan in her book on the Challenger launch decision process. As it happened, STS-112 had been the first flight with the ET Cam, after STS-112, NASA leaders analyzed the situation and decided to press ahead under the justification that he ET is safe to fly with no new concerns of further foam strikes
17.
Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
18.
Computational fluid dynamics
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Computational fluid dynamics is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the required to simulate the interaction of liquids. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, ongoing research yields software that improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation scenarios such as transonic or turbulent flows. Initial experimental validation of such software is performed using a tunnel with the final validation coming in full-scale testing. The fundamental basis of almost all CFD problems is the Navier–Stokes equations and these equations can be simplified by removing terms describing viscous actions to yield the Euler equations. Further simplification, by removing terms describing vorticity yields the full potential equations, finally, for small perturbations in subsonic and supersonic flows these equations can be linearized to yield the linearized potential equations. Historically, methods were first developed to solve the potential equations. Two-dimensional methods, using conformal transformations of the flow about a cylinder to the flow about an airfoil were developed in the 1930s. One of the earliest type of calculations resembling modern CFD are those by Lewis Fry Richardson, in the sense that these calculations used finite differences and divided the physical space in cells. Although they failed dramatically, these calculations, together with Richardsons book Weather prediction by numerical process, set the basis for modern CFD, in fact, early CFD calculations during the 1940s using ENIAC used methods close to those in Richardsons 1922 book. The computer power available paced development of three-dimensional methods, probably the first work using computers to model fluid flow, as governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, was performed at Los Alamos National Lab, in the T3 group. This group was led by Francis H. Harlow, who is considered as one of the pioneers of CFD. Fromms vorticity-stream-function method for 2D, transient, incompressible flow was the first treatment of strongly contorting incompressible flows in the world, the first paper with three-dimensional model was published by John Hess and A. M. O. Smith of Douglas Aircraft in 1967 and this method discretized the surface of the geometry with panels, giving rise to this class of programs being called Panel Methods. Their method itself was simplified, in that it did not include lifting flows and hence was mainly applied to ship hulls, the first lifting Panel Code was described in a paper written by Paul Rubbert and Gary Saaris of Boeing Aircraft in 1968. In time, more advanced three-dimensional Panel Codes were developed at Boeing, Lockheed, Douglas, McDonnell Aircraft, NASA, some were higher order codes, using higher order distributions of surface singularities, while others used single singularities on each surface panel. The advantage of the lower order codes was that they ran much faster on the computers of the time, today, VSAERO has grown to be a multi-order code and is the most widely used program of this class. It has been used in the development of submarines, surface ships, automobiles, helicopters, aircraft
19.
V/STOL
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A vertical and/or short take-off and landing aircraft is an airplane able to take-off or land vertically or on short runways. Vertical takeoff and landing aircraft are a subset of V/STOL craft that do not require runways at all, generally, a V/STOL aircraft needs to be able to hover. Most V/STOL aircraft types were experiments or outright failures from the 1950s to 1970s, V/STOL aircraft types that have been produced in large numbers include the Harrier, Yak-38 Forger and V-22 Osprey. A rolling takeoff, sometimes with a ramp, reduces the amount of thrust required to lift an aircraft from the ground, for instance, the Harrier is incapable of taking off vertically with full weapons and fuel load. Hence V/STOL aircraft generally use a runway if it is available, I. e. short takeoff and vertical landing or conventional takeoff and landing operation is preferred to VTOL operation. The main advantage of V/STOL aircraft is closer basing to the enemy, in the case of the Falklands War, it also permitted high-performance fighter air cover and ground attack without a large aircraft carrier equipped with aircraft catapult. The latest V/STOL aircraft is the F-35B, which is expected to service in 2016. This is a partial list, there have been designs for V/STOL aircraft. Hawker P. 1127/Kestrel/Harrier, four rotating nozzles for vectored thrust of fan, Bell XF-109 Bell 65 EWR VJ101 AgustaWestland Project Zero technology demonstrator Bell XV-3 Bell XV-15 Bell 609 Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey Curtiss-Wright X-19 - four rotating propellers, tilt-wing. Canadair CL-84 Dynavert, two turboprop tilt-wing in RCAF service from 1960 LTV XC-142 four-engine tilt-wing cross-shafted turboprop Bell X-22 rotating ducted propellers, fans in wings driven by engine exhaust gas. VFW VAK 191B Attack fighter similar to Harrier but supersonic dash speed, smaller wings, first aircraft capable of demonstrating transition from short take-off to supersonic flight to vertical landing on the same sortie
20.
NASA Astronaut Corps
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It is based at Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. The first U. S. astronaut candidates were selected by NASA in 1959, the military services were asked to provide a list of military test pilots who met specific qualifications. After stringent screening, NASA announced its selection of the Mercury Seven as its first astronauts, since then, NASA has selected 20 more groups of astronauts, opening the corps to civilians, scientists, doctors, engineers, and school teachers. As of the 2009 Astronaut Class 61% of the selected by NASA have come from military service. NASA selects candidates from a pool of applicants with a wide variety of backgrounds. From the thousands of applications received, only a few are chosen for the intensive Astronaut Candidate training program, including the “Original Seven”,339 candidates have been selected to date. The Chief of the Astronaut Office is the most senior position for active astronauts in the Corps. The Chief Astronaut serves as head of the Corps and is the adviser to the NASA Administrator on astronaut training. The first Chief Astronaut was Deke Slayton, appointed in 1962, the current Chief Astronaut is Christopher Cassidy. Salaries for newly hired civilian astronauts are based on the federal governments General Schedule pay scale for grades GS-11 through GS-14, the astronauts grade is based on his or her academic achievements and experience. Astronauts can be promoted up to grade GS-15, as of 2015, astronauts based at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, earn between $66,026 and $158,700. Military astronauts are detailed to the Johnson Space Center and remain on duty for pay, benefits, leave. There are no age restrictions for the NASA Astronaut Corps, Astronaut candidates have ranged between the ages of 26 and 46, with the average age being 34. Candidates must be U. S. citizens to apply for the program, there are three broad categories of qualifications, education, work experience, and medical. Candidates must have a degree from an accredited institution in engineering, biological science. The degree must be followed by at least three years of related, progressively responsible, professional experience or at least 1,000 pilot-in-command time in jet aircraft, an advanced degree is desirable and may be substituted for experience. Teaching experience, including experience at the K -12 levels, is considered to be qualifying experience, blood pressure not to exceed 140/90 measured in a sitting position Standing height between 62 and 75 inches As of July 2015 the corps has 46 active astronauts and 36 management astronauts. The highest number of active astronauts at one time, was in 2000 when there were 149, all of the current astronaut corps are from the classes of 1996 or later
21.
