1.
Kagura
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Kagura is a Japanese word referring to a specific type of Shinto theatrical dance—with roots arguably predating those of Noh. Once strictly a ceremonial art derived from kamigakari and chinkon, Kagura has evolved in many directions over the span of more than a millennium, the epics Kojiki and Nihonshoki describe a folklore origin for the dances. In these texts, there is a legendary tale about the sun goddess Amaterasu. Ame-no-Uzume, kami/goddess of the dawn and of revelry, led the gods in a wild dance. Kagura is one of a number of rituals and arts said to derive from this event, originally called kamukura or kamikura, kagura began as sacred dances performed at the Imperial court by shrine maidens who were supposedly descendants of Ame-no-Uzume. Among these are miko kagura, shishi kagura, and Ise-style and Izumo-style kagura dances, many more variations have developed over the centuries, including some which are fairly new, and most of which have become highly secularized folk traditions. Kagura, in particular those forms that involve storytelling or reenactment of fables, is one of the primary influences on the Noh theatre. The formal ritual dances were performed in a number of sacred places, at the Imperial Sanctuary, where the Sacred Mirror was kept, they were performed as part of gagaku court music. Mikagura were also performed at the Imperial harvest festival and at major shrines such as Ise, Kamo, since around the year 1000, these events have taken place every year. According to the department of the Imperial Household Agency, kagura still take place every December in the Imperial Sanctuary. Satokagura, or normal kagura, is an umbrella term containing a great diversity of folk dances derived from mikagura. For the sake of brevity, a selection of traditions from the Kantō region will be used as examples, miko kagura – dances performed by shrine maidens originally derived from ritual dances in which the miko channeled the kami, speaking, singing, and dancing as the god. Today, they are performed largely in worship to kami at Shinto shrines and these dances are often performed with ritual props, such as bells, bamboo canes, sprigs of sakaki, or paper streamers. Izumo-ryū kagura – Dances based on those performed at Izumo Shrine serve a number of purposes, including ritual purification, celebration of auspicious days, ise-ryū kagura – A form of dances derived from those performed alongside yudate rituals at the outer shrines of Ise Shrine. Largely associated with Hanamatsuri, the miko or other group leaders immerse certain objects in boiling water as part of a purification ritual, as with other forms of kagura, this has become secularized and popularized as it transformed into a folk practice. Shishi kagura – A form of dance, in which a group of dancers take on the role of the shishi lion. The lion mask and costume is seen as, in ways, embodying the spirit of the lion. Acrobatic feats and lion dances played a role in these rituals
2.
Misogi
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Misogi is a Japanese Shinto practice of ritual purification by washing the entire body. Misogi is related to another Shinto purification ritual called Harae – thus both being collectively referred to as Misogiharae, in Kyoto, people douse themselves under Kiyomizu Temples Otowa no taki waterfall, although the majority of visitors drink from the waters rather than plunging into them. Every year, many groups take pilgrimages to sacred waterfalls, lakes and rivers, either alone or in small groups, Mount Ontake, the Kii mountain range and Mount Yoshino are but a few examples of ancient and well known areas for Misogi in Japan. In the United States misogi is performed at the Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America at the Konryu Myojin no Taki waterfall each morning, before encountering misogi, members generally undergo some sort of preliminary purification. Such things as prayers, fasting, or some sort of activity is common. Generally, women put on a white kimono and a headband and men put on a fundoshi. They then begin furitama or spirit shaking by clenching their hands in front of the stomach and shaking them up and down, the purpose of this is to become aware of/unified with the spirits presence within. Following this is a warm-up or calisthenics and these two aforementioned practices are sometimes accompanied by special prayers or incantations. After, the leader begins to speak out invocations/prayers that are said to activate the spirit, the followers generally speak along with them, thus affirming the potential for realizing ones own spirit, and thus unifying them with the kami around them. The above exercises are done so participants raise their metabolism and some groups accompany this with deep breathing and they may be sprinkled with purifying salt and may be given sake to spit into the waterfall in three mouthfuls. Sometimes the participants are given salt to throw into the waterfall as they enter, in some groups, the leader counts to nine and then cuts the air while shouting the word yei. to dispel this impurity. The practice of this varies from group to group, each having their own traditions or methods, Misogi is also used in some forms of martial arts, especially aikido, to prepare the mind for training and to learn how to develop ones Dantian, or centre. The founder of aikido, Morihei Ueshiba, regularly used this form of meditation to complement his training, the Sen Shin tei Misogi Well at Ki Society Headquarters in Japan is a well-known place for people performing misogi with cold water before sunrise. Temizuya, a pavilion for ritual purification at the entrance to Shinto shrines Fisher, living Religions, 5th ed. Prentice Hall
3.
Polytheism
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Polytheism is the worship of or belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism, within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular God, in most cases transcendent. Polytheists do not always worship all the gods equally, but they can be henotheists, other polytheists can be kathenotheists, worshiping different deities at different times. Polytheism was the form of religion during the Bronze Age and Iron Age up to the Axial Age and the development of Abrahamic religions. Important polytheistic religions practiced today include Chinese traditional religion, Hinduism, Japanese Shinto, the term comes from the Greek πολύ poly and θεός theos and was first invented by the Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria to argue with the Greeks. When Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, non-Christians were just called Gentiles or pagans or by the pejorative term idolaters. The modern usage of the term is first revived in French through Jean Bodin in 1580, a central, main division in polytheism is between soft polytheism and hard polytheism. Hard polytheism is the belief that gods are distinct, separate, real divine beings, hard polytheists reject the idea that all gods are one god. Hard polytheists do not necessarily consider the gods of all cultures as being equally real, Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most folk religions. The gods of polytheism are in cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, since divinity is intellectual, and all intellect returns into itself, this myth expresses in allegory the essence of divinity. Myths may be regarded physically when they express the activities of gods in the world, the psychological way is to regard the activities of the soul itself and or the souls acts of thought. The material is to regard material objects to actually be gods, for example, to call the earth Gaia, ocean Okeanos, Some well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods and the Egyptian gods, and the classical-attested pantheon which includes the ancient Greek religion and Roman religion. Post-classical polytheistic religions include Norse Æsir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, the Aztec gods, an example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *dyēus, which is attested in several distinct religious systems. In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time, deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of the elder cultures pantheon to a one, as in the Greek Titanomachia. Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives, epicurus believed that these gods were material, human-like, and that they inhabited the empty spaces between worlds. Though it is suggested that Hestia stepped down when Dionysus was invited to Mount Olympus, robert Graves The Greek Myths cites two sources that obviously do not suggest Hestia surrendered her seat, though he suggests she did
4.
Animism
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Animism is the worlds oldest religion. Animism teaches that objects, places, and creatures all possess distinctive spiritual qualities, potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and perhaps even words—as animate and alive. Animism is the oldest known type of system in the world that even predates paganism. It is still practiced in a variety of forms in traditional societies. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples spiritual or supernatural perspectives. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century by Sir Edward Tylor, Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the world also consider themselves animists. Earlier anthropological perspectives – since termed the old animism – were concerned with knowledge surrounding what is alive, the old animism assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between persons and things. Critics of the old animism have accused it of preserving colonialist and dualist worldviews, according to Tylor, animism often includes an idea of pervading life and will in nature, i. e. a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as fetishism, thus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religion grew. The earliest known usage in English appeared in 1819, Tylors definition of animism was a part of a growing international debate on the nature of primitive society by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science – anthropology and their religion was animism – the belief that natural species and objects had souls. With the development of property, these descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of developed religions, in 1869, the Edinburgh lawyer, John Ferguson McLellan, argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named Totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended of the species as their totemic animal. Subsequent debate by the armchair anthropologists remained focused on totemism rather than animism, indeed, anthropologists have commonly avoided the issue of Animism and even the term itself rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic, stewart Guthrie saw animism – or attribution as he preferred it – as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats
5.
Japanese festivals
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Japanese festivals are traditional festive occasions. Some festivals have their roots in Chinese festivals centuries ago, but have undergone changes as they mixed with local customs. Some are so different that they do not even resemble the original festival despite sharing the same name. There are also various festivals that are mostly unknown outside a given prefecture. It is commonly said that you always find a festival somewhere in Japan. In Yokohama Chinatown, Japans biggest Chinatown, tourists from all over Japan come to enjoy the festival, similar for Nagasakis Lantern Festival that is based in Nagasaki Chinatown. Festivals are often based around one event, with stalls, entertainment. Some are based around temples or shrines, others hanabi, Matsuri is the Japanese word for a festival or holiday. In Japan, festivals are sponsored by a local shrine or temple. Almost every locale has at least one matsuri in late summer/early autumn, notable matsuri often feature processions which may include elaborate floats. Preparation for these processions is usually organised at the level of neighborhoods, prior to these, the local kami may be ritually installed in mikoshi and paraded through the streets. One can always find in the vicinity of a matsuri booths selling souvenirs and food such as takoyaki, karaoke contests, sumo matches, and other forms of entertainment are often organized in conjunction with matsuri. If the festival is next to a lake, renting a boat is also an attraction. Favorite elements of the most popular matsuri, such as the Nada no Kenka Matsuri of Himeji or the Neputa Matsuri of Hirosaki, are often broadcast on television for the nation to enjoy. Sapporo Snow Festival is one of the largest festivals of the year in Sapporo and it began in 1950 when high school students built snow statues in Odori Park, central Sapporo. The event is now large and commercialized. About a dozen large sculptures are built for the festival along with around 100 smaller snow, several concerts and other events are also held. Lake Shikotsu is the northernmost ice-free lake which is 363 meters deep and this festival features a moss-covered cave, which has evergreen draped on the inside and is covered in ice
6.
