1.
Kingdom of Hawaii
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The Kingdom of Hawaiʻi originated in 1795 with the unification of the independent islands of Hawaiʻi, Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi under one government. In 1810 the whole Hawaiian archipelago became unified when Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the kingdom voluntarily, two major dynastic families ruled the kingdom, the House of Kamehameha and the House of Kalākaua. The kingdom won recognition from major European powers, the United States became its chief trading partner, and the kingdom was watched jealously lest Britain, Japan, or another power threaten to seize control. Hawaii adopted a new constitution in 1887 to reduce the power of King Kalākaua. Queen Liliuokalani, who succeeded Kalākaua in 1891, tried to restore the old order, Hawaii became a republic until the United States annexed it in 1898. Before the founding of a formal, united kingdom, the islands were all ruled by independent aliʻi nui or supreme executives. All of these rulers were believed to come from a hereditary line descended from the first Polynesian, Papa, Captain James Cook stumbled across the islands, but was killed while attempting to kidnap the aliʻi nui of Hawaii Island in 1779. Three years later Hawaii was passed to Kalaniʻōpuʻus son, Kīwalaʻō, while religious authority was passed to the rulers nephew, a series of battles, lasting 15 years, was led by the warrior chief who became Kamehameha the Great. The Kingdom of Hawaii was established with the help of weapons and advisors, such as John Young. Although successful in attacking both Oʻahu and Maui, he failed to secure a victory in Kauaʻi, his effort hampered by a storm, eventually, Kauaʻis chief swore allegiance to Kamehameha. The unification ended the ancient Hawaiian society, transforming it into an independent constitutional monarchy crafted in the traditions, from 1810 to 1893, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was ruled by two major dynastic families, the House of Kamehameha and the Kalākaua Dynasty. Five members of the Kamehameha family led the government styled as Kamehameha, Lunalilo was a member of the House of Kamehameha through his mother. Liholiho and Kauikeaouli, were sons of Kamehameha the Great. For a period of Liholiho and Kauikeaoulis reigns, the wife of Kamehameha the Great, Queen Kaʻahumanu, ruled as Queen Regent and Kuhina Nui. Economic and demographic factors in the 19th century reshaped the islands, in 1848 the Great Māhele was imposed by the king, it resulted in the selling off virtually all the village land farmed by the natives. For the natives, contact with the world represented demographic disaster. The Hawaiian population of natives fell from approximately 128,000 in 1778 to 71,000 in 1853, American missionaries converted most of the natives to Christianity. The missionaries and their children became a powerful elite into the mid-19th century and they provided the chief advisors and cabinet members of the kings, and dominated the professional and merchant class in the cities
2.
Coronations in Oceania
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Note, this article is one of a set, describing coronations around the world. For general information related to all coronations, please see the umbrella article Coronation, coronations in Oceania are, or were, held in the following countries, Bau island chief Seru Epenisa Cakobau used Western cannons and muskets to subdue most of Fiji. He was crowned as Fijis sovereign by European traders and residents, Cakobau was crowned in May 1867 as King of Bau, and recognized as King of Fiji in 1871. Later, sovereign authority over Fiji passed to the British crown, Fiji is now a republic, though it recognizes Elizabeth II as Paramount Chief. The Kingdom of Hawaii held a ritual for King Kalākaua and Queen Kapiʻolani on February 12,1883. Kalākauas accession in 1874 saw no ceremony due to the political unrest at the time and his unpopularity with the Emmaites and he was speedily sworn in as monarch at Kīnaʻu Hale, the chamberlains quarter next to the Iolani Palace. Prior to this, the three previous monarchs were inaugurated at Kawaiahaʻo Church, where the feather cloak of Kamehameha was placed upon their shoulder, given the diadem by a Reverend McIntosh, Kalākaua crowned himself, since no one was deemed sacred enough to crown an aliʻi. When the crown was unable to sit on Kapiʻolans elaborate hair, it was forced on, kalākauas sister Liliʻuokalani reported that at the moment of his crowning, the sun was obscured by a cloud which gave way to reveal a single bright star. Since this incident occurred during daylight, it caused a sensation among the assembled witnesses, Liliʻuokalani, who succeeded Kalākaua in 1891, did not have a coronation prior to her overthrow in 1893 and the abolition of the Hawaiian monarchy. Unlike the other islands of Polynesia, Niue had no organized government or single ruling chief until the beginning of the 18th century. Before then, chiefs and heads of families exercised authority over different segments of the population, the island was ceded to the British Crown by the eighth Patu-iki, Togia-Pulu-toaki in 1900. Niues kingship system was non-hereditary, leaders being elected by the population from among the heads of influential families, following their election they were ceremonially anointed using traditional rituals, rather than European-style coronations. The new king was required to bathe or ceremonially cleanse himself by washing his body with scented oils, a senior chief would then anoint the new ruler by dipping a lau-mamālu leave in a cup of coconut oil, then striking the kings head three times. Songs were composed and sung at the feast held to honor the king after his anointment, each village would send representatives to attend the ceremony, others performed various services, such as providing the stone against which the king sat to be anointed, called a pepe. Two stones are in the village of Alofi where Tui-toga and Fata-a-iki were anointed and they are rough flat coral rocks, about four feet high and two feet wide. One other pillar-like stone lies at Tuapa, it was twelve feet high, sixty feet long, seventy or eighty yards away were stone seats reserved for the council of chiefs. The Kingdom of Rarotonga in reality had many Arikis or kings ruling at once, the Ariki of Rarotonga was ceremonially anointed upon pillar stones similar to the Niuean kings, although their traditions were much older. In Arai Te Tonga, a marae, the center of the island
3.
Kamehameha III
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Kamehameha III was the King of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His goal was the careful balancing of modernization by adopting Western ways, Kauikeaouli was born at Keauhou Bay, on Hawaiʻi island, the largest island in the Hawaiian Islands archipelago. He was the son of King Kamehameha I and his highest ranking wife, Queen Keōpūolani. Early historians suggested June or July 1814, but one accepted date is August 11,1813, biographer P. Christiaan Klieger cites 17 March 1814 as his birthday. He was of the highest kapu lineage, Kauikeaouli was about 16 years younger than his brother Liholiho, who ruled as Kamehameha II starting in 1819. He was named Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa Kuakamanolani Mahinalani Kalaninuiwaiakua Keaweaweʻulaokalani after his maternal grandfather Kīwalaʻō and he was promised to Kuakini in hānai, but at birth he appeared to be delivered stillborn, Kuakini did not wish to take him. But Chief Kaikioʻewa summoned his kaula Kapihe who declared the baby would live, Kauikeaouli was cleansed, laid on a rock, fanned, prayed over and sprinkled with water until he breathed, moved and cried. The prayer of Kapihe was to Kaʻōnohiokalā, Child of God, the rock is preserved as a monument at Keauhou Bay. He was given to Kaikioʻewa to raise and he was torn between the Puritan Christian guidelines imposed on the kingdom by the kuhina nui who was his stepmother Kaʻahumanu, and the desires to honor the old traditions. By 1835 returned to ways of the missionaries, during his reign, that number would be halved again, due to a series of epidemics. In ancient Hawaii, upper classes considered a marriage with a royal family member to be an excellent way to preserve pure bloodlines. His brother Liholiho and his Queen Kamāmalu were a half-sister and brother couple and he had loved his sister Nāhiʻenaʻena and planned to marry her since childhood, but the union was opposed by the missionaries due to their perceptions of incest. It was proposed in 1832 that Kamanele, the daughter of Governor John Adams Kuakini, would be the most suitable in age, rank, Kamanele died in 1834 before the wedding took place. Instead Kamehameha III chose to marry Kalama Hakaleleponi Kapakuhaili, against the wishes of Kīnaʻu, after his sisters death in late 1836, he married Kalama February 14,1837 in a Christian ceremony. Kamehameha III and Kalama had two children, Prince Keaweaweʻulaokalani I and Prince Keaweaweʻulaokalani II who both died while infants, kūnuiākea lived to adulthood but died childless. In 1838, senior advisor Hoapili convinced former missionary William Richards to resign from the church, Richards gave classes to Kamehameha III and his councilors on the Western ideas of rule of law and economics. Their first act was a declaration of rights in 1839. In 1839, under a French threat of war, Roman Catholicism was legalized in the Edict of Toleration and he also enacted the Constitution of 1840, Hawaiis first
4.