Winston E. Scott
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Winston Eliott Scott is a retired United States Navy Captain and former NASA astronaut. Scott attended George Carver Senior High School until integration occurred in Dade County Schools and he received a bachelor of arts degree in music from Florida State University in 1972 and a master of science degree in aeronautical engineering from the U. S. Naval Postgraduate School in 1980. Scott entered Naval Aviation Officer Candidate School after graduating from Florida State University in December 1972 and he completed flight training in fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft and was designated a Naval Aviator in August 1974. In 1978 Scott was selected to attend the Naval Postgraduate School at Monterey, California, after completing jet training in the TA-4J Skyhawk, Scott served a tour of duty with Fighter Squadron 84 at NAS Oceana, Virginia, flying the F-14 Tomcat. In June 1986 he was designated an Aerospace Engineering Duty Officer and he served as a production test pilot at the Naval Aviation Depot, NAS Jacksonville, Florida, flying the F/A-18 Hornet and the A-7 Corsair aircraft. He was also assigned as Director of the Product Support Department and he was next assigned as the Deputy Director of the Tactical Aircraft Systems Department at the Naval Air Development Center at Warminster, Pennsylvania. As a research and development project pilot, he flew the F-14, F/A-18, Scott has accumulated more than 5,000 hours of flight time in 20 different military and civilian aircraft, and more than 200 shipboard landings. Additionally, Scott was an instructor of electrical engineering at Florida A&M University. Scott was selected by NASA in March 1992, and reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1992. He served as a mission specialist on STS-72 in 1996 and STS-87 in 1997, Scott retired from NASA and the US Navy at the end of July 1999 to accept a position at his alma mater, Florida State University, as Vice President for Student Affairs. He then served as director of the Florida Space Authority, where he attempted to promote the development of a spaceport in Florida. His responsibilities included the development of space-related industry and economic initiatives and he represented the States interests in the development of space policies and programs and advised the governor and lieutenant governor on all civil, commercial and military space matters. Scott left the Authority prior to its dissolution at the insistence of then-Governor Jeb Bush, Scott is now the Dean of the College of Aeronautics at the Florida Institute of Technology in Melbourne, Florida. The mission was accomplished in 142 orbits of the Earth, traveling 3.7 million miles, the second spacewalk lasted five hours and also featured space station assembly tests. Testing of the AERCam Sprint was conducted during his EVA, the mission was accomplished in 252 Earth orbits, traveling 6.5 million miles in 376 hours and 34 minutes. Scott has written a book about his experiences in space, Reflections From Earth Orbit, in 2007, he received an honorary degree from Michigan State University for his work in space, which is regarded as a case study in leadership and expert communications. He also spoke at the 2007 commencements at Michigan State, encouraging students to believe in themselves, Scott was born August 6,1950, in Miami, Florida. He is married to the former Marilyn K. Robinson, and he enjoys martial arts and holds a second-degree black belt in Shotokan karate
22.
Takao Doi
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Takao Doi is a Japanese astronaut and a veteran of two NASA space shuttle missions. Doi holds a doctorate from the University of Tokyo in aerospace engineering, and has studied and published in the fields of propulsion systems, Doi flew as a mission specialist aboard STS-87 in 1997, during which he became the first Japanese astronaut to conduct a spacewalk. He received a Ph. D in Astronomy from Rice University in 2004, Takao Doi visited the International Space Station in March 2008 as a member of the STS-123 crew. STS-123 delivered the first module of the Japanese laboratory, Kibō, during this mission, he became the first person to throw a boomerang in space that was specifically designed for use in microgravity during spaceflight. Doi retired from the duty and he works as the chief of Space Applications Section of United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs starting September 2009. Since April 2016, he is to work as a professor at the Unit of Synergetic Studies for Space of Kyoto University, as an avid amateur astronomer, he found supernovae SN 2002gw and SN 2007aa. NASA Biography Spacefacts biography of Takao Doi
23.
Space Shuttle external tank
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A Space Shuttle External Tank was the component of the Space Shuttle launch vehicle that contained the liquid hydrogen fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer. During lift-off and ascent it supplied the fuel and oxidizer under pressure to the three Space Shuttle Main Engines in the orbiter, the ET was jettisoned just over 10 seconds after MECO, where the SSMEs were shut down, and re-entered the Earths atmosphere. Unlike the Solid Rocket Boosters, external tanks were not re-used and they broke up before impact in the Indian Ocean, away from shipping lanes and were not recovered. The ET was the largest element of the shuttle. The ET was the backbone of the shuttle during launch, providing support for attachment with the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters. The tank was connected to each SRB at one forward attachment point and one aft bracket, in the aft attachment area, there were also umbilicals that carried fluids, gases, electrical signals and electrical power between the tank and the orbiter. Electrical signals and controls between the orbiter and the two rocket boosters were also routed through those umbilicals. Although the external tanks were discarded, it could have been possible to re-use them in orbit. Plans for re-use ranged from incorporation into a station as extra living or research space, as rocket fuel tanks for interplanetary missions. Another concept was to use the ET as a carrier for bulky payloads. One proposal was for the mirror of a 7-meter aperture telescope to be carried with the tank. Another concept was the Aft Cargo Carrier, over the years, NASA worked to reduce the weight of the ET to increase overall efficiency. For each pound of weight reduction, the capability of the shuttle spacecraft was increased almost one pound. The original ET is informally known as the Standard Weight Tank and was fabricated from 2219, a high-strength aluminum–copper alloy used for many aerospace applications. The first two, used for STS-1 and STS-2, were painted white to protect the tanks from ultraviolet light during the time that the shuttle spends on the launch pad prior to launch. After STS-4, several hundred pounds were eliminated by deleting the anti-geyser line and this line paralleled the oxygen feed line, providing a circulation path for liquid oxygen. This reduces accumulation of oxygen in the feed line during prelaunch tanking. After propellant loading data from tests and the first few space shuttle missions were assessed
24.
Space Shuttle orbiter
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The Space Shuttle orbiter was the reusable spaceplane component of the Space Shuttle program. Six orbiters were built for flight, Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, all were built in Palmdale, California, by the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania-based Rockwell International company. The first orbiter, Enterprise, made its flight in 1977. An unpowered glider, it was carried by a modified Boeing 747 airliner called the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and released for a series of atmospheric test flights, Enterprise was partially disassembled and retired after completion of critical testing. The remaining orbiters were fully operational spacecraft, and were launched vertically as part of the Space Shuttle stack, Columbia was the first space-worthy orbiter, and made its inaugural flight in 1981. Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis followed in 1983,1984 and 1985 respectively, in 1986, Challenger was destroyed in an accident shortly after launch. Endeavour was built as Challengers replacement, and was first launched in 1992, in 2003, Columbia was destroyed during re-entry, leaving just three remaining orbiters. Discovery completed its flight on March 9,2011. Atlantis completed the last ever Shuttle flight, STS-135, on July 21,2011, additionally, two reusable solid rocket boosters provided additional thrust for approximately the first two minutes of launch. The orbiters themselves did carry hypergolic propellants for their RCS thrusters, the vertical stabilizer of the orbiter had a leading edge that was swept back at a 45-degree angle. There were four elevons mounted at the edges of the delta wings. These, along with a movable body flap located underneath the main engines, controlled the orbiter during later stages of descent through the atmosphere, overall, the Space Shuttle orbiter was roughly the same size as a McDonnell Douglas DC-9 airliner. This control system carried out the usual attitude control along the pitch, roll, and yaw axes during all of the phases of launching, orbiting. This system also executed any needed orbital maneuvers, including all changes in the altitude, orbital plane. These were all operations that required a lot more power and energy than mere attitude control, the forward rockets of the Reaction Control System, located near the nose of the Space Shuttle orbiter, included 14 primary and two vernier RCS rockets. The aft RCS engines were located in the two Orbital Maneuvering System pods at the rear of the orbiter, and these included 12 primary and two vernier engines in each pod. The RCS also controlled the attitude of the orbiter during most of its re-entry into the Earths atmosphere – until the air became dense enough that the rudder, elevons and body flap became effective. During the early process of the orbiter, the forward RCS thrusters were to be hidden underneath retractable doors
25.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
26.