Japanese mythology
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Japanese mythology embraces Shinto and Buddhist traditions as well as agriculturally-based folk religion. The Shinto pantheon comprises innumerable kami and this article will discuss only the typical elements present in Asian mythology, such as cosmogony, important deities, and the best-known Japanese stories. Japanese myths, as recognized in the mainstream today, are based on the Kojiki, the Nihon Shoki. The Kojiki, or Record of Ancient Matters, is the oldest surviving account of Japans myths, legends, the Shintōshū describes the origins of Japanese deities from a Buddhist perspective, while the Hotsuma Tsutae records a substantially different version of the mythology. One notable feature of Japanese mythology is its explanation of the origin of the Imperial Family, the title of the Emperor of Japan, tennō, means heavenly sovereign. Later, the seven generations of kami, known as Kamiyonanayo, emerged, following the formation of heaven and earth. The first two generations are individual deities called hitorigami, while the five that followed came into being as male/female pairs of kami, in this chronicle, the Kamiyonanayo comprise 12 deities in total. Japans creation narrative can be divided into the birth of the deities, to help them to achieve this, Izanagi and Izanami were given a naginata decorated with jewels, named Ame-no-nuboko. The two deities then went to the bridge between heaven and earth, Amenoukihashi and churned the sea below with the halberd, drops of salty water formed the island, Onogoro. The deities descended from the bridge of heaven and made their home on the island, eventually, they fell in love and wished to mate. So they built a pillar called Amenomihashira around which they built a palace called Yashirodono, Izanagi and Izanami circled the pillar in opposite directions, and when they met on the other side, Izanami, the female deity, spoke first in greeting. Izanagi didnt think that this was proper, but they mated anyway and they had two children, Hiruko and Awashima, but the children were badly formed and are not considered gods in their original form. The parents, who were dismayed at their misfortune, put the children into a boat and sent them to sea, so Izanagi and Izanami went around the pillar again, and this time, when they met, Izanagi spoke first. Izanami died giving birth to Kagutsuchi, also called Homusubi due to severe burns and she was then buried on Mount Hiba, at the border of the old provinces of Izumo and Hoki, near modern-day Yasugi of Shimane Prefecture. His death also created dozens of deities, the gods who were born from Izanagi and Izanami are symbolic aspects of nature and culture. Izanagi lamented the death of Izanami and undertook a journey to Yomi, Izanagi found little difference between Yomi and the land above, except for the eternal darkness. However, this suffocating darkness was enough to make him ache for light, quickly, he searched for Izanami and found her. At first, Izanagi could not see her for she was hidden in the shadows
7.
Shinto shrine
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A Shinto shrine is a structure whose main purpose is to house one or more Shinto kami. Its most important building is used for the safekeeping of sacred objects, structurally, a Shinto shrine is usually characterized by the presence of a honden or sanctuary, where the kami is enshrined. The honden may however be completely absent, as for example when the stands on a sacred mountain to which it is dedicated. There may be a haiden and other structures as well, however, a shrines most important building is used for the safekeeping of sacred objects rather than for worship. Miniature shrines can occasionally be found on roadsides, large shrines sometimes have on their precincts miniature shrines. The portable shrines which are carried on poles during festivals enshrine kami and are therefore true shrines. in 927 CE and this work listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined Kami. Certainly, that number has grown and greatly exceeded this figure through the following generations, in Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan placed the number of shrines at 79,467, mostly affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines. Some shrines, such as the Yasukuni Shrine are totally independent of any outside authority, the number of Shinto shrines in Japan is estimated to be around 100,000. This figure may, or may not, include private shrines in homes and owned by groups, abandoned or derelict shrines. Ancestors are kami to be worshiped, yayoi-period village councils sought the advice of ancestors and other kami, and developed instruments to evoke them. Yoshishiro means approach substitute and were conceived to attract the kami to allow them physical space, village-council sessions were held in quiet spots in the mountains or in forests near great trees or other natural objects that served as yorishiro. These sacred places and their yorishiro gradually evolved into todays shrines, whose origins can be seen in the Japanese words for mountain and forest. Many shrines have on their grounds one of the original great yorishiro, the first buildings at places dedicated to worship were surely huts built to house some yorishiro. A trace of this origin can be found in the term hokura, deity storehouse, which evolved into hokora, true shrines arose with the beginning of agriculture, when the need arose to attract kami to ensure good harvests. These were, however, just temporary structures built for a particular purpose, Ōmiwa Shrine in Nara, for example, contains no sacred images or objects because it is believed to serve the mountain on which it stands. Those images or objects are therefore unnecessary, for the same reason, it has a worship hall but no place to house the kami. Archeology confirms that, during the Yayoi period, the most common shintai in the earliest shrines were nearby mountain peaks that supplied water to the plains where people lived. Besides the already mentioned Ōmiwa Shrine, another important example is Mount Nantai, significantly, the name Nantai means mans body
8.
Ichinomiya
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Ichinomiya is a historical term referring to the Japanese Shinto shrines with the highest shrine rank in a province or prefecture. Most of the old provinces of Japan had one or more ichinomiya, Shrines of the lower rank are called ninomiya, sannomiya, shinomiya, and so forth. Ichinomiya developed from the system of classification and ranking of shrines within a province, list of Shinto shrines Modern system of ranked Shinto Shrines Twenty-Two Shrines Sannomiya Kokubunji Fuchū National Association of Ichinomiya
9.
Twenty-Two Shrines
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The Twenty-Two Shrines of Japan is one ranking system for Shinto shrines. The system was established during the Heian period, the shrines listed below receive special offerings from the Imperial Court. Most were selected from shrines that were in the vicinity of Kyoto. In 965, Emperor Murakami ordered that Imperial messengers were sent to important events to the guardian kami of Japan. These heihaku were presented to 16 shrines,1, in 991, Emperor Ichijō added three more shrines to Murakamis list—17. Kitano, and two more were added three years later in 994, —20, in 1039, Emperor Go-Suzaku ordered that one more shrine be added to this list,22. Hie, and this number of Imperial-designated shrines has not been altered since that time. Near the end of the Heian period, there was a movement to add Itsukushima Shrine to the list, however, until the end of the Muromachi period, the Imperial Court made offerings to it, and in the Edo period, offerings were again made after disasters occurred. When the Nijūni-sha are considered as a set, they are conventionally presented in order of rank. The three rank ranked groupings originally derived from an array of Heian geopolitical relationships. Note, At the time when the Nijunisha were chosen, the current Niukawakami Nakasha was the only Niukawakami Shrine and it became the middle shrine only after the shrine in Shimoichi and Kawakami were united with it. List of Shinto shrines List of Jingū Ichinomiya Breen, John, Shinto in History, Ways of the Kami
10.
Modern system of ranked Shinto shrines
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The modern system of ranked Shinto shrines (sometimes called simply shakaku, was an organizational aspect of the establishment of Japanese State Shinto. This system classified Shinto shrines as either official government shrines or other shrines, some shrines are the first shrines called ichinomiya that have the highest rank in their respective provinces of Japan. In 1871, an Imperial decree established a ranking of Shinto shrines. These rankings were set aside in 1946, when such rankings were deemed State Shinto by the Occupation Shinto Directive, the Jinja Honcho currently has a slightly different List of Special Shrines. In 1871, the Kanpei-sha identified the hierarchy of government-supported shrines most closely associated with the Imperial family, the kampeisha were shrines venerated by the imperial family. This category encompasses those sanctuaries enshrining emperors, imperial family members, the most highly ranked Imperial shrines or Kanpei-taisha encompassed 67 sanctuaries. The mid-range of ranked Imperial shrines or Kanpei-chūsha included 23 sanctuaries, the lowest ranked among the Imperial shrines or Kanpei-shōsha were five sanctuaries. In addition to the officially ranked Imperial shrines, there were also shrines at which the kami of emperors were venerated. The Kokuhei-sha identified the hierarchy of government-supported shrines with national significance, the kokuheisha enshrined kami considered beneficial to more local areas. The most highly ranked, nationally significant shrines or Kokuhei Taisha were six sanctuaries, the mid-range of ranked, nationally significant shrines or Kokuhei Chūsha encompassed 47 sanctuaries. The lowest ranked, nationally significant shrines or Kokuhei Shōsha includes 50 sanctuaries, List of Shinto shrines Twenty-Two Shrines Setsumatsusha
11.
Association of Shinto Shrines
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The Association of Shinto Shrines is a religious administrative organisation that oversees about 80,000 Shinto shrines in Japan. These shrines take the Ise Grand Shrine as the foundation of their belief and it currently has an administrative structure including a main office and branches. Its headquarters in Yoyogi, Shibuya, Tokyo, adjacent to Meiji Shrine and its leadership includes the Sosai, the head priestess of the Ise Shrine, presently Atsuko Ikeda. The tōri is Kuniaki Kuni, and the post of sōchō or Secretary-General is currently held by Masami Yatabe, the Association maintains regional offices in every prefecture. They handle financial and personnel matters for member shrines, the Association was established following the Surrender of Japan at the end of World War II. On 15 December 1945, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers issued the Shinto Directive and this article incorporates material in 神社本庁 in the Japanese Wikipedia, retrieved on January 27,2008
12.