Kamehameha V
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Kamehameha V, born as Lot Kapuāiwa, reigned as monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi from 1863 to 1872. His motto was Onipaa, immovable, firm, steadfast or determined, he worked diligently for his people and his full Hawaiian name prior to his succession was Lota Kapuāiwa Kalanimakua Aliʻiōlani Kalanikupuapaʻīkalaninui. He was born and given the name Lot Kapuāiwa December 11,1830 and his mother was Elizabeth Kīnaʻu and father was Mataio Kekūanāoʻa. His siblings included David Kamehameha, Moses Kekūāiwa, Alexander Liholiho, kapu āiwa means mysterious kapu or sacred one protected by supernatural powers. He was adopted using the ancient Hawaiian tradition called hānai by Princess Nāhiʻenaʻena and he was then adopted by his grandmother Queen Kalākua Kaheiheimālie and step-grandfather High Chief Ulumāheihei Hoapili. He felt that his parents treated him as a stranger in their house. It was planned that he would be Hoapilis heir as Governor of Maui, since King Kamehameha III declared him eligible for the throne, he was educated at the Royal School like his cousins and siblings. He was betrothed to Bernice Pauahi at birth, but she chose to marry American Charles Reed Bishop instead, after leaving school, he traveled abroad with his brother Alexander Liholiho. With the supervision of their guardian Dr. Judd, Lot, after their tour of California, they continued on to Panama, Jamaica, New York City and Washington, D. C. They toured Europe and met with heads of state including French president Louis Napoleon, British prince consort Albert. From 1852 to 1855 he served on the Privy Council, and he was Minister of the Interior from 1857 to 1863, chief justice of the supreme court from 1857 to 1858, and held other offices. His more charismatic younger brother Prince Alexander Liholiho was chosen to become King Kamehameha IV in 1854 and he came to power on November 30,1863, after his brothers death, but refused to uphold the previous constitution of 1852. In May 1864 he called for a constitutional convention, on July 7,1864 he proposed a new constitution rather than amending the old one. The convention ran smoothly until the 62nd article and it limited voters to being residents who passed a literacy test and possessed property or had income qualifications. On August 20,1864, he signed the 1864 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii, the constitution was based on the original draft but 20 articles were deleted. When he appointed Charles de Varigny, a French national, as minister of finance in December 1863, in reality, his foreign policy remained the same. Later de Varigny became minister of foreign affairs from 1865–1869 and he was the first king to encourage revival of traditional practices. Under his reign, the laws against kahunaism were repealed, a Hawaiian Board of Medicine was established, with kahuna members, and laau lapaau or Hawaiian medicine was again practiced
5.
Kuhina Nui
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Kuhina Nui was a powerful office in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi from 1819 to 1864. It was usually held by a relative of the king and was the equivalent of the 19th-century European office of Prime Minister or sometimes Regent. Prior to the establishment of the office of Kuhina Nui by Kamehameha and this was an ancient office from the very dawn of Hawaiian civilization. During this time before the Kuhina Nui Kalanimoku, a chief of Kamehameha, was the Kālaimoku until Kamehameha established the office of the Kuhina Nui. When King Kamehameha II assumed the throne in 1819, his fathers wife, Queen Kaʻahumanu. Whether this was really the will of Kamehameha I is a matter of debate, in either case, Kamehameha II did not object and the office of Kuhina Nui was created for Kaʻahumanu. According to other sources, Kamehameha I had wanted Kaʻahumanu to succeed her father Keʻeaumoku Pāpaʻiahiahi as chief counselor, Kaʻahumanu became the driving force behind the kingdom’s policy during the reign of Kamehameha II. She and another one of Kamehameha Is wives, Keōpūolani, pressured Kamehameha II into abolishing the old system of laws. At the death of Kamehameha II in 1824, his younger brother, because of this, Kaʻahumanu ruled in his place as regent. Kauikeaouli was crowned King Kamehameha III thereafter and the office of Kuhina Nui became the second-most powerful office in the kingdom, during Kīnaʻus time in office, the offices of the king and Kuhina Nui often battled for power. This was mainly due to conflict between the views of the two people holding the office, while Kamehameha III desired a revival of the old Hawaiian culture, his elder sister Kīnaʻu wanted Hawaiʻi to be a Protestant state which tolerated no other religion. For the first few years of Kamehameha III’s reign, the kingdom suffered from the frequent quarrels between Kīnaʻu and the king, the 1840 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi codified the office of Kuhina Nui into law. The constitution specified the duties and powers, The Kuhina Nui was to be appointed by the King. All business connected with the interests of the kingdom which the King wished to transact was to be done by Kuhina Nui under the authority of the king. All documents and business of the executed by the Kuhina Nui were to be considered as executed by the Kings authority. All government property was to be reported to the Kuhina Nui, the King was not allowed to act without the knowledge of the Kuhina Nui, nor was the Kuhina Nui allowed to act without the knowledge of the King. All important business of the kingdom which the King chose to transact in person, the 1840 Constitution created a degree of power sharing between the King and Kuhina Nui. Both were given seats in the House of Nobles in the legislature, the position was written into a constitution devised by American attorneys and missionaries
6.
Keoni Ana
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Keoni Ana, full name John Kalaipaihala Young II, was a politician in the Kingdom of Hawaii, serving as Kuhina Nui of the Hawaiian Islands and Minister of Interior. Keoni Ana was born on March 12,1810 in Kawaihae and he was the only son of John Young, the English sailor who became a trusted adviser to King Kamehameha I, by his second wife Kaʻōanaʻeha, the niece of Kamehameha I. He was the brother of Jane Lahilahi, younger brother of Fanny Kekelaokalani and Grace Kamaikui. He, his siblings, and Isaac Davis children, grew up on their fathers homestead granted to them by the king, overlooking the Kawaihae Bay and it is now part of the Puʻukoholā Heiau National Historic Site. He grew up as the companion of Prince Kauikeaouli, who took the throne as King Kamehameha III. The two friends relationship were severely damaged when Keoni Ana was caught in the bedroom of Queen Kalama, the sentence of death was only avoided through the interjecture of Queen Dowager Kalākua Kaheiheimālie. It seem after the incident, Kamehameha III forgave him and he aided in communication between native Hawaiian and foreign elements in the community. On June 10,1845 he was appointed Kuhina Nui by Kamehameha III because Victoria Kamāmalu and he succeeded Kekāuluohi as Kuhina Nui. After Keoni Ana became Kuhina Nui the Legislative Assembly passed several acts that organized the executive ministries and this legislation provided that the Kuhina Nui served also as Minister of the Interior. More far-reaching was the creation of the Board of Commissioners to Quiet Land Titles, Keoni Ana served on a committee to assist the king and chiefs in defining their rights and interests in the lands within the kingdom. As a very close friend and ally of the Kauikeaouli, Keoni Ana recognized that the Kuhina Nui’s authority challenged the King’s prestige, Keoni Ana supported Kamehameha III and IV in their attempt to abolish the office. His position as Kuhina Nui was not renewed in 1855 by Kamehameha IV who chose his sister as the new Kuhina Nui and he married three times, all Hawaiians of noble birth. He married Julia Alapai, elder daughter of Nahili, Keoni Ana seemed to love Alapai the most, a portrait of the chiefess can still be seen at the Hānaiakamalama house, but they were childless. Through these other marriage he remained childless and he adopted his nephew Peter Kaeo, son of his sister Jane. He bought Hānaiakamalama in an auction and willed it to his niece Emma Rooke who became Queen Emma and he died July 18,1857 and was buried at the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna ʻAla. His only heirs were his niece Emma and nephew Peter
7.