Atmosphere of Earth
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The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earths gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention. By volume, dry air contains 78. 09% nitrogen,20. 95% oxygen,0. 93% argon,0. 04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains an amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level. The atmosphere has a mass of about 5. 15×1018 kg, the atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km, or 1. 57% of Earths radius, is used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km, several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition. The study of Earths atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science, early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann. The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earths atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor accounts for roughly 0. 25% of the atmosphere by mass. The remaining gases are often referred to as gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide. Filtered air includes trace amounts of other chemical compounds. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine, fluorine compounds, sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere, however, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions. In this way, Earths atmosphere can be divided into five main layers, excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km where it merges into the solar wind. This layer is composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another, thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind, the exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible
27.
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
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The spacecraft disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 11,39 EST. Disintegration of the vehicle began after an O-ring seal in its solid rocket booster failed at liftoff. The O-ring was not designed to fly under unusually cold conditions as in this launch and this led to the separation of the right-hand SRBs aft field joint attachment and the structural failure of the external tank. Aerodynamic forces broke up the orbiter, the crew compartment and many other vehicle fragments were eventually recovered from the ocean floor after a lengthy search and recovery operation. The exact timing of the death of the crew is unknown, the shuttle had no escape system, and the impact of the crew compartment with the ocean surface was too violent to be survivable. The Rogers Commission found NASAs organizational culture and decision-making processes had been key contributing factors to the accident, NASA managers had known since 1977 that contractor Morton Thiokols design of the SRBs contained a potentially catastrophic flaw in the O-rings, but they had failed to address this problem properly. Approximately 17 percent of Americans witnessed the launch live because of the presence of Payload Specialist Christa McAuliffe, media coverage of the accident was extensive, one study reported that 85 percent of Americans surveyed had heard the news within an hour of the accident. The Challenger disaster has been used as a study in many discussions of engineering safety. Each of the Space Shuttles two Solid Rocket Boosters was constructed of seven sections, six of which were joined in pairs at the factory. For each flight, the four resulting segments were then assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building at Kennedy Space Center, the factory joints were sealed with asbestos-silica insulation applied over the joint, while each field joint was sealed with two rubber O-rings. During the Space Shuttle design process, a McDonnell Douglas report in September 1971 discussed the safety record of solid rockets, while a safe abort was possible after most types of failures, one was especially dangerous, a burnthrough by hot gases of the rockets casing. The report stated that if burnthrough occurs adjacent to tank or orbiter, timely sensing may not be feasible and abort not possible, Morton Thiokol was the contractor responsible for the construction and maintenance of the shuttles SRBs. This phenomenon, known as joint rotation, caused a drop in air pressure. This made it possible for combustion gases to erode the O-rings, in the event of widespread erosion, a flame path could develop, causing the joint to burst—which would have destroyed the booster and the shuttle. Evidence of serious O-ring erosion was present as early as the space shuttle mission, STS-2. Contrary to NASA regulations, the Marshall Center did not report this problem to senior management at NASA, by 1985, Marshall and Thiokol realized that they had a potentially catastrophic problem on their hands. They began the process of redesigning the joint with three inches of steel around the tang. This tang would grip the inner face of the joint and prevent it from rotating and they did not call for a halt to shuttle flights until the joints could be redesigned, but rather treated the problem as an acceptable flight risk
28.
International Space Station
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The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
29.
Roscosmos
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The Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, commonly known as Roscosmos, is the governmental body responsible for the space science program of Russia and general aerospace research. The Corporation was established on the basis of the now-defunct Federal Space Agency on December 28,2015, Roscosmos was previously known as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency. The headquarters of Roscosmos are located in Moscow, while the main Mission Control space center is located in the city of Korolev. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center is in Star City, the Launch facilities used are Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, and Vostochny Cosmodrome being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast. The current Director since January 2015 is Igor Komarov, in 2015 the Russian government merged Roscosmos with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, the re-nationalized Russian space industry, to create the Roscosmos State Corporation. The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies, instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered, it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the separation of Russia from the Soviet Union was therefore a new development, Russian Space Agency was formed on February 25,1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin. In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not taken by the agency, instead, another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichevs ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency. The 1990s saw serious financial problems because of decreased cash flow and this resulted in Roscosmos leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. In March 2004, director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, the Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles, under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and it is around the time US-based The Planetary Society entered a partnership with Roscosmos. In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles in the space programs. The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles, the budget for the whole space program is,169.8 billion rubles. By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles, priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget
30.
STS-114
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STS-114 was the first Return to Flight Space Shuttle mission following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Discovery launched at 10,39 EDT,26 July 2005, the mission ended on 9 August 2005 when Discovery landed at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Poor weather over the Kennedy Space Center in Florida hampered the shuttle from using its landing site. Analysis of the footage showed debris separating from the external tank during ascent. As a result, NASA decided on 27 July to postpone future shuttle flights pending additional modifications to the flight hardware, Shuttle flights resumed a year later with STS-121 on 4 July 2006. This mission was to carry the Expedition 7 crew to the ISS, the original crew was to be, STS-114 marked the return to flight of the Space Shuttle after the Columbia disaster and was the second Shuttle flight with a female commander. The STS-114 mission was initially to be aboard the orbiter Atlantis. During OMM for Discovery, an actuator on the RSB system was found to be installed incorrectly and this created a fleet wide suspect condition. Seventeen years prior, Discovery had flown NASAs previous Return to Flight mission, the STS-114 mission delivered supplies to the International Space Station. However, the focus of the mission was testing and evaluating new Space Shuttle flight safety techniques. The crewmembers used the new Orbiter Boom Sensor System – a set of instruments on a 50-foot extension attached to the Canadarm, the OBSS instrument package consists of visual imaging equipment and a Laser Dynamic Range Imager to detect problems with the shuttles Thermal Protection System. STS-114 was classified as Logistics Flight 1 and they deployed MISSE5 to the stations exterior, and replaced one of the ISSs Control Moment Gyroscopes. The CMG was carried up on the LMC at the rear of the payload bay, the crew conducted three spacewalks while at the station. The first demonstrated repair techniques on the Shuttles Thermal Protection System, during the second, the spacewalkers replaced the failed gyroscope. On the third, they installed the External Stowage Platform and repaired the shuttle, on 1 August, it was announced that protruding gap fillers on the front underside of the shuttle would be inspected and dealt with during the third spacewalk of the mission. The spacewalk was conducted on the morning of 3 August, Robinson easily removed the two fillers with his fingers. Later on the day, NASA officials said that they were looking closely at a thermal blanket located next to the commanders window on the port side of the orbiter. Published reports on 4 August 2005 said that wind tunnel testing had demonstrated that the orbiter was safe to re-enter with the billowed blanket
31.