Shinto architecture
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Shinto architecture is the architecture of Japanese Shinto shrines. With a few exceptions, the blueprint of a Shinto shrine is Buddhist in origin. Before Buddhism, shrines were just temporary structures erected to a particular purpose, Buddhism brought to Japan the idea of permanent shrines and much of Shinto architectures vocabulary. The presence of verandas, stone lanterns, and elaborate gates are examples of this influence, the composition of a Shinto shrine is extremely variable, and none of its possible features are necessarily present. Even the honden or sanctuary, the part which houses the kami, however, since its grounds are sacred, they usually are surrounded by a fence made of stone or wood called tamagaki, while access is made possible by an approach called sandō. The entrances themselves are straddled by gates called torii, which are therefore the simplest way to identify a Shinto shrine, a shrine may include within its grounds several structures, each destined to a different purpose. The honden is the building contains the shintai, literally. Of these, only the haiden is open to the laity, the honden is located behind the haiden and is usually much smaller and unadorned. Other notable shrine features are the temizuya, the fountain where visitors cleanse their hands and mouth and the shamusho, the office that supervises the shrine. Shrines can be large, as for example Ise Shrine, or as small as a beehive, as in the case of the hokora. Before the forced separation of Shinto and Buddhism, it was not uncommon for a Buddhist temple to be built inside or next to a shrine or to the contrary for a shrine to include Buddhist subtemples. If a shrine was also a Buddhist temple, it was called a jingu-ji, at the same time, temples in the entire country adopted tutelary kami (chinju and built temple shrines called chinjusha to house them. The practice of marking sacred areas began in Japan as early as the Yayoi period originating from primal Shinto tenets. Features in the such as rocks, waterfalls, islands, and especially mountains, were places believed to be capable of attracting kami. Originally, sacred places may have been marked with a surrounding fence. Later, temporary buildings similar to present day portable shrines were constructed to welcome the gods to the sacred place, over time the temporary structures evolved into permanent structures that were dedicated to the gods. Ancient shrines were constructed according to the style of dwellings or storehouses, the buildings had gabled roofs, raised floors, plank walls, and were thatched with reed or covered with hinoki cypress bark. Such early shrines did not include a space for worship, according to the tradition of Shikinen sengū-sai, the buildings or shrines were faithfully rebuilt at regular intervals adhering to the original design
13.
Amaterasu
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Amaterasu, Amaterasu-ōmikami or Ōhirume-no-muchi-no-kami is a part of the Japanese myth cycle and also a major deity of the Shinto religion. She is seen as the goddess of the sun, but also of the universe, the name Amaterasu derived from Amateru means shining in heaven. The meaning of her name, Amaterasu-ōmikami, is the great august kami who shines in the heaven. According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in Japanese mythology, the Emperors of Japan are considered to be descendants of Amaterasu. Amaterasu appears to be the Japanese expression of a historical pan-Asiatic solar goddess, another possible expression is the Chinese Xihe. The oldest tales of Amaterasu come from the ca.712 A. D. Kojiki, Nihon Shoki, the oldest records of Japanese history. In Japanese mythology, Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, is the sister of Susanoo, the god of storms and the sea, and of Tsukuyomi and it was written that Amaterasu had painted the landscape with her siblings to create ancient Japan. All three were born from Izanagi when he was purifying himself after entering Yomi, the underworld, Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susanoo from the washing of the nose. She became the ruler of the sun and the heavens along with her brother, Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon and ruler of the night. Originally, Amaterasu shared the sky with Tsukuyomi, her husband and brother until, out of disgust, he killed the goddess of food, Uke Mochi, when she pulled food from her rectum, nose, and mouth. This killing upset Amaterasu causing her to label Tsukuyomi an evil god and split away from him, the texts also tell of a long-standing rivalry between Amaterasu and her other brother, Susanoo. When he was to leave Heaven by orders of Izanagi, he went to bid his sister goodbye, Amaterasu was suspicious, but when Susanoo proposed a challenge to prove his sincerity, she accepted. Each of them took an object of the others and from it birthed gods, Amaterasu birthed three women from Susanoos sword while he birthed five men from her necklace. Claiming the gods were hers because they were born of her necklace, Amaterasu, who was in fury and grief, hid inside the Ama-no-Iwato, thus effectively hiding the sun for a long period of time. Though she was persuaded to leave the cave, Susanoo was punished by being banished from Heaven, both later amended their conflict when Susanoo gave her the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi sword as a reconciliation gift. When they both reconciled the moon became visible, according to legend, Amaterasu bequeathed to her descendant Ninigi, the mirror, Yata no Kagami, the jewel, Yasakani no Magatama, and the sword, Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi. This sacred mirror, jewel, and sword collectively became the three Imperial Regalia of Japan, the Ise Shrine located in Ise, Honshū, Japan houses the inner shrine, Naiku, dedicated to Amaterasu. Her sacred mirror, Yata no Kagami, is said to be kept at this shrine as one of the Imperial Regalia of Japan, at this shrine, a ceremony known as Shikinen Sengu is held every 20 years to honor Amaterasu
14.
Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto
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Ame-no-Uzume-no-mikoto is the goddess of dawn, mirth and revelry in the Shinto religion of Japan, and the wife of fellow-god Sarutahiko Ōkami. She famously relates to the tale of the sun deity. Her name can also be pronounced as Ama-no-Uzume and she is also known as Ōmiyanome-no-ōkami, an inari kami possibly due to her relationship with her husband. Amaterasus brother, the storm god Susanoo, had vandalized her rice fields, threw a flayed horse at her loom, in turn, Amaterasu became furious with him and retreated into the Heavenly Rock Cave, Amano-Iwato. The world, without the illumination of the sun, became dark, the clever Uzume overturned a tub near the cave entrance and began a dance on it, tearing off her clothing in front of the other deities. They considered this so comical that they laughed heartily at the sight and this dance is said to have founded the Japanese ritual dance, Kagura. Uzume had hung a mirror and a beautiful jewel of polished jade. Amaterasu heard them, and peered out to see all the fuss was about. When she opened the cave, she saw the jewel and her glorious reflection in a mirror which Uzume had placed on a tree, at that moment, the god Ame-no-Tajikarawo-no-mikoto dashed forth and closed the cave behind her, refusing to budge so that she could no longer retreat. Another god tied a magic shimenawa across the entrance, the deities Ame-no-Koyane-no-mikoto and Ame-no-Futodama-no-mikoto then asked Amaterasu to rejoin the divine. She agreed, and light was restored to the earth, Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto is still worshiped today as a Shinto kami, spirits indigenous to Japan. She is also known as Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto, The Great Persuader, and she is depicted in kyōgen farce as Okame, a woman who revels in her sensuality. Music, Ame-no-Uzume Op.4 composed by Hiroaki Zakōji Littleton, mythology, The Illustrated Anthology of World Myth and Storytelling. A substantial article on this subject Amaterasu and Uzume, Goddesses of Japan, at Goddess Gift A one-paragraph glossary entry in Italian
15.
Izanagi
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Izanagi is a deity born of the seven divine generations in Japanese mythology and Shinto, and his name in the Kojiki is roughly translated to as he-who-invites or Izanagi-no-mikoto. He is also known as Izanagi-no-Okami and he with his spouse and younger sister Izanami gave birth to the many islands of Japan, and begat numerous deities of Shintoism. But she died giving birth to the fire-god Kagu-tsuchi. Izanagi executed the fire god with the ten-grasp sword, afterwards, he paid his wife a visit in Yomi-no-kuni in the hopes of retrieving her. But she had partaken of food cooked in the furnace of the Underworld, Izanagi betrayed his promise not to look at her, and lit up a fire, only to behold her in her monstrous and hellish state. To avenge her shame, she dispatched the lightning god Yakusa no ikazuchi no kami, Izanagi escaped, but the goddess declared to kill a thousand of his people every day. Izanagi retorted that a thousand and five hundred will be every day. In the cleansing rite after his return, he beget Amaterasu from his eye, Tsukuyomi from his right eye. There is also an odd resemblance to the myth of Adam and Eve, while one of Chinas Four Great Folktales, Baishe Zhuan, Izanagi Boom, a period of high economic growth in Japan in the second half of the 1960s. The name of this deity appears incorrectly spelled as Izagi in Puccinis opera Madama Butterfly, Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukuyomi and Susanoo are various eye techniques of the Uchiha clan in the Japanese manga Naruto. Izanagi being a technique that can undo a path, in exchange of an eye, Izanami traps a target in an infinite loop, in exchange of an eye. Amaterasu is a flame technique. Tsukuyomi is a technique and Susanoo is an armored entity that acts as the eye holders armor. Izanagi is also the name of a character in the anime Mai-HiME, Izanagi is a Monster Card in the popular Trading Card Game, Yugioh. In the anime Darker than BLACK season 2, Izanagi is referenced multiple times, Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukuyomi and Susanoo appear as characters in the video game Ōkami. Izanagi is also manifested as a persona for the protagonist in the popular Japanese role playing game, Shin Megami Tensei, Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukuyomi and Susanoo appear as characters in the video game Puzzle and Dragons. In Nurarihyon no Mago, Sennen Makyou, Kanzen naru fusei, Izanagi is a used by Awashima. Izanagi is a name of a corporation appearing in the Unreal series, Izanagi is also a card from the Kojiki series
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Izanami-no-Mikoto
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In Japanese mythology, Izanami-no-Mikoto is a goddess of both creation and death, as well as the former wife of the god Izanagi-no-Mikoto. She is also referred to as Izanami-no-kami, the first gods Kunitokotachi and Amenominakanushi summoned two divine beings into existence, the male Izanagi and the female Izanami, and charged them with creating the first land. To help them do this, Izanagi and Izanami were given a spear decorated with jewels, the two deities then went to the bridge between heaven and earth, Ame-no-ukihashi, and churned the sea below with the spear. When drops of salty water fell from the spear, Onogoroshima was created and they descended from the bridge of heaven and made their home on the island. Eventually they wished to be mated, so built a pillar called Ame-no-mihashira. Izanagi and Izanami circled the pillar in opposite directions and, when they met on the other side, Izanagi did not think that this was proper, but they mated anyhow. They had two children, Hiruko and Awashima, but they were born deformed and were not considered deities and they put the children into a boat and set them out to sea, then petitioned the other gods for an answer as to what they did wrong. They were told that the male deity should have spoken first in greeting during the marriage ceremony, so Izanagi and Izanami went around the pillar again, this time Izanagi speaking first when they met, and their marriage was finally successful. They bore six more islands and many deities, Izanami died giving birth to the child Kagu-Tsuchi or Ho-Masubi. She was then buried on Mt. Hiba, at the border of the old provinces of Izumo and Hōki, Izanagi was so angry at the death of his wife that he killed the newborn child, thereby creating dozens of deities. The Kojiki talks of the death of Izanami and her tomb and it implies that Izanami transferred her soul to an animal and a human before her death, but does not state whether or not Izanami had incarnations. Izanagi-no-Mikoto lamented the death of Izanami-no-Mikoto and undertook a journey to Yomi and he searched for Izanami-no-Mikoto and found her. At first, Izanagi-no-Mikoto could not see her for the shadows hid her appearance and he asked her to return with him. Izanami-no-Mikoto informed Izanagi-no-Mikoto that he was too late and she had already eaten the food of the underworld and was now one with the land of the dead. She could no longer return to the living but would go and try, the news shocked Izanagi-no-Mikoto, but he refused to leave her in Yomi. While Izanami-no-Mikoto was sleeping, he took the comb that bound his long hair, under the sudden burst of light, he saw the horrid form of the once beautiful and graceful Izanami-no-Mikoto. She was now a form of flesh with maggots and foul creatures running over her ravaged body. Crying out loud, Izanagi-no-Mikoto could no longer control his fear and started to run, intending to return to the living, Izanami-no-Mikoto woke up, shrieking and indignant, and chased after him
17.