Honolulu
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Honolulu is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is an part of and the county seat of the City and County of Honolulu on the island of Oahu. The city is the gateway to Hawaii and a major portal into the United States. The city is also a hub for international business, military defense, as well as famously being host to a diverse variety of east-west and Pacific culture, cuisine. Honolulu is the most remote city of its size in the world and is both the westernmost and the southernmost major U. S. city. For statistical purposes, the U. S. Census Bureau recognizes the area commonly referred to as City of Honolulu as a census county division. Honolulu is a financial center of the islands and of the Pacific Ocean. The population of the city of Honolulu was 337,256 as of the 2010 census, while the Honolulu CCD was 390,738, Honolulu means sheltered harbor or calm port. The old name is said to be Kou, a district encompassing the area from Nuuanu Avenue to Alakea Street. The city has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, as of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U. S. It is also the most populated Oceanian city outside Australasia and ranks second to Auckland as the most populous city in Polynesia, evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century, however, after Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikīkī in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu, the capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812. In 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor, more foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu and he and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrews Cathedral, ʻIolani Palace, and Aliʻiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the islands, an economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaiʻi. Modern air travel brings, as of 2007,7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaiʻi, with thousands of hotel rooms. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 68.4 square miles
8.
Oahu
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Oʻahu or Oahu /oʊˈɑːhu/, known as The Gathering Place, is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to about two-thirds of the population of the U. S. state of Hawaii, the state capital, Honolulu, is on Oʻahus southeast coast. Along with the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, Oahu is one of the largest and northernmost islands of Polynesia, in the greatest dimension, this volcanic island is 44 miles long and 30 miles across. The length of the shoreline is 227 miles, the island is the result of two separate shield volcanoes, the Waiʻanae and Koʻolau Ranges, with a broad valley or saddle between them. The highest point is Kaʻala in the Waiʻanae Range, rising to 4,003 feet above sea level, the island was home to the Kunia Regional SIGINT Operations Center from 1941 to 2012, it is now home to the National Security Agencys Hawaii Cryptologic Center. The island is home to 953,207 people in 2010, Oʻahu has for a long time been known as the Gathering Place. The term Oʻahu has no confirmed meaning in Hawaiian, other than that of the place itself, ancient Hawaiian tradition attributes the names origin in the legend of Hawaiʻiloa, the Polynesian navigator credited with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates that he named the island after a son, residents of Oʻahu refer to themselves as locals, no matter their ancestry. The city of Honolulu—largest city, state capital, and main deepwater marine port for the State of Hawaiʻi—is located here. As a jurisdictional unit, the island of Oʻahu is in the Honolulu County, although as a place name. Well-known features found on Oʻahu include Waikīkī, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kāneʻohe Bay, Kailua Bay, being roughly diamond-shaped, surrounded by ocean and divided by mountain ranges, directions on Oʻahu are not generally described with the compass directions found throughout the world. Locals instead use directions originally using Honolulu as the central point, to go ewa means traveling toward the western tip of the island, Diamond Head is toward the eastern tip, mauka is inland and makai toward the sea. Oʻahu is also known for having the longest rain shower in history, kaneohe Ranch, Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi reported 247 straight days with rain from August 27,1993 to April 30,1994. The island has many one of them being rainbow state. This is because rainbows are a sight in Hawaiʻi due to the frequent rain showers. The average temperature in Oʻahu is around 70 to 85 degrees, the weather during the winter is cooler, but still warm with the average temperature of 68-78 degrees. The windward side is known for some of the most beautiful beaches in the world, lanikai Beach on the windward coast of Oʻahu has been consistently ranked among the best beaches in the world. The 300-year-old Kingdom of Oʻahu was once ruled by the most ancient aliʻi in all of the Hawaiian Islands, the first great king of Oʻahu was Mailikukahi, the lawmaker, who was followed by many generation of monarchs
9.
Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii
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The Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii, known as Mauna ʻAla in the Hawaiian language, is the final resting place of Hawaiis two prominent royal families, the Kamehameha Dynasty and the Kalākaua Dynasty. The site is located at 2261 Nuʻuanu Avenue in Honolulu, Hawaii on the island of Oahu, the grounds of the mausoleum are surrounded by a black fence, bearing the royal seal of the Kingdom of Hawaii at the gate. A small chapel is located near the center, immediately behind the tomb of Kalākaua and his family, and to the right of the Kamehameha tomb, Bishop Monument, and Wyllie tomb. The chapel, in the shape of a Latin cross, is one of the few examples of Gothic Revival architecture in the islands, the 2.7 acre mausoleum was designed by architect Theodore Heuck. King Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma planned it as a site for their four-year-old son, Prince Albert. King Kamehameha IV became ill soon afterwards and died November 30,1863 and his brother Lot Kamehameha came to the throne as King Kamehameha V. Immediately Kamehameha V started construction of the mausoleum building, the Right Reverend Thomas Nettleship Staley, first Anglican Bishop of Honolulu, oversaw construction. The west wing was completed at the end of January 1864, a large funeral procession February 3,1864, brought the body of Kamehameha IV from ʻIolani Palace near Kawaiahaʻo Church. His casket was placed on a stand in the new wing, later in the evening, bearers brought the casket of Ka Haku o Hawaii and laid him to rest alongside his father. Queen Emma was so overcome with grief that she camped on the grounds of Mauna ʻAla, the mausoleum was completed in 1865, adjacent to the public 1844 Oahu Cemetery. The mausoleum seemed a fitting place to bury other past monarchs of the Kingdom of Hawaii, the remains were transferred in a solemn ceremony leading from the burial vault called Pohukaina at ʻIolani Palace to the Nuʻuanu Valley October 30,1865. Robert Crichton Wyllie, Minister of Foreign Affairs, was buried here in October 1865, over time, the remains of almost all of Hawaiis monarchs, their consorts, and various princes and princesses would rest at the Royal Mausoleum. Kamehameha I and William Charles Lunalilo are the two kings not resting at the mausoleum. William Charles Lunalilo, the shortest-reigning Hawaiian monarch, was buried in a church cemetery resting in the courtyard of Kawaiahaʻo Church, princess Nāhiʻenaʻena and Queen Keōpūolani are buried on Maui at Waiola Church. Kamehameha Is remains were hidden in a practice to preserve the mana of the aliʻi at the time of the Hawaiian religion. For several generations, descendants of Hoʻolulu, one of the few chosen to help bury the remains of Kamehameha, have appointed as caretakers. The Mausoleum is one of the places in Hawaii where the flag of Hawaii can officially fly alone without the American flag. June 24,1910, the caskets from the Kalākaua family were moved to an underground vault excavated from rock, in 1922 the main building was converted to a chapel, and the royal remains were moved to tombs constructed on the grounds
10.
Queen Emma of Hawaii
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Emma Kalanikaumakaʻamano Kaleleonālani Naʻea Rooke of Hawaiʻi was queen consort of King Kamehameha IV from 1856 to his death in 1863. She ran for ruling monarch against King Kalākaua but was defeated, Emma was born on January 2,1836 in Honolulu and was often called Emalani. Her father was High Chief George Naʻea and her mother was High Chiefess Fanny Kekelaokalani Young and she was adopted under the Hawaiian tradition of hānai by her childless maternal aunt, chiefess Grace Kamaʻikuʻi Young Rooke, and her husband, Dr. Thomas C. B. Emmas father Naʻea was the son of High Chief Kamaunu and High Chiefess Kukaeleiki, Kukaeleiki was daughter of Kalauawa, a Kauaʻi noble, and she was a cousin of Queen Keōpūolani, the most sacred wife of Kamehameha I. Among Naʻeas more notable ancestors were Kalanawaʻa, a chief of Oʻahu, and High Chiefess Kuaenaokalani. On her mothers side, Emma was the granddaughter of John Young, Kamehameha Is British-born military advisor known as High Chief Olohana and her maternal grandmother, Kaʻōanaʻeha, was generally called the niece of Kamehameha I. Chiefess Kaʻōanaʻehas father is disputed, some say she was the daughter of Prince Keliʻimaikaʻi and this confusion is due to the fact that High Chiefess Kalikoʻokalani, the mother of Kaʻōanaʻeha, married both to Keliʻimaikaʻi and to Kalaipaihala. Through High Chief Kalaipaihala, she could be descended from Kalaniʻopuʻu, King of Hawaii before Kīwalaʻō, King Kalākaua and Queen Liliʻuokalani criticized Queen Emmas claim of descent from Kamehamehas brother, supporting the latter theory of descent. Liliʻuokalani claimed that Keliʻimaikaʻi had no children, and that Kiilaweau and this was to strengthen their claim to the throne, since their great-grandfather was Kamehameha Is first cousin. But even through the second theory Queen Emma would still have been descendant of Kamehameha Is first cousin since Kalaniʻopuʻu was the uncle of Kamehameha I. It can be noted that one historian of the time, Samuel Kamakau, supported Queen Emmas descent from Keliʻimaikaʻi, Emma grew up at her foster parents English mansion, the Rooke House, in Honolulu. Emma was educated at the Royal School, which was established by American missionaries, other Hawaiian royals attending the school included Emmas half-sister Mary Paʻaʻāina. Like her classmates Bernice Pauahi Bishop, David Kalākaua and Lydia Liliʻuokalani, but she often found herself at odds with her peers. Unlike many of them, she was neither romantic nor prone to hyperbole, when the school closed, Dr. Rooke hired an English governess, Sarah Rhodes von Pfister, to tutor the young Emma. He also encouraged reading from his extensive library, as a writer, he influenced Emmas interest in reading and books. By the time she was 20, she was a young woman. She was 52 and slender, with black eyes. Her musical talents as a vocalist, pianist and dancer were well known and she was also a skilled equestrian
11.