Atmospheric entry
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Atmospheric entry is the movement of an object from outer space into and through the gases of an atmosphere of a planet, dwarf planet or natural satellite. Technologies and procedures allowing the atmospheric entry, descent and landing of spacecraft are collectively abbreviated as EDL. Atmospheric drag and aerodynamic heating can cause atmospheric breakup capable of completely disintegrating smaller objects and these forces may cause objects with lower compressive strength to explode. Manned space vehicles must be slowed to subsonic speeds before parachutes or air brakes may be deployed, such vehicles have kinetic energies typically between 50 and 1800 MJoules, and atmospheric dissipation is the only way of expending the kinetic energy. While the high temperature generated at the surface of the shield is due to adiabatic compression. Other smaller energy losses include black body radiation directly from the hot gasses, ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at re-entry, and in fact, are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed. Uncontrolled, objects accelerate through the atmosphere at extreme velocities under the influence of Earths gravity, most controlled objects enter at hypersonic speeds due to their suborbital, orbital, or unbounded trajectories. Various advanced technologies have developed to enable atmospheric reentry and flight at extreme velocities. Practical development of systems began as the range and reentry velocity of ballistic missiles increased. For early short-range missiles, like the V-2, stabilization and aerodynamic stress were important issues, medium-range missiles like the Soviet R-5, with a 1200 km range, required ceramic composite heat shielding on separable reentry vehicles. The first ICBMs, with ranges of 8000 to 12,000 km, were possible with the development of modern ablative heat shields. In the U. S. this technology was pioneered by H. Julian Allen at Ames Research Center, over the decades since the 1950s, a rich technical jargon has grown around the engineering of vehicles designed to enter planetary atmospheres. It is recommended that the review the jargon glossary before continuing with this article on atmospheric reentry. When atmospheric entry is part of a landing or recovery, particularly on a planetary body other than Earth, entry is part of a phase referred to as entry, descent and landing. When the atmospheric entry returns to the body that the vehicle had launched from. These four shadowgraph images represent early reentry-vehicle concepts, if the reentry vehicle is made blunt, air cannot get out of the way quickly enough, and acts as an air cushion to push the shock wave and heated shock layer forward. Since most of the hot gases are no longer in contact with the vehicle. The Allen and Eggers discovery, though initially treated as a secret, was eventually published in 1958
32.
David M. Brown
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David McDowell Brown was a United States Navy captain and a NASA astronaut. He died on his first spaceflight, when the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated during reentry into the Earths atmosphere. Brown became an astronaut in 1996, but had not served on a space mission prior to the Columbia disaster, past President, International Association of Military Flight Surgeon Pilots Associate Fellow, Aerospace Medical Association Society of U. S. Naval Flight Surgeons. Brown joined the U. S. Navy after his internship at the Medical University of South Carolina, upon completion of flight surgeon training in 1984, he reported to the Navy Branch Hospital in Adak, Alaska, as Director of Medical Services. He was then assigned to Carrier Air Wing Fifteen which deployed aboard the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson in the Western Pacific, in 1988, he became the only flight surgeon in a ten-year period to be chosen for pilot training. He was ultimately designated a Naval Aviator in 1990 at NAS Chase Field in Beeville, Texas, Brown was then sent for training and carrier qualification in the A-6E Intruder. In 1991, he reported to the Naval Strike Warfare Center at NAS Fallon, Nevada, where he served as a Strike Leader Attack Training Syllabus Instructor and a Contingency Cell Planning Officer. Additionally, he was qualified in the F/A-18 Hornet and deployed from Japan in 1992 aboard USS Independence flying the A-6E with VA-115. In 1995, he reported to the U. S. Naval Test Pilot School at NAS Patuxent River, Brown logged over 2,700 flight hours with 1,700 in high performance military aircraft. He was qualified as first pilot in NASA T-38 aircraft and he held a Federal Communications Commission issued Technician Class amateur radio license with the call sign KC5ZTC. Selected by NASA in April 1996, Brown reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1996 and he completed two years of training and evaluation, and was qualified for flight assignment as a mission specialist. On April 21,2001, Brown appeared on ESPN as an expert on g-force loading on the body that led to the cancellation of the Firestone Firehawk 600 CART race. Brown flew aboard Space Shuttle Columbia on STS-107, logging 15 days,22 hours, the flight was a dedicated science and research mission. Working 24 hours a day, in two alternating shifts, the crew successfully conducted approximately 80 experiments, the mission ended abruptly on February 1,2003, when Columbias crew perished during entry,16 minutes before the scheduled landing. Asteroid 51825 Davidbrown was named in honor of Brown, Brown Hall, in the Columbia Village apartments, at the Florida Institute of Technology is named after him. He is the first person ever to be awarded the William & Mary Alumni Associations Alumni Medal. The Laurel B. Clark and David M. Brown Aerospace Medicine Academic Center, the Captain David Brown Aerospace and Medical Research Endowment was established in his memory to help deserving students attending Eastern Virginia Medical School. The planetarium of Arlington Public Schools was renamed as the David M. Brown Planetarium, the Dave Brown Memorial Park in Friendswood, Texas, is named after him
33.
Rick Husband
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Richard Douglas Rick Husband was a U. S. Air Force Colonel, pilot, and astronaut who was Commander of Space Shuttle Columbia mission STS-107. He and the rest of the crew of STS-107 were killed when Columbia disintegrated during reentry into the Earths atmosphere, Husband is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. Husband was born on July 12,1957, in Amarillo and he attended Belmar Elementary School, Crockett Junior High School, and he graduated from Amarillo High School in 1975. He was a member of Tau Beta Pi, after graduating from Texas Tech University, Husband was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the United States Air Force and attended pilot training at Vance Air Force Base in Oklahoma. He finished his training there in October 1981, and was assigned to F-4 Phantom II training at Homestead Air Force Base in Florida, after completion of F-4 training in September 1982, Husband was assigned to Moody Air Force Base in Georgia flying the F-4E. From September to November 1985, he attended F-4 Instructor School at Homestead AFB and was assigned as an F-4E instructor pilot and academic instructor at George AFB, California in December 1985. In December 1987, Husband was assigned to Edwards Air Force Base in California, upon completion of test pilot school, Husband served as a test pilot flying the F-4 and all five models of the F-15 Eagle. In the F-15 Combined Test Force, Husband was the manager for the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 increased performance engine. In June 1992, Husband was assigned to the Aircraft and Armament Evaluation Establishment at Boscombe Down, England, as an exchange test pilot with the Royal Air Force. At Boscombe Down, Husband was the Tornado GR1 and GR4 Project Pilot and served as a test pilot in the Hawk, Hunter, Buccaneer, Jet Provost, Tucano, Husband logged over 3,800 hours of flight time in more than 40 different types of aircraft. Husband was selected as a candidate by NASA in December 1994. He reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995 to begin a year of training and he eventually served as Chief of Safety for the Astronaut Office. He flew as Pilot on STS-96 in 1999, and logged 235 hours and 13 minutes in space, Husband was later assigned to command the crew of STS-107 which was launched early in 2003. The mission was accomplished in 153 Earth orbits, traveling 4 million miles in 9 days,19 hours and 13 minutes, the mission ended in tragedy on the morning of February 1 when the shuttle disintegrated upon reentry killing all crew members. Two NASA Group Achievement Awards Husband Hall, in the Columbia Village apartments, Husband Hill, one of the Columbia Hills on Mars. Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport, in his hometown of Amarillo, Husband Auditorium, Squadron Officer School building, Maxwell AFB, Alabama. Rick Husband Drive, El Paso, Texas, husband-Boeing Engineering Honors Program at California State University, Fresno S. S. Rick Husband, the Cygnus CRS OA-6 unmanned resupply spacecraft. Husband describes how he became a shuttle commander having flown in one other space flight
34.