Susanoo-no-Mikoto
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Susanoo, also known as Takehaya Susanoo-no-Mikoto and Kumano Ketsumiko no kami at Kumano shrine, is the Shinto god of the sea and storms. He is also considered to be ruler of Neno-Katasu-Kuni, in Japanese mythology, Susanoo, the powerful storm god of Summer, is the brother of Amaterasu, the goddess of the Sun, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the Moon. All three were born from Izanagi, when he washed his face clean of the pollutants of Yomi, Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susanoo from the washing of the nose. Susanoo used Totsuka-no-Tsurugi as his weapon, the oldest sources for Susanoo myths are the ca.712 CE Kojiki and ca.720 CE Nihon Shoki. They tell of a rivalry between Susanoo and his sister. When he was to leave Heaven by orders of Izanagi, he went to bid his sister goodbye, Amaterasu was suspicious, but when Susanoo proposed a challenge to prove his sincerity, she accepted. Each of them took an object of the others and from it birthed gods, Amaterasu birthed three women from Susanoos Totsuka-no-Tsurugi while he birthed five men from her necklace. Claiming the gods were hers because they were born of her necklace, the two were content for a time, but Susanoo, the Storm God, became restless. In a fit of rage, he destroyed his sisters rice fields, hurled a flayed pony at her loom, Amaterasu, who was in fury and grief, hid inside the Ama-no-Iwato, thus effectively hiding the sun for a long period of time. Though she was persuaded to leave the cave, Susano-o was punished by being banished from Heaven, the Nihon Shoki, here translated by William George Aston in Nihongi, gives the most detailed account of Susanoo and Amaterasu slaying Yamata no Orochi. At this time he heard a sound of weeping at the head-waters of the river and he found there an old man and an old woman. Between them was set a young girl, whom they were caressing and lamenting over, Susanoo no Mikoto asked them, saying, -Who are ye, and why do ye lament thus. The answer was, -I am an Earthly Deity, and my name is Ashi-nadzuchi and this girl is our daughter, and her name is Kushi-nada-hime. The reason of our weeping is that formerly we had eight children, but they have been devoured year after year by an eight-forked serpent and now the time approaches for this girl to be devoured. There is no means of escape for her, and therefore do we grieve. ”Sosa no wo no Mikoto said, If that is so and he replied, and said, I will comply with thy behest and give her to thee. Therefore Sosa no wo no Mikoto on the spot changed Kushi-nada-hime into a many-toothed close-comb which he stuck in the august knot of his hair. Then he made Ashi-nadzuchi and Te-nadzuchi to brew sake, to make eight cupboards, in each of them to set a tub filled with sake. When the time came, the serpent actually appeared and it had an eight-forked head and an eight-forked tail, its eyes were red, like the winter-cherry, and on its back firs and cypresses were growing
18.
Tsukuyomi-no-Mikoto
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Tsukuyomi-no-Mikoto or Tsukiyomi, is the moon god in Shinto and Japanese mythology. The -no-mikoto ending is an honorific suffix for the names of gods, of similar meaning to the grand, the great. The name Tsukuyomi is a compound of the Old Japanese words tsuku, the Nihon Shoki mentions this name spelled as Tsukuyumi, but this yumi is likely a variation in pronunciation of yomi. An alternate interpretation is that his name is a combination of tsukiyo, unlike the myths of ancient Greece or Rome, the Japanese moon deity is male. This is clear in the earliest mentions in sources such as the Kojiki and the Manyōshū, Tsukuyomi was born when he washed out of Izanagis right eye. However, in a story, Tsukuyomi was born from a mirror made of white copper in Izanagis right hand. After climbing a ladder, Tsukuyomi lived in the heavens, also known as Takamagahara, with his sister Amaterasu Ōmikami, the sun goddess. Tsukuyomi angered Amaterasu when he killed Uke Mochi, the goddess of food, Amaterasu once sent Tsukuyomi to represent her at a feast presented by Uke Mochi. The goddess created the food by turning to the ocean and spitting out a fish, then facing a forest and spitting out game, and finally turning to a rice paddy and coughing up a bowl of rice. Tsukuyomi was utterly disgusted by the fact that, although it looked exquisite, the meal was made in a disgusting manner, and so he killed her. Soon, Amaterasu learned what happened and she was so angry that she refused to look at Tsukuyomi again. This is the reason that day and night are never together, in later versions of this myth, Uke Mochi is killed by Susanoo instead. Media related to Tsukuyomi-no-Mikoto at Wikimedia Commons
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Kojiki
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Kojiki, also known as Furukotofumi, is the oldest extant chronicle in Japan, dating from the early 8th century and composed by Ō no Yasumaro at the request of Empress Genmei. The Kojiki is a collection of myths concerning the origin of the four islands of Japan. Along with the Nihon Shoki, the contained in the Kojiki are part of the inspiration behind many practices. Later, the myths were re-appropriated for Shinto practices including the misogi purification ritual, while the historical records and myths are written in a form of Chinese with a heavy mixture of Japanese elements, the songs are written with Chinese characters that are only used to convey sounds. This special use of Chinese characters is called Manyōgana, a knowledge of which is critical to understanding these songs, the Kojiki is divided into three parts, the Kamitsumaki, the Nakatsumaki and the Shimotsumaki. The Kamitsumaki also outlines the myths concerning the foundation of Japan, the Nakatsumaki begins with the story of Emperor Jimmu, the first Emperor, and his conquest of Japan, and ends with the 15th Emperor, Emperor Ōjin. Many of the stories in this volume are mythological, and the historical information in them is highly suspect. Recent studies support the view that these emperors were invented to push Jimmus reign further back to the year 660 BC, the Shimotsumaki covers the 16th to 33rd emperors and, unlike previous volumes, has very limited references to the interactions with deities. These interactions are very prominent in the first and second volumes, information about the 24th to the 33rd emperors are largely missing, as well. In the Edo period, Motoori Norinaga studied the Kojiki intensively and he produced a 44-volume study of the Kojiki called Kojiki-den. A translation of the Ko-ji-ki or Records of ancient matters, yokohama, Japan, R. Meiklejohn and Co. Princeton University Press and Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, the Kojiki, An Account of Ancient Matters. There are two branches of Kojiki manuscripts, Ise and Urabe. The extant Urabe branch consists of 36 existing manuscripts all based on the 1522 copies by Urabe Kanenaga, the Ise branch may be subdivided into the Shinpukuji-bon manuscript of 1371–1372 and the Dōka-bon manuscripts. While divided into the Ise branch, it is actually a mixture of the two branches, the monk Kenyu based his copy on Ōnakatomi Sadayos copy. In 1266, Sadayo copied volumes one and three, but did not have access to the second volume, finally, in 1282, he obtained access to the second volume through a Urabe-branch manuscript that he used to transcribe. Historiographical Institute of the University of Tokyo International Research Center for Japanese Studies Japanese Historical Text Initiative Historiography of Japan Bentley, the Authenticity of Sendai Kuji Hongi, A New Examination of Texts, With a Translation And Commentary. Japanese historians and the myths, 1600-1945, The Age of the Gods
20.