Albert Kamehameha
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He was the godson of Queen Victoria. He was born May 20,1858, in the residence of Ihikapukalani that his father had built for his mother, the residence, oddly, had two names, the makai side was known as Kauluhinano, and the mauka side was known as Ihikapukalani. Created Crown prince and heir apparent to the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi on May 24,1858, adored by the native Hawaiian public, he was affectionately known as Ka Haku O Hawaiʻi and was believed to be last hope of the Kamehameha Dynasty. His birth was celebrated for days not only in Honolulu. He was the first child to be born to a reigning Hawaiian monarch since Prince Keawe Aweʻula-o-Kalani in 1839, son of Kamehameha III, and he was given the Hawaiian name Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa after his adoptive grandfather Kauikeaouli who reigned as Kamehameha III. Translated from the Hawaiian language it means the child of a long line of chiefs. The King and Queen called their son Baby, however, when they spoke of him to their kahu, it was as Kauikeaouli, which the Hawaiian people also used. He was named Albert Edward in honor of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, despite the great differences in their kingdoms, Queen Emma and Queen Victoria would exchange letters and become lifelong friends. Ten days after his birth, Mary Allen, second wife of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Elisha Hunt Allen, had a son Frederick. The two children became playmates, and Allen described the prince as a sweet child, gentle and gentlemanly in his manners, bright and precocious and of a most happy. Albert during his life was made an honorary member of Fire Engine Company Number Four in Honolulu and was given his own Company Four red uniform. It was said that he would become a fireman. His four birthdays were national holidays, in August 1862, the usually serene child became restless, and his medical condition got progressively worse. The newspapers of the time reported the illness as brain fever, writing much later Queen Liliʻuokalani blamed the father for putting the child under a cold-water faucet as punishment for throwing a tantrum over a pair of boots. The parents did mistake a fever for sunstroke, a modern medical historian and Honolulu physician analyzed the possible causes of Alberts death. They concluded the Prince most likely died from a case of appendicitis, both the local and British naval doctors did not know the cause nor the treatment of his illness. As the princes condition declined, Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma made a personal request to Queen Victoria to send a bishop from the Anglican Church to baptize the prince and they also requested Queen Victoria to be his godmother. Queen Victoria consented to requests, and sent as a baptismal gift an elaborate silver christening cup, about three feet high
12.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
13.
House of Kamehameha
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The kingdom would continue for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua. The origins of the House of Kamehameha can be traced back to half brothers, Kalaniʻōpuʻu, Kalaniʻōpuʻus father was Kalaninuiʻīamamao and Keōuas father was Kalanikeʻeaumoku, both sons of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. They shared a mother, Kamakaʻīmoku. Both brothers served Alapaʻinui, the ruling King of Hawaiʻi island, Hawaiian genealogy notes that Keōua may not have been Kamehamehas biological father, and that Kahekili II might have been the figures real father. Regardless, Kamehameha Is descent from Keawe remains intact through his mother, Kekuʻiapoiwa II, Keōua acknowledged him as his son and is recognized by official genealogies. The traditional mele chant of Keaka, wife of Alapainui, indicates that Kamehameha I was born in the month of ikuwā or around November. Alapai had given the child, Kamehameha to his wife Keaka, however, his general dating has been challenged. Abraham Fornander writes in his publication, An Account of the Polynesian Race, Its Origins and Migrations and his birth would thus fall between 1736 and 1740, probably nearer the former than the latter. A brief history of the Hawaiian people By William De Witt Alexander lists the date in the Chronological Table of Events of Hawaiian History as 1736. He would be named Paiea but would take the name Kamehameha, Kalaniʻōpuʻu, the young Kamehamehas uncle, would raise him after his fathers death. Kalaniʻōpuʻu ruled Hawaiʻi as did his grandfather Keawe and he had a number of advisors and priests. When word reached the ruler that chiefs were planning to murder the boy, he told Kamehameha, In 1778 Captain James Cook visited the Hawaiian Islands and returned in 1779. When his ship, Resolution broke a foremast as they were leaving, he was forced to turn back, a fight and theft of blacksmith tools led to a situation on shore where a Hawaiian canoe was confiscated, even after the tools were recovered. Tensions were high with the Hawaiian population and one of Cooks small boats was taken, in retaliation, Cook decided to kidnap King Kalaniʻōpuʻu. As he was being led away from his enclosure, his favorite wife. Two chiefs, Kalaimanokahoowaha and an attendant named Nuaa, saw her pleading as the King was being led away with his two sons following. As they reached the beach Kanaina, Kānekapōlei and Nuaa were able to convince Kalaniʻōpuʻu to stop, the crowd began to become aggressive and a rock was thrown and hit Cook. He took out his sword and struck Kanaina broadside without injury, before the remains of Cook were returned, the bones of the man were boiled down to strip off the flesh then given to chiefs
14.
Kalama
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Kalama Hakaleleponi Kapakuhaili was a Queen consort of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi alongside her husband, Kauikeaouli, who reigned as King Kamehameha III. Her second name is Hazelelponi in Hawaiian and she was the only child of Kona chief Naihekukui, who was commander of the native Hawaiian fleet at Honolulu. Her mother was Chiefess Iʻahuʻula, the sister of Charles Kanaʻina. Kanaʻina would become hānai parent of the child, Kalama means The Torch in the Hawaiian language. The young Kamehameha III, the boy king at the time, was needing a suitable royal bride, kamanele, the daughter of Governor John Adams Kuakini, was proposed as the most suitable in age, rank, and education. The young king fell in love with Kalama in 1832 and this angered his sister Kīnaʻu and many of the high chiefs. Kamehameha III married her on February 14,1837 and this was only a few months after Nahienaenas death. Kalama and Kamehameha III had two children who died in their infancy, both were named Keaweaweulaokalani, after their father. She and Kamehameha III would later hānai their nephew Alexander Liholiho and she also adopted Kaʻiminaʻauao, the daughter of Analea Keohokālole and Caesar Kapaʻakea as her own. She even adopted her husbands son Albert Kukaʻilimoku Kunuiakea by Jane Lahilahi Young and she would outlive both her husband Kamehameha III and her nephew Kamehameha IV, becoming known as the Queen dowager of Hawaii. She met Prince Alfred on his visit to Hawaii in the reign of Kamehameha V and she drove out to Waikīkī in her own carriage of state, accompanied by her adopted son, Kunuiakea, and Miriam Likelike. The drivers of these carriages wore the royal feather shoulder capes, and it was considered one of the grandest occasions in the history of those days. Kalama skillfully managed her properties and at the time of her death, in her will, her uncle Charles Kanaina was declared as the heir to her vast lands and properties. She died on September 20,1870, in Honolulu at the age of 53, Hakaleleponi Gate, an entrance for servants and attendants in ʻIolani Palace, is named after her. Castle developed Kailuas first housing tract and named it Kalama after the Queen, Kalama Beach Park, the former Boettcher Estate, became a municipal park in 1978 and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002
15.