Laurel Clark
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Laurel Blair Salton Clark was an American medical doctor, United States Navy Captain, NASA astronaut and Space Shuttle mission specialist. Clark died along with her six crew members in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Clark was born in Ames, Iowa, but considered Racine, Wisconsin and she is survived by her husband, fellow NASA flight surgeon Dr. Jonathan Clark, and son, Iain. Clark was a member of the Gamma Phi Beta sorority and she held a Federal Communications Commission issued Technician Class amateur radio license with the call sign KC5ZSU. S. She was also a member of the Olympia Brown Unitarian Universalist Church in Racine, during medical school she did active duty training with the Diving Medicine Department at the United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit in March 1987. After completing medical school, Clark underwent postgraduate medical education in pediatrics from 1987 to 1988 at the National Naval Medical Center, Clark was designated a Radiation Health Officer and Undersea Medical Officer. She was then assigned as the Submarine Squadron 14 Medical Department Head in Holy Loch, during that assignment she dove with Navy divers and Naval Special Warfare Unit Two SEALs and performed many medical evacuations from US submarines. After two years of operational experience she was designated as a Naval Submarine Medical Officer and Diving Medical Officer, Clark underwent six months of aeromedical training at the Naval Aerospace Medical Institute st NAS Pensacola in Pensacola, Florida, and was designated as a Naval Flight Surgeon. She was stationed at MCAS Yuma, Arizona, and assigned as Flight Surgeon Marine Attack Squadron 211 and she made several deployments, including one overseas to the Western Pacific, practiced medicine in austere environments, and flew on multiple aircraft. Her squadron won the Marine Attack Squadron of the Year award for its successful deployment and she was then assigned as the Group Flight Surgeon for Marine Aircraft Group 13. Before her selection as an astronaut candidate she served as a Flight Surgeon for Training Squadron 86, Clark was Board Certified by the National Board of Medical Examiners and held a Wisconsin Medical License. Her military qualifications included Radiation Health Officer, Undersea Medical Officer, Diving Medical Officer, Submarine Medical Officer and she was a Basic Life Support Instructor, Advanced Cardiac Life Support Provider, Advanced Trauma Life Support Provider, and Hyperbaric Chamber Advisor. Selected by NASA in April 1996, Clark reported to the Johnson Space Center in Houston, after completing two years of training and evaluation, she was qualified for flight assignment as a mission specialist. From July 1997 to August 2000 Clark worked in the Astronaut Office Payloads/Habitability Branch, Clark flew aboard STS-107, logging 15 days,22 hours and 21 minutes in space. STS-107 Columbia – The 16-day flight was a science and research mission. Working 24 hours a day, in two alternating shifts, the crew successfully conducted approximately 80 experiments, clarks bioscience experiments included gardening in space, as she discussed only days before her death in an interview with Milwaukee media near her Wisconsin hometown. The STS-107 mission ended abruptly on February 1,2003, when Columbia disintegrated, Clark also recorded inside the cockpit during Columbias descent into the Earths atmosphere on a small digital camera. Clarks final message to her friends and family was through an email sent from Columbia, asteroid 51827 Laurelclark was named for Clark
35.
Michael P. Anderson
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Michael Phillip Anderson was a United States Air Force officer and NASA astronaut. Anderson and his six crew members were killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster when the craft disintegrated during its re-entry into the Earths atmosphere. Anderson was born in 1959 to Barbara Anderson and Bobbie Anderson, Bobbie Anderson was transferred to Fairchild Air Force Base, about 12 miles away from Spokane, Washington, which Anderson spoke of as his hometown. He was graduated from Cheney High School, one of four African Americans in a class of 200 students, upon Andersons graduation from the University of Washington, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the U. S. Air Force. After completing a year of training at Keesler Air Force Base in Mississippi. At Randolph he served as chief of maintenance for the 2015th Communication Squadron. In 1986, he was selected to attend Undergraduate Pilot Training at Vance Air Force Base and he completed his masters degree while stationed at Offutt. From January 1991 to September 1992, he served as a commander and instructor pilot in the 920th Air Refueling Squadron, Wurtsmith Air Force Base. From September 1992 to February 1995 he was assigned as a pilot and tactics officer in the 380th Air Refueling Wing, Plattsburgh Air Force Base. Anderson had logged more than 3,000 hours of time when NASA selected him for astronaut training in December 1994. He was one of 19 candidates selected from a pool of 2,962 applicants and he completed a year of training and evaluation, and was qualified for flight crew assignment as a mission specialist. Anderson was initially assigned technical duties in the Flight Support Branch of the Astronaut Office, in the fifth and last exchange of a U. S. astronaut, STS-89 delivered Andy Thomas to Mir and returned with David Wolf. The missions duration was 8 days,19 hours, and 47 seconds, Anderson served as payload commander and lieutenant colonel in charge of science experiments on the Columbia, NASAs oldest shuttle. On February 1,2003, the shuttle was returning to Earth after a successful 16-day trip to orbit, where the crew had conducted more than 80 scientific experiments. Unbeknownst to her crew, the orbiter had suffered damage during its launch on January 16. During re-entry, the hole allowed super-hot atmospheric gases to penetrate the orbiters wing, leading to its destruction, the missions duration was 15 days,22 hours, and 20 minutes. The Columbia Accident Investigation Board reported that, in addition to the Columbias physical damage, prior to the final launch of the Columbia, Anderson told reporters, Theres always that unknown. Anderson was survived by his wife, Sandra Hawkins, and two daughters, aged 9 and 11 at the time of his death and he was also survived by his parents and three sisters
36.
William C. McCool
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William Cameron Willie McCool, was an American naval officer and aviator, test pilot, aeronautical engineer, and NASA astronaut, who was the pilot of Space Shuttle Columbia mission STS-107. He and the rest of the crew of STS-107 were killed when Columbia disintegrated during re-entry into the atmosphere and he was the youngest male member of the crew. William McCool was born September 23,1961, in San Diego, McCool was active in the Boy Scouts of America where he became an Eagle Scout. His favorite song was Imagine by John Lennon, which was played during the space mission and his favorite band was Radiohead, and the song Fake Plastic Trees was played by Mission Control as a wake-up call. McCool died on February 1,2003, when Space Shuttle Columbia broke up over the southern United States during re-entry and he was survived by his wife, Lani, and their three sons. He had a home in Anacortes, Washington, at the time of his death and he is buried in Anacortes, Washington. 1979, Graduated from Coronado High School, Lubbock, Texas,1983, Received a Bachelor of Science degree in Applied Science from the United States Naval Academy. 1985, Received a Master of Science degree in Computer Science from the University of Maryland,1992, Received a Master of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the U. S. Naval Postgraduate School. McCool completed flight training and was designated a Naval Aviator in August 1986 and he was assigned to Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 129 at NAS Whidbey Island, Washington, for initial EA-6B Prowler training. In November 1989, he was selected for the U. S. Naval Postgraduate School/Test Pilot School Cooperative Education Program. After graduating from TPS in June 1992, he worked as a TA-4J and EA-6B test pilot in Flight Systems Department of Strike Aircraft Test Directorate at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland. He was responsible for the management and conduct of a variety of projects. His primary efforts, however, were dedicated to flight test of the Advanced Capability EA-6B, following his Patuxent River tour, McCool returned to Whidbey Island, and was assigned to Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 132 aboard the carrier USS Enterprise. McCool accumulated over 2,800 hours flight experience in 24 aircraft, selected by NASA in April 1996, McCool reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1996. He completed two years of training and evaluation, and was qualified for assignment as a pilot. McCool was pilot of Space Shuttle mission STS-107, January 16 to February 1,2003, the 16-day flight was a dedicated science and research mission. Working 24 hours a day, in two alternating shifts, the crew successfully conducted approximately 80 experiments, sTS-107s mission ended abruptly on February 1,2003, when Columbia disintegrated during re-entry,16 minutes before scheduled landing. All seven crew members were killed, McCool Hill in the Columbia Hills on Mars was posthumously named for McCool
37.