Nihon Shoki
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The Nihon Shoki, sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. The book is called the Nihongi. The Nihon Shoki was finished in 720 under the supervision of Prince Toneri. It is believed to record accurately the latter reigns of Emperor Tenji, Emperor Tenmu, the Nihon Shoki focuses on the merits of the virtuous rulers as well as the errors of the bad rulers. It describes episodes from mythological eras and diplomatic contacts with other countries, the Nihon Shoki was written in classical Chinese, as was common for official documents at that time. The Kojiki, on the hand, is written in a combination of Chinese. The Nihon Shoki also contains numerous transliteration notes telling the reader how words were pronounced in Japanese, collectively, the stories in this book and the Kojiki are referred to as the Kiki stories. The tale of Urashima Tarō is developed from the mention in Nihon Shoki that a certain child of Urashima visited Horaisan. The later tale has plainly incorporated elements from the famous anecdote of Luck of the Sea, the later developed Urashima tale contains the Rip Van Winkle motif, so some may consider it an early example of fictional time travel. Chapter 01, Kami no Yo no Kami no maki, Chapter 02, Kami no Yo no Shimo no maki. Chapter 03, Kanyamato Iwarebiko no Sumeramikoto, Chapter 04, Kamu Nunakawamimi no Sumeramikoto. Yamato Tarashihiko Kuni Oshihito no Sumeramikoto, Chapter 05, Mimaki Iribiko Iniye no Sumeramikoto. Chapter 06, Ikume Iribiko Isachi no Sumeramikoto, Chapter 07, Ōtarashihiko Oshirowake no Sumeramikoto. Chapter 08, Tarashi Nakatsuhiko no Sumeramikoto, Chapter 09, Okinaga Tarashihime no Mikoto. Chapter 13, Oasazuma Wakugo no Sukune no Sumeramikoto, Chapter 14, Ōhatsuse no Waka Takeru no Sumeramikoto. Chapter 15, Shiraka no Take Hirokuni Oshi Waka Yamato Neko no Sumeramikoto, Chapter 16, Ohatsuse no Waka Sasagi no Sumeramikoto. Chapter 18, Hirokuni Oshi Take Kanahi no Sumeramikoto, Take Ohirokuni Oshi Tate no Sumeramikoto. Chapter 19, Amekuni Oshiharaki Hironiwa no Sumeramikoto, Chapter 20, Nunakakura no Futo Tamashiki no Sumeramikoto
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Fudoki
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Fudoki are ancient reports on provincial culture, geography, and oral tradition presented to the reigning monarchs of Japan, also known as local gazetteers. They contain agricultural, geographical, and historical records as well as mythology, in the narrower sense, Fudoki refer to the oldest records written in the Nara period, later called Kofudoki. Compilation of Kofudoki began in 713 and was completed over a 20-year period, following the Taika Reform in 646 and the Code of Taihō enacted in 701, there was need to centralize and solidify the power of the imperial court. This included accounting for lands under its control, for example, Hayatsuhime became Hayami and Ishinashi no Oki became Ishii. At least 48 of the Gokishichidō provinces contributed to their records, partial records of Hizen, Bungo, Harima and Hitachi remain and a few passages from various volumes remain scattered throughout various books. Those of Harima and Hizen are designated National Treasures, below is a list of extant manuscripts and scattered passages. In 1966 the Agency for Cultural Affairs called on the governments to build open-air museums and parks called Fudoki no Oka near historic sites such as tombs. These archaeological museums preserve and exhibit cultural properties to public understanding of provincial history. Japanese Historical Text Initiative Akimoto, Kichirō, Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei 2, Fudoki. Zusetsu Chizu to Arasuji de Wakaru, kojima, Noriyuki, Naoki, Kōjirō, Nishimiya, Kazutami, Kuranaka, Susumu, Mōri, Masamori, Uegaki, Setsuya. Nihon no Koten wo Yomu 3 Nihon Shoki Ge • Fudoki, 風土記 texts of the remaining Fudoki & scattered passages in other books. Manuscript scans at Waseda University Library, Hizen,1800, Bungo,1800, Bungo, unknown Tsukamoto, Tetsuzō
22.
Kujiki
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Kujiki, or Sendai Kuji Hongi, is a historical Japanese text. Ten volumes in length, it covers the history of ancient Japan through Empress Suiko, the preface is supposedly written by Soga no Umako. While it includes quotes from Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, volumes five. The overall composition is considered as having compiled between 807 and 936. In a review for Monumenta Nipponica, Mark Teeuwen criticized Bentleys methodology, the Authenticity of Sendai Kuji Hongi, A New Examination of Texts, With a Translation and Commentary. 平成13年 私本 先代舊事本紀 Online text of Kujiki, 『先代旧事本紀』の現代語訳（ＨＩＳＡＳＨＩ） Online text of Kujiki in modern Japanese. 古代史最前線・白河本旧事紀研究会公式ホームページ Website support Shirakawahon Kujiki to be a true document
23.
Religion in Japan
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Religion in Japan is dominated by Shinto and by Buddhist schools and organisations. 3% are Christians. In 2009, a survey showed that over half the Japanese families had a butsudan or Buddhist altar in their homes. In 2009 data from the Agency of Cultural Affairs stated that there were 89 million Buddhists in Japan, in 2011, after the Tsunami, it was reported that 90% of the Japanese identified as Buddhist or Shinto or a combination of both. Most of the Japanese pray and worship ancestors and gods at Shinto shrines or private altars and this is because these terms have little meaning for the majority of the Japanese, or they define membership in Shinto organisations or sects. The term religion itself in Japanese culture defines only organised religions, people who identify as non-religious in surveys actually mean that they do not belong to any religious organisation, even though they may take part in Shinto rituals and worship. Scholars Isomae Junichi and Jason Ānanda Josephson have challenged the usefulness of the religion in regard to Japanese traditions. They have shown that the Japanese term and concept of religion is an invention of the 19th century, Shinto, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous religion of Japan and the people of Japan. It is defined as a religion, focused on ritual practices to be carried out diligently. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the historical records of the Kojiki. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified Shinto religion, practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods. The word Shinto was adopted, originally as Shindo, from the written Chinese Shendao, the oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century. Kami are defined in English as spirits, essences or gods, kami and people are not separate, they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity. Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, Shinto has 100,000 shrines and 78,890 priests in the country. These new religions also provided cohesion through a unified doctrine and practice shared by the nationwide community, the officially recognized new religions number in the hundreds, and total membership is reportedly in the tens of millions. The largest new religion is Soka Gakkai, a Buddhist sect founded in 1930, scholars in Japan have estimated that between 10% and 20% of the population belongs to the new religions, although more realistic estimates put the number at well below the 10% mark. As of 2007, there are 223,831 priests and leaders of the new religions in Japan, many of these new religions are Shinto-derived and retain the fundamental characters of Shinto, often identifying themselves as forms of Shinto. These include Tenrikyo, Konkokyo, Omotokyo, Shinrikyo, Shinreikyo, Sekai Shindokyo, Zenrinkyo, others are independent new religions, including Aum Shinrikyo, Mahikari movements, the Church of Perfect Liberty, Seicho-no-Ie, the Church of World Messianity, and others. Buddhism first arrived in Japan in the 6th century, it was introduced in the year 538 or 552 from the kingdom of Baekje in Korea, the Baekje king sent the Japanese emperor a picture of the Buddha and some sutras
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Glossary of Shinto
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This is the glossary of Shinto, including major terms the casual reader might find useful in understanding articles on the subject. Words followed by an asterisk are illustrated by an image in one of the photo galleries, within definitions, words set in boldface are defined elsewhere in the glossary. The terms meaning is not limited to moral evil, and includes misfortune, inferiority. Amaterasu Ōmikami - The Sun Goddess, tutelary kami and ancestor of the Emperor, an* - a small table or platform used during Shinto ceremonies to bear offerings. It may have four, eight or sixteen legs, anzen - Safety, particularly safety at work, frequently requested from a kami, and in fact corporations often have a tutelary shrine specifically to ensure their business prospers. Aramitama - The rough and violent side of a spirit, bekkū or betsugū - Subsidiary shrine next to the honden, which may however enshrine an equally important kami. Benzaiten - Originally Buddhist goddess Sarasvati, now a syncretic goddess member of the seven lucky gods, bettō - before the shinbutsu bunri, when the Meiji period law forbade the mixing of Shinto and Buddhism, a bettō was a monk who performed Buddhist rites at a Shinto shrine. Bishamonten - Syncretic deity of Buddhist origin part of the Seven Lucky Gods, a symbol of authority, he protects warriors. Bon Matsuri - a festival celebrated around July 15 in order to console the spirits of the dead, in theory a Buddhist festival, but in practice an ancestor and family festival part of Shinto. Bunrei - process of division of a kami producing two complete copies of the original, one of which is transferred to a new shrine through a process called kanjō. Bunsha - Shrine part of a network headed by a famous shrine, butsudan - Buddhist altar found in Japanese homes enshrining a familys ancestors. Chigi* - Forked decorations common at the ends of the roof of shrines, chinju - the tutelary kami or tutelary shrine of a certain area or Buddhist temple. Chinjusha* - a small shrine dedicated to the kami of an area or building. Chōchin - paper lanterns always present at Shinto festivals chōzuya - see temizuya, daijōsai - Ceremony marking the beginning of an Emperors reign in which he offers first fruits to ancestors, including Amaterasu. The Emperor then shares a meal with the goddess, Daikokuten - syncretic god part of the seven lucky gods fusing Buddhist god Mahakala and kami Ōkuninushi. Dōsojin - group of kami and Buddhist gods protectors of roads, borders, ebisu - god of prosperity found at both temples and shrines. One of the Seven Lucky Gods. ema* - small wooden plaques on which worshipers at shrines, as well as Buddhist temples, fuji - The most famous among Japans sacred mountains, it is inhabited by a kami called Konohanasakuya-hime. Fukkō Shintō - name synonymous with kokugaku, go-hei* - also called onbe or heisoku
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Buddhism in Japan
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Buddhism has been practiced in Japan since its official introduction in 552 AD according to the Nihon Shoki from Baekje, Korea by Buddhist monks. Though some Chinese sources place the first spreading of the religion earlier during the Kofun period, Buddhism has had a major influence on the development of Japanese society and remains an influential aspect of the culture to this day. In modern times, Japans most popular schools of Buddhism are Pure Land Buddhism, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon Buddhism, as of 2008 approximately 34% of the Japanese identify as Buddhists and the number has been growing since the 1980s. In 2009, a survey showed that over half the Japanese families had a butsudan or Buddhist altar in their homes. In 2009 data from the Agency of Cultural Affairs stated that there were 89 million Buddhists in Japan, in 2011, after the Tsunami, it was reported that 90% of the Japanese identified as Buddhist or Shinto or a combination of both. In 2013, official said there were over 87 million Buddhists in Japan. The arrival of Buddhism in Japan is ultimately a consequence of the first contacts between China and Central Asia, where Buddhism had spread from the Indian subcontinent. These contacts occurred with the opening of the Silk Road in the 2nd century BC and these contacts culminated with the official introduction of Buddhism in China in 67 CE. Historians generally agree that by the middle of the 1st century, according to the Book of Liang, which was written in 635, five Buddhist monks from Gandhara traveled to Japan in 467. In former times, the people of Fusang knew nothing of the Buddhist religion and they propagated Buddhist doctrine, circulated scriptures and drawings, and advised the people to relinquish worldly attachments. As a result the customs of Fusang changed, the powerful Soga clan played a key role in the early spread of Buddhism in the country. Initial uptake of the new faith was slow, and Buddhism only started to spread some years later when Empress Suiko openly encouraged the acceptance of Buddhism among all Japanese people. On January 15,593, Soga no Umako ordered relics of Buddha deposited inside the stone under the pillar of a pagoda at Asuka-dera. In 607, in order to obtain copies of sutras, an envoy was dispatched to Sui China. As time progressed and the number of Buddhist clergy increased, the offices of Sōjō, by 627, there were 46 Buddhist temples,816 Buddhist priests, and 569 Buddhist nuns in Japan. These were not exclusive schools, and temples were apt to have scholars versed in several of the schools and it has been suggested that they can best be thought of as study groups. This kind of Buddhism had little to offer the illiterate and uneducated masses and their practice was a combination of Buddhist and Daoist elements and the incorporation of shamanistic features of indigenous practices. Some of these figures became popular, and were a source of criticism towards the sophisticated academic and bureaucratic Buddhism of the capital
26.