Church of Hawaii
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The Church of Hawaii, originally called the Hawaiian Reformed Catholic Church, was the national church of the Kingdom of Hawaii and a member of the Anglican Communion from 1862 to 1893. His queen consort Queen Emma had a British grandfather and was brought up in a house of an Anglican British doctor and their 1856 wedding ceremony included Anglican prayers but had to be performed by the Congregationalist minister. In 1859, Emma wrote to Victoria of the United Kingdom to request a clergyman from the English church, the Kings foreign minister, Robert Crichton Wyllie, also made requests through diplomatic contacts. In 1860, Samuel Wilberforce suggested expanding the mission to include a bishop who could organize a new branch, william Ingraham Kip of the American Episcopal Church in California also supported the idea, but the American Civil War prevented any help from them. The idea was approved by John Bird Sumner and British Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell, the first Bishop was Thomas Nettleship Staley, consecrated on December 15,1861. Rufus Anderson, of the American Board, became a fierce critic, the officially chartered name of Hawaiian Reformed Catholic Church provoked criticism as papist. After Kamehameha IV died, a funeral service was held that was compared to a Pontifical High Mass. The Church of Hawaii became the royal church, with land donated from the royal familys holdings. Emma was baptized, followed by a young David Kalākaua who would also become king. The Royal Mausoleum was built with a chapel, which contrasted to the simple unadorned graveyards preferred by earlier missionaries. Observance of the holidays of Christmas and Good Friday was begun, since Kamehameha IV had died on the feast of Saint Andrew, the first cathedral constructed in Hawaii by his brother the new King Kamehameha V was called the Saint Andrews Cathedral. The cornerstone was laid in 1867, and it became the residence of the bishop. Two associated schools were started, Saint Andrews Priory School for Girls, and a boys school named for Saint Alban. Staley was even attacked by American writer Mark Twain and others whom he called Puritans, roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu The Church in Hawaii
16.
Crown prince
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A crown prince or crown princess is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a prince is also titled crown princess. The term is now borne as a title mainly in Asia, Scandinavia, and the Middle East, however, heirs apparent to non-imperial and non-royal monarchies, crown prince is not used as a title, although it is sometimes used as a synonym for heir apparent. g. Former Crown Prince Hassan bin Talal of Jordan, compare heir apparent and heir presumptive. In Scandinavian kingdoms, the heir presumptive to the crown may hold a different title than the heir apparent and it is also the title borne by the heir apparent of Liechtenstein, as well as the heir apparent or presumptive of Monaco. It generally requires a specific conferral by the sovereign, which may be withheld, reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran. Paras, Crown Prince of Nepal Alexander, Crown Prince of Yugoslavia, Egypt, Prince of the Said, meaning Prince of Upper Egypt Persia, Pahlavi dynasty and Qajar dynasty, the full style was Vala Hazrat-i-Humayun Vali Ahd, Shahzada, i. e. His August Imperial Highness the Heir Apparent, Prince, the above component vali ahd meaning successor by virtue of a covenant was adopted by many oriental monarchies, even some non-Muslim, e. g. g. He was not necessarily the son, wonja. Southeast Asian traditions, Siam Makutrajakuman in Thailand since 1886, krom Phrarajawangboworn Sathanmongkol or Phra Maha Uparaja or commonly called Wang Na in Thailand prior to 1886. Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Anom in Yogyakarta sultanate and Surakarta, Indonesia, raja Muda or Tengku Mahkota in the Malay sultanates of Malaysia. org- here napoleonic section
17.
Congregational church
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Congregational or Congregationalist churches are Protestant churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition, ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England laid foundation for these churches. Congregationalists also differed with the Reformed churches using episcopalian church governance, within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance. Congregationalist tradition has a presence in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and it has been introduced either by immigrant dissenter Protestants or by missionary organization such as the London Missionary Society. Congregationalists believe their model of church governance fulfils the description of the early church, Congregationalism is more easily identified as a movement than a single denomination, given its distinguishing commitment to the complete autonomy of the local congregation. The early Congregationalists shared with Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church and they believed the adult conversion experience was necessary for an individual to become a full member in the church, unlike other Reformed churches. As such, the Congregationalists were an influence on the Baptists. They differed in counting the children of believers in some members of the church. On the other hand, the Baptists required each member to experience conversion, in England, the Anglican system of church government was taken over by King Henry VIII. It declared the sovereign of England to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England. In the reign of Elizabeth I, this title was changed to Supreme Governor of the Church of England, an act still in effect. Robert Browne, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, John Penry, William Brewster, Thomas Jollie, the underground churches in England and exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which sailed from London in July 1620. They became known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers, the early Congregationalists sought to separate themselves from the Anglican church in every possible way and even eschewed having church buildings. They met in homes for many years, in 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire, established the first Independent Church in Wales according to the New England pattern, i. e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this day, during the English Civil War, those who supported the Parliamentary cause were invited by Parliament to discuss religious matters. This government would last until 1660 when the monarch was restored, in 1658 the Congregationalists created their own version of the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy Declaration, which remains the principal subordinate standard of Congregationalism. The work in South America began in 1921 when four Argentine churches urgently requested that denominational recognition be given to George Geier, the Illinois Conference licensed Geier, who worked among Germans from Russia who were very similar to their kin in the United States and in Canada
18.
Missionary
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A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
19.
Royal School (Hawaii)
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The Royal School is a historic school founded in 1839 in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, as the Chiefs Childrens School. The school was renamed as the Royal School in 1846, after the boarding closed in 1850, it became a day school for children. It later became an elementary school, and moved to its present campus in 1967. The present Royal Elementary School continues to educate children from kindergarten to Grade 5 and has named a Blue Ribbon School several times. The Chiefs Childrens School was founded by King Kamehameha III of the Kingdom of Hawaii as a school to educate the children of the Hawaiian royalty. The school was first located where the ʻIolani Barracks stand now, the need for the school was agreed upon during the general meeting of the mission in June 1839. The buildings were ready by 1840, and two students were added in 1842. An 1844 article in the Polynesian listed all children with the exception of Kīnaʻu, the main goal of this school was to educate the next generation of Hawaiian royalty to govern. It was run by Amos Starr Cooke and Juliette Montague Cooke from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and it was a long, two story frame building with a large dining room and separate sleeping quarters for the children and for the Cooke family. There was also the New England parlor, furnished with handmade and treasured furniture sent from home and it resembled nothing Hawaiian in its appearance nor its atmosphere. The royal children were taught how to act like Americans and to speak like Americans, the Hawaiian kahu John Papa ʻĪʻī was selected as assistant teacher. In 1846 the Kingdom government took over funding of the school under the Minister of Public Instruction Richard Armstrong, by 1848 the school declined as the children graduated or married. For example, Moses left school in 1847 to live with his father, missionary children were also allowed to attend in 1849. It was moved to its present location in 1850 and became a day instead of a boarding school for the general public. The next principal was Edward Griffin Beckwith until he became president of Oahu College in 1854, in 1853 it had 121 students, of which 8 were pure Hawaiian and 18 part Hawaiian. It is now an elementary school, Royal Elementary School. It serves grades K-5 and is located at 1519 Queen Emma Street, a sculpture by Kim Duffett Mai ka Hina Kua a ka Hina Alo was added in 2005. It was partially funded by a named for the Cooke Family
20.
Cricket
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Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a cricket field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard-long pitch with a wicket at each end. One team bats, attempting to score as many runs as possible, each phase of play is called an innings. After either ten batsmen have been dismissed or a number of overs have been completed, the innings ends. The winning team is the one that scores the most runs, including any extras gained, at the start of each game, two batsmen and eleven fielders enter the field of play. The striker takes guard on a crease drawn on the four feet in front of the wicket. His role is to prevent the ball hitting the stumps by use of his bat. The other batsman, known as the non-striker, waits at the end of the pitch near the bowler. A dismissed batsman must leave the field, and a teammate replaces him, the bowlers objectives are to prevent the scoring of runs and to dismiss the batsman. An over is a set of six deliveries bowled by the same bowler, the next over is bowled from the other end of the pitch by a different bowler. If a fielder retrieves the ball enough to put down the wicket with a batsman not having reached the crease at that end of the pitch. Adjudication is performed on the field by two umpires, the laws of cricket are maintained by the International Cricket Council and the Marylebone Cricket Club. Traditionally cricketers play in all-white kit, but in limited overs cricket they wear club or team colours. In addition to the kit, some players wear protective gear to prevent injury caused by the ball. Although crickets origins are uncertain, it is first recorded in south-east England in the 16th century and it spread globally with the expansion of the British Empire, leading to the first international matches in the mid-19th century. ICC, the governing body, has over 100 members. The sport is followed primarily in Australasia, Britain, the Indian subcontinent, southern Africa, womens cricket, which is organised and played separately, has also achieved international standard. A number of words have been suggested as sources for the term cricket, in the earliest definite reference to the sport in 1598 it is called creckett. One possible source for the name is the Old English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff, in Samuel Johnsons Dictionary, he derived cricket from cryce, Saxon, a stick
21.