Ilan Ramon
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Ilan Ramon was an Israeli fighter pilot and later the first Israeli astronaut for NASA. Ramon was the shuttle payload specialist of STS-107, the fatal mission of Columbia, in which he. At 48, he was the oldest member of the crew, Ramon is the only foreign recipient of the United States Congressional Space Medal of Honor, which he was awarded posthumously. Ramon was born in Ramat Gan, Israel, to Tonya and his father was from Germany, and his family fled Nazi persecution in 1935. His mother and grandmother were from Poland, and were Holocaust survivors and they immigrated to Israel in 1949. His first name, Ilan, means tree in Hebrew, Ilan changed his last name from Wolferman when he joined the IAF, as did many other Israeli aviators. Ramon graduated from school in 1972. In 1987, he graduated with a B. Sc. degree in electronics, Ilan Ramon was a Colonel and a fighter pilot in the Israeli Air Force, with thousands of hours of flying experience. In 1974, he graduated as a pilot from the Israel Air Force Flight School. From 1974–76 he participated in A-4 Basic Training and Operations, 1976–80 was spent in Mirage III-C training and operations. In 1980, as one of the IAFs establishment team of the first F-16 Squadron in Israel, he attended the F-16 Training Course at Hill Air Force Base, from 1981–83, he served as the Deputy Squadron Commander B, F-16 Squadron. In 1981 he was the youngest pilot taking part in Operation Opera, the facility was destroyed, killing ten Iraqi soldiers and one French researcher. After attending the Tel Aviv University, he served as Deputy Squadron Commander A,119 Squadron, during 1990, he attended the Squadron Commanders Course and between 1990 and 1992, commanded 117 Squadron, flying the F-16. From 1992–94, he was Head of the Aircraft Branch in the Operations Requirement Department, in 1994, he was promoted to the rank of Colonel and assigned as Head of the Department of Operational Requirement for Weapon Development and Acquisition. He stayed at this post until 1998, Ramon accumulated over 3,000 flight hours on the A-4, Mirage III-C, and F-4, and over 1,000 flight hours on the F-16. In 1997, Ramon was selected as a Payload Specialist and he was designated to train as prime for a space shuttle mission with a payload that included a multispectral camera for recording desert aerosol. In July 1998, he reported for training at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas and he flew aboard STS-107, logging 15 days,22 hours and 20 minutes in space. The 16-day flight was a science and research mission
38.
Asteroid
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Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The larger ones have also been called planetoids and these terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, in this article, the term asteroid refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with Jupiter. There are millions of asteroids, many thought to be the remnants of planetesimals. The large majority of known asteroids orbit in the belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with Jupiter. However, other orbital families exist with significant populations, including the near-Earth objects, individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic spectra, with the majority falling into three main groups, C-type, M-type, and S-type. These were named after and are identified with carbon-rich, metallic. The size of asteroids varies greatly, some reaching as much as 1000 km across, asteroids are differentiated from comets and meteoroids. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition, while asteroids are composed of mineral and rock, comets are composed of dust. In addition, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of the aforementioned cometary ice, the difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size, meteoroids have a diameter of less than one meter, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials, only one asteroid,4 Vesta, which has a relatively reflective surface, is normally visible to the naked eye, and this only in very dark skies when it is favorably positioned. Rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be visible to the eye for a short time. As of March 2016, the Minor Planet Center had data on more than 1.3 million objects in the inner and outer Solar System, the United Nations declared June 30 as International Asteroid Day to educate the public about asteroids. The date of International Asteroid Day commemorates the anniversary of the Tunguska asteroid impact over Siberia, the first asteroid to be discovered, Ceres, was found in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, and was originally considered to be a new planet. In the early half of the nineteenth century, the terms asteroid. Asteroid discovery methods have improved over the past two centuries. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, the expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernible by observers
39.
Prime Minister of India
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The Prime Minister of India is the Head of Government and leader of the executive branch of the Government of India. The Prime Minister is also the adviser to the President of India. He or she can be a member of any of the two houses of Parliament, but has to be the leader of the party, having a majority in the Lok Sabha. The Prime Minister is the member of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The Prime Minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, allocates posts to members within the Government, is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet. The federal or union cabinet headed by the Prime Minister is appointed by the President of India to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive, Union cabinet is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha as per Article 75. The Prime Minister shall always enjoy the confidence of Lok Sabha, India follows a parliamentary system in which the prime minister is the presiding, actual head of the government and chief of the executive branch. In such systems, the head of state or the head of states official representative usually holds a ceremonial position. The Prime Minister shall become a member of parliament within six months of beginning his/her tenure, he/She is expected to work with other central ministers to ensure the passage of bills by the Parliament. There shall be a Council of Ministers with the minister at the head to aid and advise the president who shall, in the exercise of his functions. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. Like most parliamentary democracies, a Presidents duties are mostly ceremonial as long as the constitution and the rule of law is obeyed by the Union Cabinet, the Prime Minister of India is the head of union government and has the responsibility for executive power. The prime minister leads the functioning and exercise of authority of the government of India. President of India invites a person who is commanding support of majority members of Lok Sabha to form government at the federal level, in practice the prime minister nominates the members of their Council of Ministers to the president. They also work upon to decide a core group of Ministers as in-charge of the important functions, some specific ministries/department are not allocated to anyone in the cabinet but the prime minister himself. Per Article 78 of the constitution, the communication between the union cabinet and the president are through the prime minister. Other wise constitution recognises the prime minister as a member of the cabinet only outside the sphere of union cabinet. Be a member of the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha
40.
Kalpana-1
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Kalpana-1 is the first dedicated meteorological satellite launched by Indian Space Research Organisation using Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 2002-09-12. The satellite is three-axis stabilized and is powered by solar panels, the METSAT bus was used as the basis for the Chandrayaan lunar orbiter mission of 2008. Originally known as MetSat-1, the satellite was the first launched by the PSLV-C4 into the Geostationary orbit. On February 5,2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla—a NASA astronaut who perished in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Its mission is to collect data in layer of clouds, water vapor, the three band images are, Visible Thermal Infra red Water vapour Infra-red Spaceflight portal 2002 in spaceflight List of Indian satellites
41.