Edo Neo-Confucianism
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Edo Neo-Confucianism, known in Japanese as Shushi-Gaku, refers to the schools of Neo-Confucian philosophy that developed in Japan during the Edo period. Neo-Confucianism reached Japan during the Kamakura period, the 17th-century Tokugawa shogunate adopted Neo-Confucianism as the principle of controlling people and Confucian philosophy took hold. Neo-Confucians such as Hayashi Razan and Arai Hakuseki were instrumental in the formulation of Japans dominant early modern political philosophy, Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Chinese Tang Dynasty, the Confucianist scholars Han Yu and Li Ao are seen as forebears of the Neo-Confucianists of the Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true pioneer of Neo-Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism and religious Daoism. Although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology, Neo-Confucianism was brought to Japan during the late Kamakura period. Moreover, Neo-Confucianist thought derived from the works of Cheng Yi, Cheng Hao, and Zhu Xi, fujiwaras student, Hayashi Razan, served the Tokugawa shoguns, and through state patronage was able to establish the Shoheiko academy. After the Kansei Edict established Neo-Confucianism as Japans official ideology, the Shoheiko academy became the authority on Confucian orthodoxy. Although heterodox schools of Neo-Confucianism were officially banned, the schools still persisted in Japan, the Japanese philosopher Toju Nakae is one such case, who was more influenced by the heterodox Wang Yang-ming than he was by the orthodox Zhu Xi. The influence of Neo-Confucianism was challenged by the rise of the Kokugaku philosophical school in the 17th and 18th centuries, although philosophical competitors, Kokugaku and Neo-Confucianism would co-exist as the dominant philosophical thought of Japan until the arrival of Western philosophy during the Meiji period. Like Chinese and Korean Confucianism, Edo Neo-Confucianism is a social and ethical philosophy based on metaphysical ideas, the rationalism of Neo-Confucianism is in contrast to the mysticism of the previously dominant Zen Buddhism in Japan. But the spirit of Neo-Confucian rationalism is diametrically opposed to that of Buddhist mysticism, whereas Buddhism insisted on the unreality of things, Neo-Confucianism stressed their reality. Buddhism and Taoism asserted that existence came out of, and returned to, non-existence, buddhists, and to some degree, Taoists as well, relied on meditation and insight to achieve supreme reason, the Neo-Confucianists chose to follow Reason. The social aspects of the philosophy are hierarchical with a focus on filial piety, the samurai were especially avid readers and teachers of Confucian thought in Japan, establishing many Confucian academies. Neo-Confucianism also introduced elements of ethnocentrism into Japan, as the Chinese Neo-Confucians had regarded their own culture as the center of the world, the Japanese Neo-Confucians developed a similar national pride. Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, a Companion to Japanese History, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-9339-9
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State Shinto
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State Shintō describes Empire of Japans ideological use of the native folk traditions of Shinto. The state strongly encouraged Shinto practices to emphasize the Emperor as a divine being and this was exercised through control of finances and training regimes for priests. The State Shinto ideology emerged at the start of the Meiji era, scholars believed that Shinto reflected the historical fact of the Emperors divine origins, not religious belief, and that it should enjoy a privileged relationship with the Japanese state. For the state, Shinto was seen as a moral tradition. Early Meiji-era attempts to unite Shinto and state failed, but this concept of ideological Shinto was incorporated into state bureaucracy. Shrines were defined as patriotic, not religious, institutions, which served state purposes such as honoring the war dead, the state also integrated local shrines into political functions, occasionally spurring local opposition and resentment. With fewer shrines financed by the state, nearly 80,000 closed or merged with neighbors, many shrines and shrine organizations began to independently embrace these state directives, regardless of funding. By 1940, Shinto priests risked persecution for performing traditionally religious Shinto ceremonies, Imperial Japan did not draw a distinction between ideological Shinto and traditional Shinto. US military leaders introduced the term State Shinto to differentiate the states ideology from traditional Shinto practices in the 1945 Shinto Directive and that decree established Shinto as a religion, and banned further ideological uses of Shinto by the state. Controversy continues to surround the use of Shinto symbols in state functions, Shinto is a blend of indigenous Japanese folk practices, court manners, and spirit-worship which dates back to at least 600 AD. These beliefs were first unified as Shinto during the Meiji era, Shinto has no set of doctrines or founder, but draws from a set of creation myths described in books such as the Kojiki. The 1945 Shinto Directive of the United States General Headquarters introduced the State Shinto distinction as it began governing Japan after the world war. The State Shinto term was used to categorize, and abolish. By refusing to ban Shinto practices outright, Japans post-war constitution was thus able to preserve full Freedom of Religion, the definition of State Shinto requires distinction from the term Shinto, which was one aspect of a set of nationalist symbols integrated into the State Shinto ideology. Most generally, State Shinto refers to any use of Shinto practices incorporated into the national ideology during the Meiji period starting in 1868 and it is often described as any state-supported, Shinto-inspired ideology or practice intended to inspire national integration, unity, and loyalty. State Shinto was not a designation for any practice or belief in Imperial Japan during this period. This permitted a form of traditional religious Shinto to reflect a State Shinto position without the control of the state. The extent of support for the actions categorized as State Shinto is the subject of debate
28.
Japanese language
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Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794
29.
Shinto
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Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written historical records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified Shinto religion, practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods. The word Shinto was adopted, originally as Jindō or Shindō, from the written Chinese Shendao, the oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century. Kami are defined in English as spirits, essences or gods, Kami and people are not separate, they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity. Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, Shinto has 81,000 shrines and 85,000 priests in the country. According to Inoue, In modern scholarship, the term is used with reference to kami worship and related theologies, rituals. In these contexts, Shinto takes on the meaning of Japans traditional religion, as opposed to religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Islam. Shinto religious expressions have been distinguished by scholars into a series of categories, Shrine Shinto and it consists in taking part in worship practices and events at local shrines. Before the Meiji Restoration, shrines were disorganized institutions usually attached to Buddhist temples, the current successor to the imperial organization system, the Association of Shinto Shrines, oversees about 80,000 shrines nationwide. Folk Shinto includes the folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, and shamanic healing, some of their practices come from Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism, but most come from ancient local traditions. Sect Shinto is a designation originally created in the 1890s to separate government-owned shrines from local organised religious communities. These communities originated especially in the Edo period, the basic difference between Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto is that sects are a later development and grew self-consciously. They can identify a founder, a set of teachings. Sect Shinto groups are thirteen, and usually classified under five headings, pure Shinto sects, Confucian sects, mountain worship sects, purification sects, and faith-healing sects. Koshintō, literally Old Shinto, is a reconstructed Shinto from before the time of Buddhism, today based on Ainu religion and it continues the restoration movement begun by Hirata Atsutane. Many other sects and schools can be distinguished, Kami or shin is defined in English as god, spirit, spiritual essence, all these terms meaning the energy generating a thing. Since the Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms, rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami
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Japanese clans
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There are ancient-era clan names called Uji-na or Honsei. The Imperial clan - possibly descended from the Five kings of Wa and its emperors and other clan members have no clan name but had been called the royal clan if necessary. Gempeitōkitsu,4 noble clans of Japan, Minamoto clan - also known as Genji,21 cadet branches of Imperial House of Japan, Daigo Genji - descended from 60th emperor Daigo. Go-Daigo Genji - descended from 96th emperor Go-Daigo, Go-Fukakusa Genji - descended from 89th emperor Go-Fukakusa. Go-Nijō Genji - descended from 94th emperor Go-Nijō, Go-Saga Genji - descended from 88th emperor Go-Saga. Go-Sanjō Genji - descended from 71st emperor Go-Sanjō, Go-Shirakawa Genji - descended from 77th emperor Go-Shirakawa. Juntoku Genji - descended from 84th emperor Juntoku, Kameyama Genji - descended from 90th emperor Kameyama. Kazan Genji - descended from 65th emperor Kazan, Kōkō Genji - descended from 58th emperor Kōkō. Montoku Genji - descended from 55th emperor Montoku, Murakami Genji - descended from 62nd emperor Murakami. Nimmyō Genji - descended from 54th emperor Nimmyō, Ōgimachi Genji - descended from 106th emperor Ōgimachi. Reizei Genji - descended from 63rd emperor Reizei, Saga Genji - descended from 52nd emperor Saga. Sanjō Genji - descended from 67th emperor Sanjō, Seiwa Genji - descended from 56th emperor Seiwa, origin of many samurai clans. Kawachi Genji - also known as Genke, descended from Minamoto no Yorinobu, origin of Hitachi Genji, Ishikawa Genji, Settsu Genji - descended from Minamoto no Yorimitsu, origin of Tada Genji, Mino Genji and Shinano Genji. Yamato Genji - descended from Minamoto no Yorichika, Uda Genji - descended from 59th emperor Uda, origin of Ōmi Genji. Yōzei Genji - descended from 57th emperor Yōzei, Taira clan - also known as Heishi,4 cadet branches of Imperial House of Japan. Kanmu Heishi - descended from 50th emperor Kanmu, famous for Taira no Masakado, bandō8 Heishi - descended from Taira no Yoshifumi. Ise Heishi - also known as Heike, descended from Taira no Korehira, Kōkō Heishi - descended from 58th emperor Kōkō. Montoku Heishi - descended from 55th emperor Montoku, Nimmyō Heishi - descended from 54th emperor Nimmyō
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Virtue
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A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting collective and individual greatness, the opposite of virtue is vice. The four classic cardinal virtues are, temperance, prudence, courage, Christianity derives the three theological virtues of faith, hope and love from 1 Corinthians. Together these make up the seven virtues, Buddhisms four brahmavihara can be regarded as virtues in the European sense. The Japanese Bushidō code is characterized by up to ten virtues, including rectitude, courage, for Immanuel Kant a person is virtuous when they act in accordance with moral principles. During Egyptian civilization, Maat or Maat, also spelled māt or mayet, was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Maat was also personified as a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, the deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies, some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal. It is unclear whether multiple virtues were of later construct, in his work Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, however, the virtuous action is not simply the mean between two opposite extremes. This is not simply splitting the difference between two extremes, for example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include, courage between cowardice and foolhardiness, and confidence between self-deprecation and vanity, in Aristotles sense, virtue is excellence at being human. Seneca, the Roman Stoic, said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue, thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person. The same rationale was expressed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that only act in ways that they perceive will bring them maximum good. It is the lack of wisdom that results in the making of a bad choice instead of a prudent one, in this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. Plato realized that because virtue was synonymous with wisdom it could be taught and he then added correct belief as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and tethered. The term virtue itself is derived from the Latin virtus, and had connotations of manliness, honour, worthiness of deferential respect, most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a numinous deity. The primary Roman virtues, both public and private, were, Auctoritas – spiritual authority – the sense of social standing, built up through experience, Pietas
32.