French invasion of Honolulu
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The French invasion of Honolulu was an attack on Honolulu by Louis Tromelin in retribution for the local persecution of Catholics and repression of French trade. On August 12,1849, French admiral Louis Tromelin arrived in Honolulu Harbor on the corvette Gassendi with the frigate La Poursuivante, de Tromelin, angered by the ABCFM missionaries’ intention to shut out Catholicism and French trade, made ten demands to King Kamehameha III on August 22. The complete and loyal adoption of the treaty of March 26th 1846, the reduction of the duty on French brandy to fifty per cent ad valorem. The use of the French language in all business intercourse between French citizens and the Hawaiian Government, the return of all duties collected by virtue of the regulation the withdrawal of which was demanded by the fifth article. The return of a fine of twenty-five dollars paid by the whale ship General Teste besides an indemnity of sixty dollars for the time that she was detained in port, the punishment of certain school boys whose impious conduct in church had occasioned complaint. The payment to a French hotel keeper of the damages committed in his house by sailors from HBM″s ship Amphitrite, the demands had not been met by August 25. After a second warning to the civilians of the invasion,140 French Marines. The marines spiked the guns, threw kegs of powder into the harbor. They raided government buildings and general property in Honolulu, causing $100,000 in damages and they also took the kings yacht, Kamehameha III, which was sailed to Tahiti and never returned. After these raids, the force withdrew to the fort. De Tromelin eventually recalled his men and left Hawaii on September 5, gerrit P. Judd led a party to inquire and settle the incident, leaving for Paris on September 11. Along the way Judd requested support from the United States and Great Britain, the latter accepting for his case against Tromelin
22.
Gerrit P. Judd
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Gerrit Parmele Judd was an American physician and missionary to the Kingdom of Hawaii who later became a trusted advisor and cabinet minister to King Kamehameha III. Judd was born April 23,1803 in Paris, Oneida County, New York, on his mothers side, he was descended from Thomas Hastings, who came from the East Anglian area of England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1634. He was educated as a physician at the college in Fairfield. He married Laura Fish on September 20,1827 in Clinton, Oneida County, the couple sailed to Hawaii that same year, on the ship Parthian, the third company from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. He was assigned to the mission at Honolulu on the island of Oahu, as a missionary physician, in 1842 he resigned from the mission and became an advisor and translator to King Kamehameha III. He was commissioned in 1849 as Minister Plenipotentiary to England, France and he was one of the founders of the Punahou School for children of the missionaries in 1841. He founded Hawaiis first medical school in 1870, and was the author of one of the first medical texts written in Hawaiian, Anatomia, he palapala ia e hoike ai i ke ano o ko ke kanaka kino, in 1838. In 1850 Judd purchased from King Kamehameha the land became the Kualoa Ranch on the Windward Coast of Oahu. His descendants still own and operate the ranch today, Judd died July 12,1873 in Honolulu and was buried in the Oahu Cemetery. They had nine children, Gerrit Parmele II born March 8,1829, died November 13,1839, elizabeth Kinaʻu born July 5,1831 died August 9,1918. Married September 29,1857 to Samuel Gardner Wilder from Leominster, Massachusetts, helen Seymour born August 27,1833 and died April 2,1911. Charles Hastings born September 8,1835 died April 18,1890, married November 1,1859 to Emily Catherine Cutts, four children. Worked in the Guano and farming businesses, and held posts in the Kingdom. Laura Fish born September 8,1835 died November 22,1888 at San Francisco, married February 22,1861 to Joshua Gill Dickson, four children. Albert Francis born January 7,1838 died May 20,1900, married April 4,1872 to Agnes Hall Boyd nine children. Last child Lawrence M. Judd became Governor of the Territory of Hawaii in 1929–1934, alan Wilkes born April 20,1840 and died March 26,1875. Sybil Augusta born March 16,1843 and died September 10,1906, married February 27,1862 to Henry Alpheus Peirce Carter, seven children. Son Charles Lunt was a member of the Committee of Safety, juliet Isabelle born March 28,1846 and died June 27,1857
23.
Haalilio
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Timoteo or Timothy Kamalehua Haʻalilio was a royal secretary and first diplomat of the Kingdom of Hawaii. He is best known for helping Hawaii in gaining recognization from Britain, France, Haʻalilio was born early in the 19th century, probably 1808. He was the son Koeleele, and his wife Kipa, in some accounts Eseta Kipa and he was the half-brother of Levi Haʻalelea, who later became a husband of Princess Kekauōnohi. He was of the class or Hawaiian nobility. He was included in the first English school set up by Hiram Bingham I in Honolulu around April 1821, in 1823 William Richards joined the mission, and became a teacher and friend for the rest of his life. After learning of the death of King Kamehameha II in 1825, jean Baptiste Rives who had served as Kamehameha IIs secretary had been accused of mismanagement of funds and never returned to Hawaii. He took the Christian name Timothy, which was Timoteo in the Hawaiian language spelling, on June 7,1826, he married Hana Hopua, the daughter of Hopua and Polunu. The couple had no children and his wife outlived him and inherited lands in the Great Mahele in 1848. In 1831 the Lahainaluna School was founded, and he continued his education there, in July 1839 he was offered as a hostage during the French Incident. In the 1840 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii, he was included in the first members of the House of Nobles, Haʻalilio was a founding member of the first Hawaiian Historical Society in 1841. On April 8,1842 he was appointed as the first diplomat of the Kingdom, envoy to the United States, France, Richards would assist him as advisor and translator. In May he was appointed to a board, along with John Papa ʻĪʻī. Haʻalilio and Richards left on July 18,1842 for their diplomatic mission, instead of sailing via Cape Horn, they went through Mexico and over land. They took a steamer to Washington D. C, after a week waiting to see Daniel Webster who was the U. S. Secretary of State, they had their appointment on December 7. By December 19,1842 they had verbal assurance of U. S. recognition, while in Washington, he became quite the celebrity as the first distinguished man of color to visit the nations capital. An incident occurred on board the steamboat Globe, in which Haʻalilio was mistaken for Richards slave and they tried purchasing two tickets for breakfast but instead were given one and a half, one for Richards and the half for his servant. In London they met up with Sir George Simpson of the Hudsons Bay Company, february 1843 Richards, Sir George Simpson and Haʻalilio visited King Leopold I of Belgium. On March 17,1843 they met François Guizot who was the French Foreign Minister, both verbally accepted Hawaiian independence, and so did Lord Aberdeen on another visit on March 25
24.