Jackson Heights, Queens
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Jackson Heights is a neighborhood in the northwestern portion of the borough of Queens in New York City. The neighborhood is part of Queens Community Board 3, Jackson Heights is neighbored by North Corona to the east, Elmhurst to the south, Woodside to the west, northern Astoria to the northwest, and East Elmhurst to the northeast. The main ZIP code of Jackson Heights is 11372, according to the 2010 United States Census, the neighborhood has a population of 108,152. The Jackson Heights name comes from Jackson Avenue, the name for Northern Boulevard. John C. Jackson built the road across what is now Jackson Heights in 1859, the Jackson Avenue name is retained by this major road in a short stretch between Queens Plaza and Queens–Midtown Tunnel in Long Island City. The place was not particularly high, but the name heights showed that the place was meant to be exclusive. Until 1916, the area was called Trains Meadow, but contrary to the name and it is suspected that it was corrupted from drain. The first land purchase of 128 acres was completed in 1910, Jackson Heights was a planned development laid out by the Queensboro Corporation beginning in about 1916, and residents came after the arrival of the Flushing Line into Jackson Heights in 1917. The community was planned as a place for middle- to upper-middle income workers from Manhattan to raise their families. The Queensboro Corporation coined the name garden apartment to convey the concept of apartments surrounded by a green environment, targeted toward the middle class, the Queensboro Corporation-based the new apartments off of similar ones in Berlin. These new apartments were to share garden spaces, have ornate exteriors and features such as fireplaces, parquet floors, sun rooms, and built-in bathtubs with showers, and be cooperatively owned. In addition, the corporation divided the land into blocks and building lots, as well as installed streets, sidewalks, and power, water, and sewage lines. Although land for churches was provided, the apartments themselves were limited to white Anglo-Saxon Protestants, while excluding Jews, Blacks, and perhaps Greeks and Italians. The Laurel apartment building on 82nd Street at Northern Boulevard was the first of the Queensboro Corporation buildings in Jackson Heights, the Greystones on either side of 80th Street between 37th and 35th Avenues were completed in 1918 with a design by architect George H. Wells. There was leftover unused space, which was converted to parks, gardens and this was followed by the 1919 construction of the Andrew J. Thomas-designed Linden Court, a 10-building complex between 84th Street, 85th Streets, 37th Avenue, and Roosevelt Avenue. The Hampton Gardens, the Château, and the Towers followed in the 1920s, the Château and the Towers, both co-ops on 34th Avenue, had large, airy apartments and were served by elevators. At first purely decorative, the gardens in later developments included paved spaces where people could meet or sit. The Queensboro Corporation started the Ivy Court, Cedar Court, and Spanish Gardens projects, all designed by Thomas, the Queensboro Corporation advertised their apartments from 1922 on
42.
Queens
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Queens is the easternmost and largest in area of the five boroughs of New York City. Coterminous with Queens County since 1899, the borough of Queens is the second-largest in population, with a census-estimated 2,339,150 residents in 2015, approximately 48% of them foreign-born. Queens County also is the second-most populous county in the U. S. state of New York, behind the borough of Brooklyn. Queens is the fourth-most densely populated county among New York Citys boroughs, if each of New York Citys boroughs were an independent city, Queens also would be the nations fourth most populous city, after Los Angeles, Chicago, and Brooklyn. Queens is the most ethnically diverse area in the world. Queens was established in 1683 as one of the original 12 counties of New York and it was named after the Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza, Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland. It became a borough of New York City in 1898, and from 1683 until 1899, Queens has the most diversified economy of the five boroughs of New York City It is home to JFK International Airport and LaGuardia Airport. These airports are among the busiest in the world, causing the airspace above Queens to be the most congested in the country, attractions in Queens include Flushing Meadows Park, Citi Field, the US Open tennis tournament, Kaufman Astoria Studios, Silvercup Studios, and Aqueduct Racetrack. European colonization brought Dutch and English settlers, as a part of the New Netherland colony, First settlements occurred in 1635 followed by early colonizations at Maspeth in 1642, and Vlissingen in 1643. Other early settlements included Newtown and Jamaica, however, these towns were mostly inhabited by English settlers from New England via eastern Long Island subject to Dutch law. After the capture of the colony by the English and its renaming as New York in 1664, the Flushing Remonstrance signed by colonists in 1657 is considered a precursor to the United States Constitutions provision on freedom of religion in the Bill of Rights. The signers protested the Dutch colonial authorities persecution of Quakers in what is today the borough of Queens, originally, Queens County included the adjacent area now comprising Nassau County. It was a county of New York State, one of twelve created on November 1,1683. The county was named after Catherine of Braganza, since she was queen of England at the time, the county was founded alongside Kings County, and Richmond County. On October 7,1691, all counties in the Colony of New York were redefined, Queens gained North Brother Island, South Brother Island, and Huletts Island. On December 3,1768, Queens gained other islands in Long Island Sound that were not already assigned to a county, Queens played a minor role in the American Revolution, as compared to Brooklyn, where the Battle of Long Island was largely fought. Queens, like the rest of Long Island, remained under British occupation after the Battle of Long Island in 1776 and was occupied throughout most of the rest of the Revolutionary War. Under the Quartering Act, British soldiers used, as barracks, even though many local people were against unannounced quartering, sentiment throughout the county remained in favor of the British crown
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New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
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Government of Karnataka
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The Government of Karnataka is a democratically elected body with the governor as the constitutional head. The governor who is appointed for five years appoints the chief minister, Karnataka State has been divided into four revenue divisions,49 sub-divisions,30 districts,176 taluks and 747 hoblies/revenue circles and 5628 gram panchayats for administrative purposes. The state has 281 towns and 7 municipal corporations, Bangalore is the fifth largest urban agglomeration out of 23 metropolis, urban agglomerations and cities in India. It is among the fastest growing cities in the world, Karnataka took its present shape in 1956, when the states of Mysore and Coorg were merged with the Kannada-speaking districts of the former states of Bombay and Hyderabad, and Madras. The state legislature is bicameral and consists of the Legislative Assembly, the Legislative Assembly consists of 224 members with one member nominated by the governor to represent the Anglo-Indian community. The term of office of the members is five years and the term of an elected to the council is six years. The Legislative Council is a permanent body with one-third of its members retiring every two years, the government is headed by the governor who appoints the chief minister and his council of ministers. The governor is appointed for five years and acts as the head of the state. The secretariat headed by the secretary to the governor assists the council of ministers, the council of ministers consists of cabinet ministers, ministers of state and deputy ministers. The chief minister is assisted by the secretary, who is the head of the administrative services. As of 2012, the Government of Karnataka consists of 30 ministers, the present Chief Minister of Karnataka is Siddaramaiah. List of Chief Ministers of Karnataka |- Housing M. Krishnappa is a system in the state with elected bodies at the village, taluk. It ensures greater participation of people and more implementation of rural development programmes. There will be a Grama Panchayat for a village or group of villages, a taluk level, all the three institutions will have elected representatives and there is no provision for nomination by the government to any of these councils. S the first in the country to enact new Panchayat Raj Act incorporating all provisions of 73rd Amendment to the Constitution, in 2014 Karantaka State Grama Panchayats Delimitation committee constituted By govt. of Karnataka. Chairmen S G Nanjaiahna mutt and 6 members, joint secretory of the committee Dr. Revaiah Odeyar. This report implemented 2015 Gram Panchayath Elections, a district of an Indian state is an administrat, headed by a deputy commissioner or district magistrate, an officer belonging to the Indian Administrative Service. The district magistrate or the deputy commissioner is assisted by a number of officers belonging to Karnataka Civil Service, a Deputy Commissioner of Police, an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues of the district