Emperor of Japan
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The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and is the ceremonial head of state of Japans system of constitutional monarchy. According to the 1947 constitution, he is the symbol of the State, in Japanese, the Emperor is called Tennō, which means heavenly sovereign. In English, the use of the term Mikado for the Emperor was once common, currently, the Emperor of Japan is the only remaining monarch in the world reigning under the title of Emperor. The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world, in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, it is said that Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. He acceded the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father, Emperor Shōwa, the role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192, the Emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, Japanese Emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. In fact, between 1192 and 1867, the shoguns, or their shikken regents in Kamakura, were the de facto rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the Emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the Emperor was the embodiment of all power in the realm. His current status as a figurehead dates from the 1947 Constitution, since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called Kyūjō, later Kōkyo, and is located on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier, Emperors resided in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries, the Emperors Birthday is a national holiday. Unlike most constitutional monarchies, the Emperor is not the nominal Chief Executive, article 65 of the Constitution explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet, of which the Prime Minister is the leader. The Emperor is also not the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, the Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister. The Emperors powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions, article 4 of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government. It also stipulates that the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law. Article 6 of the Constitution delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles, Appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet. Dissolution of the House of Representatives, proclamation of general election of members of the Diet. Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights. Attestation of instruments of ratification and other documents as provided for by law
33.
God
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In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
34.
Deity
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A deity is a concept conceived in diverse ways in various cultures, typically as a natural or supernatural being considered divine or sacred. A male deity is a god, while a female deity is a goddess, the Oxford reference defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a monotheistic God, a plain deity need not be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, or eternal, however an almighty monotheistic God generally does have these attributes. Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous, some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living beings body, as sensory organs, but in Indian religions, all deities are also subject to death when their merit runs out. The English language word deity derives from Old French deité, the Latin deitatem or divine nature, deus is related through a common Proto-Indo-European language origin to *deiwos. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, in Old Persian, daiva- means demon, evil god, while in Sanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones. The closely linked term god refers to supreme being, deity, which states Douglas Harper, is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan, from PIE *ghut-, guth in the Irish language means voice. The term *ghut- is also the source of Old Church Slavonic zovo, Sanskrit huta-, from the root *gheu- An alternate etymology for the term god traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to-, the term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein to pour. Originally the German root was a noun, but the gender of the monotheistic God shifted to masculine under the influence of Christianity. In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities, the term deity often connotes the concept of sacred or divine, as a god or goddess, in a polytheistic religion. However, there is no accepted consensus concept of deity across religions and cultures. Huw Owen states that the deity or god or its equivalent in other languages has a bewildering range of meanings. Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals, the Venus of Willendorf, a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted as an exemplar of a prehistoric divine feminine. In Buddhist mythology, devas are beings inhabiting certain happily placed worlds of Buddhist cosmology and these beings are mortal and numerous. It is also common for iṣṭadevatās to be called deities, although the nature of Yidams is distinct from what is meant by the term. Buddhism does not believe in a creator deity, however, deities are an essential part of Buddhist cosmology, rebirth and Saṃsāra doctrines
35.
Divinity
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Such things are regarded as divine due to their transcendental origins or because their attributes or qualities are superior or supreme relative to things of the Earth. Divine things are regarded as eternal and based in truth, while things are regarded as ephemeral. Such things that may qualify as divine are apparitions, visions, prophecies, miracles, and in some also the soul, or more general things like resurrection, immortality, grace. Otherwise what is or is not divine may be loosely defined, the root of the word divine is literally godly, but the use varies significantly depending on which deity is being discussed. This article outlines the major distinctions in the use of the terms. For specific related academic terms, see Divinity, or Divine, for instance, Jehovah is closely associated with storms and thunder throughout much of the Old Testament. He is said to speak in thunder, and thunder is seen as a token of his anger and this power was then extended to prophets like Moses and Samuel, who caused thunderous storms to rain down on their enemies. Divinity always carries connotations of goodness, beauty, beneficence, justice, pantheistic and polytheistic faiths make no such distinction, gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even irrational motivations for their acts. Note that while the demon and demonic are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to divine, they are in fact derived from the Greek word daimón. There are three distinct usages of divinity and divine in religious discourse, In monotheistic faiths, the divinity is often used to refer to the singular God central to that faith. Often the word takes the article and is capitalized — the Divinity — as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific. Divine — capitalized — may be used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers and this leads to the second usage of the word divine, to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world. In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention, for pan- and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events. In monotheistic religions, divine intervention may take very direct forms, miracles, visions, transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths. Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of divine providence, which acknowledges that the divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world. Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on the will of the Divine, in deferences like the Muslim inshallah, in the third usage, extensions of divinity and divine power are credited to living, mortal individuals. More commonly, and more pertinent to recent history, leaders merely claim some form of divine mandate, in Greek mythology, Achilles mother bathed him in the river Styx to give him immortality, and Hercules — as the son of Zeus — inherited near-godly powers. In religious Taoism, Lao Tsu is venerated as a saint with his own powers, various individuals in the Buddhist faith, beginning with Siddhartha, are considered to be enlightened, and in religious forms of Buddhism they are credited with divine powers
36.
Spirit
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The English word spirit, from Latin spiritus breath, has many different meanings and connotations, most of them relating to a non-corporeal substance contrasted with the material body. It can also refer to a subtle as opposed to gross material substance, the word spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality. e. A manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person, the term may also refer to any incorporeal or immaterial being, such as demons or deities. In the Bible, the Spirit, specifically denotes the Holy Spirit, the English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath, but also spirit, soul, courage, vigor, ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European *peis. It is distinguished from Latin anima, soul, in Greek, this distinction exists between pneuma, breath, motile air, spirit, and psykhē, soul. The word spirit came into Middle English via Old French, the distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions, Arabic nafs opposite rūħ, Hebrew neshama or nephesh נֶ֫פֶשׁ nép̄eš opposite ruach. In a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, October 20,1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit, the mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. Spirit and Life are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have pushed back. It can scarcely be an accident onomatopoeic words like ruach, ruch, roho mean ‘spirit’ no less clearly than the Greek πνεύμα and the Latin spiritus”. In spiritual and metaphysical terms, spirit has acquired a number of meanings, An incorporeal but ubiquitous, unlike the concept of souls a spirit develops and grows as an integral aspect of a living being. This concept of the individual spirit occurs commonly in animism, note the distinction between this concept of spirit and that of the pre-existing or eternal soul, belief in souls occurs specifically and far less commonly, particularly in traditional societies. One might more properly term this type/aspect of spirit life or aether rather than spirit, people usually conceive of a ghost as a wandering spirit from a being no longer living, having survived the death of the body yet maintaining at least vestiges of mind and consciousness. In religion and spirituality, the respiration of a human has for obvious reasons become seen as linked with the very occurrence of life. A similar significance has become attached to human blood, Spirit, in this sense, means the thing that separates a living body from a corpse—and usually implies intelligence, consciousness, and sentience. Latter-day Saint prophet Joseph Smith Jr. taught that the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance was incorrect, all spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes. In some Native American spiritual traditions the Great Spirit or Wakan Tanka is a term for the Supreme Being, individual spirits envisaged as interconnected with all other spirits and with The Spirit. This concept relates to theories of a unified spirituality, to universal consciousness, the experience of such a connection can become a primary basis for spiritual belief. Christian spiritual theology can use the term Spirit to describe God, or aspects of God — as in the Holy Spirit, Spirit forms a central concept in pneumatology
37.