William Richards (Hawaii)
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William Richards was a missionary and politician in the Kingdom of Hawaii. William Richards was born in Plainfield, Massachusetts on August 22,1793 and his father was James Richards and mother was Lydia Shaw. He was schooled under Moses Hallock in Plainfield, attended Williams College 1815 through graduation in 1819 and his brother James had also gone to Williams College and became a missionary. He was ordained September 12,1822 and he married Clarissa Lyman on October 30,1822. Her distant cousin David Belden Lyman would also come to Hawaii to serve as a missionary 9 years later. They sailed on November 19,1822 on the ship Thames under Captain Clasby from New Haven and they arrived to the Hawaiian Islands April 24,1823 and landed in Honolulu April 27. On May 28,1823 he and shipmate Charles Stewart sailed on the Royal Yacht Cleopatras Barge to Lahaina, however, he did not speak the Hawaiian language fluently enough for people to understand his sermons. In September Queen Mother Keōpūolani became ill and requested Baptism, English missionary William Ellis had just arrived with Tahitian interpreters, and the language was similar enough that they were used for the baptism just before the Queen Mothers death. A standardized orthography was developed and some texts were printed. In 1825 Richards published a biography of Queen Keōpūolani, some time in 1825, the Richards moved back to Maui to establish a mission. Whaling ships had been visiting the port, expecting women to greet the ship, in October 1825 the crew of the British whaleship Daniel threatened Richards in front of his wife and children unless they relaxed restrictions on the town. Tensions escalated, and the ships master William Buckle refused a request to control his crew, in January 1826 the American Schooner USS Dolphin arrived in Honolulu and demanded the release of four women who were accused of prostitution, since there were no written laws. The crew attacked the house of the Prime Minister and the missionaries, later in 1826 another mob damaged the town of Lahaina, although Richards and his family escaped. In 1827 the English whaleship John Palmer fired cannons at the house after its captain Elisha Clarke was arrested for taking four women on board. Richards negotiated the release of Clarke if the women were returned, near the end of 1827, word got back to the islands that the 1825 incident with William Buckle had found its way into American newspapers. The papers accused the captain of purchasing a woman for 10 doubloons and taking her on board his vessel, British Consul Richard Charlton demanded that Richards be arrested and taken for a libel trial in Honolulu. The story had probably been sensationalized along the way, and many agreed that these were inflammatory charges with only hearsay evidence, on November 26,1827 with Queen Regent Kaʻahumanu presiding, Richards was released. Buckle pointed out that the woman named Leoiki had come willingly, there were precedents at the time for English and Americans of high rank to marry Hawaiian noble women
25.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
26.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
27.
Panama
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Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain
28.
Jamaica
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Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island,10,990 square kilometres in area, lies about 145 kilometres south of Cuba, Jamaica is the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494, Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves imported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations, the island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.8 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas, Kingston is the countrys capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Hakka, Indian, due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016, the indigenous people, the Taíno, called it Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the Land of Wood and Water or the Land of Springs. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their island as the Rock. Slang names such as Jamrock, Jamdown, or briefly Ja, have derived from this, the Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques, the south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655, the Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay, although there is some debate that it might have been St. Anns Bay. St. Anns Bay was named Saint Gloria by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land, the capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534. Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean, the Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, the English continued to import African slaves as labourers
29.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
30.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
31.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
32.
Napoleon III
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Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the only President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I and he was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution, during the first years of the Empire, Napoleons government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859, thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad, including Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his came to be known as the Liberal Empire. Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly, Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon, Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, Napoleon III negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain and similar agreements with Frances other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize, womens education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and he was a supporter of popular sovereignty and of nationalism. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War and his regime assisted Italian unification and, in doing so, annexed Savoy and the County of Nice to France, at the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific, on the other hand, his armys intervention in Mexico which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection ended in failure. Beginning in 1866, Napoleon had to face the power of Prussia. In July 1870, Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies, the French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Louis Napoleon and then Napoleon III, was born in Paris on the night of 20–21 April 1808. His presumed father was Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleons wife Joséphine de Beauharnais, as empress, Joséphine proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Joséphine was by then infertile. Louis married Hortense when he was twenty-four and she was nineteen and they had a difficult relationship, and only lived together for brief periods
33.
La Hitte
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Jean Ernest Ducos de La Hitte, Viscount, was born on 5 September 1789 in Bessières, and died on 22 September 1878 in Gragnague. He was a French major general, Senator, Foreign Minister, and he entered the Ecole Polytechnique in 1807. He fought in Spain as a lieutenant, in the campaigns of 1810,1811,1812,1813 and 1814. He was in particular noticed at the Siege of Cadiz and he became Brigadier general on 22 February 1829, at 39 years of age. One year after, he commanded the artillery in Africa during the capture of Algiers and he was President of the Artillery committee during the Revolution of 1848. He became Minister for Foreign Affairs from November 1849 until 9 January 1851 and it is mainly to his firm adherence to these principles, and to the general uniformity of the system he established, that the success of the new arm is to be attributed
34.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
35.
Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn
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Upon graduation, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the British Army, where he served for some 40 years, seeing service in various parts of the British Empire. During this time he was created a royal duke, becoming the Duke of Connaught and Strathearn. In 1911, he was appointed as Governor General of Canada and he occupied this post until being succeeded by the Duke of Devonshire in 1916. After the end of his tenure, Arthur returned to the United Kingdom and there, as well as in India, performed various royal duties. Though he retired from life in 1928, he continued to make his presence known in the army well into the Second World War. He was Queen Victorias last surviving son, Arthur was born at Buckingham Palace on 1 May 1850, the seventh child and third son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. The prince was baptised by the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Bird Sumner, as with his older brothers, Arthur received his early education from private tutors. It was reported that he became the Queens favourite child, following his arrival at Halifax, Arthur toured the country for eight weeks and made a visit in January 1870 to Washington, D. C. where he met with President Ulysses S. Grant. Arthur made an impression on many in Canada, as he became the 51st chief on the council, his appointment broke the centuries-old tradition that there should only be 50 chiefs of the Six Nations. Arthur was promoted to the rank of colonel on 14 June 1871, substantive lieutenant-colonel in 1876, colonel on 29 May 1880 and. He gained military experience as Commander-in-Chief of the Bombay Army from December 1886 to March 1890 and he went on to be General Officer Commanding Southern District, at Portsmouth, from September 1890 to 1893. The Prince had hoped to succeed his first cousin once-removed, the elderly Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, as Commander-in-chief of the British Army, upon the latters forced retirement in 1895. But this desire was denied to Arthur, and instead he was given, between 1893 and 1898, command of the Aldershot District Command, the regiment had recently been converted to the infantry role from the 2nd Battalion, 5th British Columbia Regiment of Canadian Artillery. With the Princes agreement the unit was renamed 6th Regiment, Duke of Connaughts Own Rifles on 1 May 1900 and he was subsequently appointed colonel-in-chief of the regiment, then known as The British Columbia Regiment, in 1923. He held that appointment until his death, on his mothers birthday in 1874, Arthur was created a royal peer, being titled as the Duke of Connaught and Strathearn and Earl of Sussex. Through his childrens marriages, Arthur became the father-in-law of Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden, Princess Alexandra, Duchess of Fife, arthurs first two children predeceased him, Margaret while pregnant with his sixth grandchild. For many years, Arthur maintained a liaison with Leonie, Lady Leslie, sister of Jennie Churchill, alongside his military career, he continued to undertake royal duties beyond, or vaguely associated with, the army. On the return from a posting in India, he again and he also toured Canada in 1906
36.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Zachary Taylor
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Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. Before his presidency, Taylor was an officer in the United States Army. Taylors status as a hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican-American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died 16 months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery and he remains the only President to come from Louisiana. Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth and he was commissioned as an officer in the U. S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and his success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname Old Rough and Ready. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, in May, Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and managed to drive his troops out of Texas. Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico, where once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September. Defying orders, Taylor moved his troops further south, despite being severely outnumbered, he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista. After this, most of Taylors troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, the Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political beliefs and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination, as president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda, despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and he sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, Taylor died suddenly of a stomach-related illness in July 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of Taylors term, Zachary Taylor was born on November 24,1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. He is inconclusively believed to have born at the home of his maternal grandfather. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family and had three younger sisters and his mother was Sarah Dabney Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution, Taylors second cousin through that line was James Madison, the fourth president. Leaving exhausted lands, his family joined the migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville, Kentucky