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Florida Institute of Technology
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The Florida Institute of Technology is a private doctoral/research university in Melbourne, Florida. Florida Tech has seven academic divisions with emphases on science, technology, engineering, mathematics. The universitys 130-acre primary residential campus is located near the Melbourne International Airport and it is about 50 miles from the Kennedy Space Center and 75 miles from Orlando. The university was founded in at the drawn of the Space Race in 1958 as Brevard Engineering College to support NASA and has been known by its present name since 1966. Florida Tech is the independent, technological university in the Southeast and considered one of the Top Tier 1 schools for Aueronautics, Astronomy, Engineering. Florida Institute of Technology was founded as Brevard Engineering College to Support NASA by Dr. Jerome P. Keuper in 1958, classes were originally held at the Melbourne Municipal Airport in buildings formerly used by the Naval Air Station Melbourne. They were also one of the first known colleges to have a Rocket propulsion class, in 1961, the university moved its location to Melbourne, Florida. During the 1960s additional classroom and laboratory buildings, a library, the university was accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools in 1964 and officially changed its name to Florida Institute of Technology in 1966. Also in 1966, Dr. Jack Morelock founded the Department of Oceanography, in 1967 The School of Aueronautics was created. Defense scientist and NASA would meet with students recruiting for the space program, in 1969 the Panther Battalion Army ROTC program was formed. In 1972, the university launched its first off-campus program at the request of the United States Navy, the Evans Library was completed in the early 1984. The following year the library was renovated and dedicated as the Jerome P. Keuper Administration Building. In 1988, the Homer R. Denius Student Center was renovated, the student plaza completed, the Claude Pepper Institute for Aging and Therapeutic Research and Skurla Hall, home of the School of Aeronautics, opened in 1990. In 1997, the university received a $50 million grant from the F. W. Olin Foundation, an engineering building and life sciences building were opened in 1999 in result of the grant. Seven new residence halls were completed in 2003, however, Melbourne Beach resident Jim Ortega, who had retired from the University of Virginia to Florida in 1998, stepped forward with the additional funds needed to secure a 32-inch telescope. Naming the Telescope after him the Ortega Telescope, in 2005, the F. W. Olin Physical Sciences Center opened. Construction on the Emil Buehler Center for Aviation Training and Research at Melbourne International Airport began in 2008. The following year, the College of Business became the Nathan M. November 20,2015, marked the unveiling of the Harris Student Design Center and this facility provides space for students completing design projects
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Mars Exploration Rover
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NASAs Mars Exploration Rover mission is an ongoing robotic space mission involving two Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, exploring the planet Mars. It began in 2003 with the sending of the two rovers, MER-A Spirit and MER-B Opportunity—to explore the Martian surface and geology, both rovers outlived their planned missions of 90 Martian solar days by far. MER-A Spirit was active until 2010, the success of the two MERs led to another mission, sending a bigger rover Curiosity in 2012. The missions scientific objective was to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks, the mission is part of NASAs Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers, the two Viking program landers in 1976 and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997. The total cost of building, launching, landing and operating the rovers on the surface for the initial 90-sol primary mission was US$820 million, since the rovers have continued to function beyond their initial 90 sol primary mission, they have each received five mission extensions. The fifth mission extension was granted in October 2007, and ran to the end of 2009, the total cost of the first four mission extensions was $104 million, and the fifth mission extension is expected to cost at least $20 million. However, the dust storms lifted, allowing them to resume operations, on May 1,2009, during its fifth mission extension, Spirit became stuck in soft soil on Mars. This mode would enable Spirit to assist scientists in ways that a mobile platform could not, in recognition of the vast amount of scientific information amassed by both rovers, two asteroids have been named in their honor,37452 Spirit and 39382 Opportunity. The mission is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which designed, built, the search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy, and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective. The scientific objectives of the Mars Exploration Rover mission are to, Search for and characterize a variety of rocks, in particular, samples sought include those that have minerals deposited by water-related processes such as precipitation, evaporation, sedimentary cementation, or hydrothermal activity. Determine the distribution and composition of minerals, rocks, and soils surrounding the landing sites, determine what geologic processes have shaped the local terrain and influenced the chemistry. Such processes could include water or wind erosion, sedimentation, hydrothermal mechanisms, volcanism, perform calibration and validation of surface observations made by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter instruments. This will help determine the accuracy and effectiveness of various instruments that survey Martian geology from orbit, Search for iron-containing minerals, and to identify and quantify relative amounts of specific mineral types that contain water or were formed in water, such as iron-bearing carbonates. Characterize the mineralogy and textures of rocks and soils to determine the processes that created them, Search for geological clues to the environmental conditions that existed when liquid water was present. Assess whether those environments were conducive to life, the MER-A and MER-B probes were launched on June 10,2003 and July 7,2003, respectively. The launch vehicles were integrated onto pads right next to other, with MER-A on CCAFS SLC-17A. The dual pads allowed for working the 15- and 21-day planetary launch periods close together, the last possible day for MER-A was June 19,2003. NASAs Launch Services Program managed the launch of both spacecraft, the probes landed in January 2004 in widely separated equatorial locations on Mars
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Columbia Hills (Mars)
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The Columbia Hills are a range of low hills inside Gusev crater on Mars. They were observed by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit when it landed within the crater in 2004 and they were promptly given an unofficial name by NASA since they were the most striking nearby feature on the surface. The hills lie approximately 3 kilometres away from the original landing position. The range is named to memorialize the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, on February 2,2004, the individual peaks of the Columbia Hills were named after the seven astronauts who died in the disaster. Spirit spent a few years exploring the Columbia Hills until it ceased to function in 2010 and it is also considered a potential landing site for the Mars 2020 rover. McCool Ramon Hill - named after Ilan Ramon With the Spirit Rover, scientists found a variety of types in the Columbia Hills. The six are, Clovis, Wishbone, Peace, Watchtower, Backstay and they are named after a prominent rock in each group. Their chemical compositions, as measured by APXS, are different from each other. Most importantly, all of the rocks in Columbia Hills show various degrees of alteration due to aqueous fluids and they are enriched in the elements phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and bromine—all of which can be carried around in water solutions. The Columbia Hills’ rocks contain basaltic glass, along with varying amounts of olivine, the olivine abundance varies inversely with the amount of sulfates. This is exactly what is expected because water destroys olivine but helps to produce sulfates, acid fog is believed to have changed some of the Watchtower rocks. This was in a 200 meter long section of Cumberland Ridge, certain places became less crystalline and more amorphous. Acidic water vapor from volcanoes dissolved some minerals forming a gel, when water evaporated a cement formed and produced small bumps. This type of process has been observed in the lab when basalt rocks are exposed to sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, the Clovis group is especially interesting because the Mössbauer spectrometer detected goethite in it. Goethite forms only in the presence of water, so its discovery is the first direct evidence of past water in the Columbia Hillss rocks. In addition, the MB spectra of rocks and outcrops displayed a strong decline in olivine presence, olivine is a marker for the lack of water because it easily decomposes in the presence of water. Sulfate was found, and it needs water to form, wishstone contained a great deal of plagioclase, some olivine, and anhydrate. Peace rocks showed sulfur and strong evidence for water, so hydrated sulfates are suspected