Mind
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The mind is a set of cognitive faculties including consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. It is usually defined as the faculty of an entitys reasoning and it holds the power of imagination, recognition, and appreciation, and is responsible for processing feelings and emotions, resulting in attitudes and actions. One open question regarding the nature of the mind is the mind–body problem, pre-scientific viewpoints included dualism and idealism, which considered the mind somehow non-physical. Modern views center around physicalism and functionalism, which hold that the mind is identical with the brain or reducible to physical phenomena such as neuronal activity. Another question concerns which types of beings are capable of having minds, the concept of mind is understood in many different ways by many different cultural and religious traditions. Some see mind as a property exclusive to humans whereas others ascribe properties of mind to non-living entities, to animals, important philosophers of mind include Plato, Descartes, Leibniz, Searle, Dennett, Fodor, Nagel, and Chalmers. Psychologists such as Freud and James, and computer scientists such as Turing, the original meaning of Old English gemynd was the faculty of memory, not of thought in general. Hence call to mind, come to mind, keep in mind, to have mind of, the word retains this sense in Scotland. Old English had other words to mind, such as hyge mind. The meaning of memory is shared with Old Norse, which has munr, the word is originally from a PIE verbal root *men-, meaning to think, remember, whence also Latin mens mind, Sanskrit manas mind and Greek μένος mind, courage, anger. The generalization of mind to all mental faculties, thought, volition, feeling and memory. The attributes that make up the mind is debated, some psychologists argue that only the higher intellectual functions constitute mind, particularly reason and memory. In this view the emotions — love, hate, fear, joy — are more primitive or subjective in nature and should be seen as different from the mind as such. Others argue that rational and emotional states cannot be so separated, that they are of the same nature and origin. In popular usage, mind is frequently synonymous with thought, the conversation with ourselves that we carry on inside our heads. Thus we make up our minds, change our minds or are of two minds about something, one of the key attributes of the mind in this sense is that it is a private sphere to which no one but the owner has access. No one else can know our mind and they can only interpret what we consciously or unconsciously communicate. Broadly speaking, mental faculties are the functions of the mind
38.
Supreme Being
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Supreme Being is a term for God used by theologians and philosophers of many religious faiths, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, and deism. In Christian theology, the term Supreme Being is used to refer to God, although God is mostly reserved for God the Father in the New Testament, Supreme Being can be used to refer to Jesus Christ or the Holy Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Deists use the term Supreme Being to refer to the Godly, following the French Revolution, the Cult of the Supreme Being was intended to become the state religion of the new French Republic. In Hinduism, the term is used by several traditions and it is used by the Vaishnavite traditions in reference to Vishnu/Krishna, and by the Shaiva tradition in reference to Shiva. Islamic scholars have used the term Supreme Being to refer to Allah, the holy scripture of the Sikhs, Guru Granth Sahib, uses terms that are sometimes translated as Supreme Being. Sikhs personally use Waheguru, or the term Ik Onkar, meaning One God, in the Yoruba religion the term Supreme Being is used in reference to Olorun, one of the three manifestations of the Supreme God in the Yoruba pantheon. In Yoruba cosmology, Olorun is the Supreme Being whose supremacy is absolute
39.
Effigy
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An effigy is a representation of a specific person in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional medium. The use of the term is restricted to certain contexts in a somewhat arbitrary way, recumbent effigies on tombs are so called. Likenesses of religious figures in sculpture are not normally called effigies and it is common to burn an effigy of a person as an act of protest. The word first appeared in 1539 and comes, perhaps via French, from the Latin effigies and this spelling was originally used in English for singular senses, even a single image was the effigies of. In effigie was probably understood as a Latin phrase until the 18th century, the word occurs in Shakespeares As You Like It of 1600, where scansion suggests that the second syllable is to be emphasized, as in the Latin pronunciation. The best known British example of a caricature effigy is the figure of the 1605 Gunpowder Plotter Guy Fawkes, found in charge of gunpowder to blow up the King in the House of Lords. On November 5, Guy Fawkes Night or Bonfire Night, his effigy, typically made of straw, in many parts of the world, there are traditions of large caricature effigies of political or other figures carried on floats in parades at festivals. Political effigies serve a similar purpose in political demonstrations and annual community rituals such as that held in Lewes. In Lewes, models of important or unpopular figures in current affairs are burned on Guy Fawkes Night, in Oriental Orthodox Christianity, populace used to burn an effigy of Judas, just before Easter. Now it is considered a custom and there are currently no attempts at revival. Caricature effigies, in Greek skiachtro, are still in use to prevent birds from eating mature fruit and they were shown lying on the coffin at the funeral, and then often displayed beside or over the tomb. The figures were dressed in the clothes of the deceased, only the face, from the time of the funeral of Charles II in 1680, effigies were no longer placed on the coffin but were still made for later display. The effigy of Charles II was displayed over his tomb until the early 19th century, nelsons effigy was a tourist attraction, commissioned the year after his death and his burial in St Pauls Cathedral in 1805. The government had decided that public figures with State funerals should in future be buried at St Pauls. Concerned for their revenue from visitors, the Abbey decided it needed an attraction for admirers of Nelson. In the field of numismatics, effigy has been used to describe the image or portrait on the obverse of a coin. A practice evident in literature of the 19th century, the obverse of a coin was said to depict “the ruler’s effigy”. It can also be the case that the monarchs reign becomes long enough to merit issuing a succession of effigies so that their appearance continues to be current, in the past, criminals sentenced to death in absentia might be officially executed in effigy as a symbolic act
40.
Principle
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Tarnas is professor of philosophy and psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies, and is the founding director of its graduate program in Philosophy, Cosmology, and Consciousness. Tarnas was born on February 21,1950 in Geneva, Switzerland and his father, also named Richard Tarnas, worked as a government contract attorney, former president of the Michigan Federal Bar Association, and professor of law. His mother, Mary Louise, was a teacher and homemaker, the eldest of eight children, he grew up in Detroit, Michigan, where he studied Greek, Latin, and the Classics at the University of Detroit Jesuit High School and Academy. In 1968 Tarnas entered Harvard, graduating with an A. B. cum laude in 1972 and he received his Ph. D. from Saybrook Institute in 1976 with a thesis on psychedelic therapy. In 1974 Tarnas went to Esalen in California to study psychotherapy with Stanislav Grof and he also served as Esalens director of programs and education. Jeffrey Kripal characterizes Tarnas as both the literal and figurative gate-keeper of Esalen, Tarnas is the founding director of the Philosophy, Cosmology, and Consciousness program at the California Institute of Integral Studies, where he remains a core faculty member as of 2014. In 2006, Tarnas published his book, Cosmos and Psyche. It claims that the events of Western cultural history correlate consistently and meaningfully with the observed angular positions of the planets. The book received reviews in Tikkun magazine, in an anthroposophical journal, and in the web magazine Reality Sandwich. Tarnas featured in the 2006 film Entheogen, Awakening the Divine Within, in 2007 a group of fifty scholars and researchers in the San Francisco Bay Area formed the Archetypal Research Collective for pursuing research in archetypal cosmology. Advisory-board members include Christopher Bache, Jorge Ferrer, Stanislav Grof, Robert A. McDermott, Ralph Metzner, contributors have included Keiron Le Grice, Richard Tarnas, Stanislav Grof, and Rod ONeal. In 2008 Tarnas was invited to address members of the Dutch Parliament about creating a sustainable society, in 2007 John Cleese and Tarnas gave some public lectures together at Esalen and in Santa Barbara. The lectures discussed regaining a connection to the sacred in the modern world, di Carlo, Towards a New World View, Conversations at the Leading Edge. Jung, Cosmology, and the Transformation of the Modern Self, recorded at Pacifica Graduate Institute on April 8–9,2006. Skeptical Inquirer Volume 30.4, July / August 2006 Review of Cosmos and Psyche, Intimations of a New World View. by Alice Klein Now Magazine April 17–24,2008 Vol 27 No 33
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Deva (Hinduism)
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Deva means heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. In the earliest Vedic literature, all beings are called Asuras. The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, in post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their powerful but malevolent half-brothers. Devas along with Asuras, Yakshas and Rakshasas are part of Indian mythology, Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. The concept also is used to refer to deity or god, the feminine form of *deiwos is *deiwih2, which descends into Indic languages as devi, in that context meaning female deity. The bode of the Devas is Dyuloka, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus god. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, the word Deva is also a proper name or part of name in Indian culture, where it refers to one who wishes to excel, overcome or the seeker of, master of or a best among-. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, and Prajapati are gods and hence Devas, saraswati and Ushas are some Devis or goddesses. Many of the deities taken together are worshiped as the Vishvedevas, max Muller states that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every single of different devas as the only one, the supreme, the greatest.163.3, Trita art thou by interior operation. All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts, a much studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura, and contrasts it with Asura adevah. They are born from the father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor, the elder sons are envisioned as the Asuras. The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras, the Kaushitaki Upanishad, for example, in Book 4 states that Indra was weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his own Atman. Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 1.2, describes the battle between Devas and Asuras on various sensory powers, finally, the Deva-Asura battle targets the soul, where Asuras fail and Devas succeed, because soul-force is serene and inherently good, asserts Chandogya Upanishad
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