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Millard Fillmore
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Millard Fillmore was the 13th President of the United States, the last to be a member of the Whig Party while in the White House. A former congressman from New York, Fillmore was elected the nations 12th Vice President in 1848 and he was instrumental in getting the Compromise of 1850 passed, a bargain that led to a brief truce in the battle over slavery. He failed to win the Whig nomination for president in 1852, he gained the endorsement of the nativist Know Nothing Party four years later, Fillmore was born into poverty in the Finger Lakes area of New York state, his parents were tenant farmers during his formative years. He rose from poverty through study, and became a lawyer though he had formal schooling. He became prominent in the Buffalo area as an attorney and politician, was elected to the New York Assembly in 1828, and to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1832. Fillmore was a candidate for Speaker of the House when the Whigs took control of the chamber in 1841. Fillmore received the Whig vice presidential nomination in 1848 as Taylors running mate, and he was largely ignored by Taylor, including the dispensing of patronage in New York, on which Taylor consulted Weed and Seward. As vice president, Fillmore presided over debates in the Senate as Congress decided whether to allow slavery in the Mexican Cession. Fillmore supported Henry Clays Omnibus Bill though Taylor did not, after President Taylor died in July 1850, Fillmore dismissed the cabinet and changed the administrations policy. The new president exerted pressure to gain the passage of the Compromise, in foreign policy, Fillmore supported U. S. Navy expeditions to open trade in Japan, opposed French designs on Hawaii, and was embarrassed by Narciso Lópezs filibuster expeditions to Cuba. He sought election to a term in 1852, but was passed over by the Whigs in favor of Winfield Scott. As the Whig Party broke up after Fillmores presidency, many of Fillmores conservative wing joined the Know Nothings, in his 1856 candidacy as that partys nominee, Fillmore had little to say about immigration, instead focusing on the preservation of the Union, and won only Maryland. In his retirement, Fillmore was active in civic endeavors. He helped to found the University of Buffalo, serving as its first chancellor, during the American Civil War, Fillmore denounced secession and agreed that the Union must be maintained by force if necessary, but was critical of the war policies of Abraham Lincoln. After peace was restored, he supported the Reconstruction policies of President Andrew Johnson, obscure today, Fillmore has been praised by some for his foreign policy, but he is criticized by others for his enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act and for his association with the Know Nothings. Millard Fillmore was born in a log cabin, on a farm in what is now Moravia, Cayuga County, in the Finger Lakes region of New York state and his parents were Phoebe and Nathaniel Fillmore. He was the second of eight children and the oldest son, Nathaniel Fillmore Sr. was a member of the Green Mountain Boys, and served as an ensign and first lieutenant during the American Revolution. In 1767, Nathaniel Fillmore Sr. married Hepzibah Wood, the mother of Nathaniel Fillmore and grandmother of Millard Fillmore
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Legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaii
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The Legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaii was the bicameral legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Prior to this the monarchs ruled under a Council of Chiefs, the members of the upper House of Nobles were appointed by the Monarch with the advice of his Privy Council. It also served as the court of impeachment for any royal official, members were usually Hawaiian aliʻis, nobles, and royal or wealthy individuals. It originally consisted of the King plus five women and ten men, after the overthrow of the Kingdom and the subsequent United States annexation in 1898, this body was reconstituted as a Senate under the territorial constitution of the Territory of Hawaii. The members of the lower House of Representatives were elected by popular vote from several districts in the Kingdom, revenue-oriented bills were issued through the House of Representatives, and it also served as the grand inquest of the Kingdom. From 1840 to 1864, it existed as a bicameral parliament, however, with the 1864 Constitution, the Legislature was temporarily unified into a single-house legislature. After 1893, and the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, it became the Legislature of the brief Republic of Hawaii and this was followed 61 years later by the present Hawaii State Legislature in 1959 after the admission to the Union of the Territory as the 50th State. David Howard Hitchcock, Sr. Simon Kaloa Kaai Luther Aholo John Kauhane 1892 Legislative Session of the Kingdom of Hawaii Hawaii, robert Colfax Lydecker, ed. Roster Legislatures of Hawaii, 1841–1918
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John Owen Dominis
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John Owen Dominis was an American-born statesman. He became Prince Consort of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi upon his marriage to the last reigning monarch and his father was a sea captain named John Dominis who came to America in 1819 from Trieste during the Napoleonic Wars. He was often called Italian from an existing Venetian family of Conti Palatini de Dominis de Arba, however, the denomination Italian is misleading, as his family was of Croatian origin, the Dominis noble family originating from Rab in Dalmatia. Working for Josiah Marshall of Boston, Massachusetts, captain Dominis sailed from North America across the Pacific, one of his ships used on the trading voyages was called Owhyhee. The captain married Mary Lambert Jones, daughter of Owen Jones and Elizabeth Lambert, on October 9,1821, about 1831, they moved to Schenectady, New York and son John Owen Dominis was born on March 10,1832. In 1837 the captain moved his wife and son from New York to Honolulu, Hawaii, King Kamehameha III awarded some land to the family in 1842 as settlement of a lawsuit with the British Consul Richard Charlton. The captain continued to take voyages to raise money for the construction of a large house, in 1846 he sailed for China on the Brig William Neilson, intending to purchase Chinese-made furniture for the house which was nearing completion. The ship was lost at sea, along with the American Agent George Brown, Mary rented a suite of rooms to support herself and young John Owen. One of the first boarders established the American Legation in the house and named it Washington Place and he attended a day school run by Mr. and Mrs. Johston that was next to the Royal School founded for the children of the native Hawaiian nobility. Dominis would climb the fence to look at the princes and princesses, for a time, Dominis was a mercantile clerk in San Francisco, and later he served as a clerk in a Honolulu commercial house. By 1856 he was on staff to a Prince, and accompanying the family on their travels. On September 16,1862 Dominis married Princess Lydia Kamakaʻeha Pākī and they had been engaged for two years, but had to delay their wedding due to the death of Prince Albert, the young son of King Kamehameha IV. She wanted children of her own, but could not have any, John chose to socialize without her, and Mary Dominis looked down upon her non-caucasian daughter-in-law. Liliʻuokalani notes in her autobiography that his mother considered her an intruder and his marriage to Liliʻuokalani and his friendship with King Kamehameha V brought him many honors. For example, he was a Royal Commander of the Royal Order of Kamehameha, the Royal Order of Kalākaua, from 1863 he served on the Kings Privy Council. Dominis served from 1864 to 1886 in the House of Nobles and he served on the Board of Health, Board of Education, Bureau of Immigration, and was Quartermaster General and Commissoner of Crown Lands. From 1878 to 1886 he served as Royal Governor of Maui, in 1886 he was appointed Lieutenant General and Commander in Chief. According to his wifes testimony, Governor Dominis was a very dedicated freemason, Mary Dominis died on April 25,1889, and he and Liliʻuokalani inherited Washington Place
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Robert Crichton Wyllie
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Robert Crichton Wyllie was a Scottish physician and businessman. He also served two decades as Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Kingdom of Hawaii, Wyllie was born October 13,1798 in an area called Hazelbank in Dunlop parish of East Ayrshire, Scotland. His mother, Janet Crichton, traced her descent from James Crichton and he attended the University of Glasgow, earning a medical diploma by the time he was 20. He left as a surgeon, intending to practice in Russia. He got as far as Valparaíso in Chile in 1818, then set up in practice in nearby Coquimbo, after a few years he gave up medical practice and became a partner in a successful trading business. He took a small yacht, Daule, to Kolkata, India, from 1824 to 1826 and his cousin William Edward Petty Hartnell had settled near Monterey, California since 1822, taking the name Don Guillermo and a Spanish wife. Wyllie returned to England in 1830, and continued to grow his fortune in banking with a partner named Lyall and he joined the expensive Reform Club in London. In 1842 he left for Mexico to investigate some of his investments in a called the Spanish American Bondholders. Mexico was in trouble from the Texas Revolution and had essentially mortgaged vast amounts of land. His cousin Hartnell provided detailed reports encouraging British settlement of California and he was involved with Manuel Micheltorena, governor of Alta California, and Wyllie proposed a plan to buy land in Sacramento Valley and colonize California in 1843. Writing about this episode, a historian says. no drama in the Pacific was complete without the fastidious, meticulous and verbose Scots busybody and he stayed with British Consul to Mexico Alexander Forbes, hoping to get help from his investors for the California scheme. The investors, however, were willing to wait to get their money back, irish priest Eugene McNamara led what would be the closest attempt to assert British influence in California. By the time McNamara acted, however, events such as the Bear Flag Revolt gave the United States effective control over California, Wyllie ran into his friend William Miller while in Mazatlán. Miller, although born in England, served as a general in the Latin American wars of independence under Simón Bolívar, the two had met earlier in Valparaíso. Miller had just been appointed British Consul to the Kingdom of Hawaii and they arrived in Honolulu in January 1844 aboard HMS Hazard. Miller continued on his voyage to Tahiti, since he was assigned to oversee British relations to all Pacific Islands, Wyllie stayed in the Hawaiian islands for the rest of his life. Wyllie first worked as acting British Consul until Miller returned March 15,1845, during this time he compiled in-depth reports on the conditions in the islands. He was then appointed by King Kamehameha III as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Secretary of War, and to the legislature in the House of Nobles on March 26,1845
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