1.
Kannada people
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The Kannada people known as the Kannadigas and Kannadigaru, are the people who natively speak Kannada. Kannadigas are mainly found in the state of Karnataka in India, Kannada minorities are also found in the neighboring states Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Goa. Settlement in Karnataka is found to be existent at least from the 2nd millennium BC as explored in Brahmagiri archaeological site near Chitradurga district, chandravalli exploration has revealed interaction of Roman and Chinese travelers around the 2nd and 3rd century BC. Kannadigas have built powerful empires and kingdoms with Kannada as the official language, the language was once popular from Kaveri to Godavari as mentioned in the Kannada classic Kavirajamarga of 850 CE. Archaeological evidences show Kannada inscriptions found as far north as Madhya Pradesh, the great Karnataka Expansion provides insights to kingdoms of northern India whose originators were from Kannada country. The Karnata Dynasty of Mithila and Nepal, However contrary evidence also suggests that this dynasty may have been of Parmar Rajput origin, the temples of Karnataka had in them many shaili or varieties to credit. A majority of the temples were built using the available stones. Ajanta Caves have sculptures of Rashrakutas and Badami Chalukyas, Dasa is literally servant in Kannada and sahitya is literature. Haridasas were preachers of Bhakti to Vishnu, the bhakti literature of these Haridasas is collectively referred to as Dasa Sahitya. It is composed in the Kannada language, the Haridasas richly contributed to the heritage of Karntataka music. They made an impression on the religious and cultural life of Karnataka by spreading the didactic teachings in a musical form to the hearts of the common folk. Like other doyens of Indian classical music, these scholars offered prayer to Vishnu through music, the Lord is described as Samagana priya, and bhakti through music is the most preferred path to reach Him. The Haridasa compositions are known as Devaranamas. Compositions like Krishna Nee Begane Baaro, Venkatachala Nilayam, Jagadoddharana, both Hindustani and Karnataka variations are respected and nurtured by Kannadigas. Bhavageete and Sugama Sangeetha are some innovations, other forms of music include Gamaka, Joogera Pada and Lavani. Yakshagana is considered a unique and indigenous form of music and dance of Karnataka. While a lot of gadhya is written in praise of the characters of the epics and puranas, there are major works depicting the kings. These are called Naataka and Bayalata, as its etymology indicates, bayalu means open-air field and ata means theater
2.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
Karnataka
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Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area, with 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the languages of India, is the most widely spoken. Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal, though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as karu, meaning black, the British used the word Carnatic, sometimes Karnatak, to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna. With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient, the philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, Karnatakas pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas, the Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi, the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription, the Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century, the Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region, literature flourished during this time, which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres, and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh, in the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, in 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota
5.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others
6.
Dravidian languages
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The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. There are also groups of Dravidian-speaking scheduled tribes, who live beyond the mainstream communities, such as the Kurukh. Epigraphically the Dravidian languages have been attested since the 2nd century BCE, only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, Brahui in Pakistan and Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal. Caldwell coined the term Dravidian for this family of languages, based on the usage of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa in the work Tantravārttika by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa. In his own words, Caldwell says, The word I have chosen is Dravidian, from Drāviḍa, I have, therefore, no doubt of the propriety of adopting it. The 1961 publication of the Dravidian etymological dictionary by T, emeneau proved a notable event in the study of Dravidian linguistics. As for the origin of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa itself, researchers have proposed various theories, basically the theories deal with the direction of derivation between tamiẓ and drāviḍa. There is no definite philological and linguistic basis for asserting unilaterally that the name Dravida also forms the origin of the word Tamil, Kamil Zvelebil cites the forms such as dramila damiḷa and then goes on to say, The forms damiḷa/damila almost certainly provide a connection of drviḍa and. Tamiḷ < tamiẓ. whereby the further development might have been *tamiẓ > *damiḷ > damiḷa- / damila- and further, with the intrusive, hypercorrect -r-, an analogical case of DED1033 Ta. kamuku, Tu. kangu areca nut, Skt. kramu. Sinhala BCE inscriptions cite dameḍa-, damela- denoting Tamil merchants and it appears that damiḷa- was older than draviḍa- which could be its Sanskritization. Based on what Krishnamurti states, the Sanskrit word draviḍa itself is later than damiḷa since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r-. The Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary lists for the Sanskrit word draviḍa a meaning of collective Name for 5 peoples, viz. the Āndhras, Karṇāṭakas, Gurjaras, Tailaṅgas, the Dravidian languages form a close-knit family. They are descended from the Proto-Dravidian language, there is reasonable agreement on how they are related to each other. Most scholars agree on four groups, North, Central, South-Central, earlier classifications grouped Central and South-Central Dravidian in a single branch. The classification below follows Krishnamurti in grouping South-Central and South Dravidian, languages recognized as official languages of India appear here in boldface. Some authors deny that North Dravidian forms a subgroup, splitting it into Northeast and Northwest. In some words, *c is retracted to /k/ and this development is however also found in several other Dravidian languages, including Kannada, Kodagu and Tulu. A few morphological parallels between Brahui and Kurukh-Malto are also known, but according to McAlpin they are analyzable as shared archaisms rather than shared innovations, approximately 29% of Indias population spoke Dravidian languages in 1981
7.
Southern Dravidian languages
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The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. There are also groups of Dravidian-speaking scheduled tribes, who live beyond the mainstream communities, such as the Kurukh. Epigraphically the Dravidian languages have been attested since the 2nd century BCE, only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, Brahui in Pakistan and Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal. Caldwell coined the term Dravidian for this family of languages, based on the usage of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa in the work Tantravārttika by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa. In his own words, Caldwell says, The word I have chosen is Dravidian, from Drāviḍa, I have, therefore, no doubt of the propriety of adopting it. The 1961 publication of the Dravidian etymological dictionary by T, emeneau proved a notable event in the study of Dravidian linguistics. As for the origin of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa itself, researchers have proposed various theories, basically the theories deal with the direction of derivation between tamiẓ and drāviḍa. There is no definite philological and linguistic basis for asserting unilaterally that the name Dravida also forms the origin of the word Tamil, Kamil Zvelebil cites the forms such as dramila damiḷa and then goes on to say, The forms damiḷa/damila almost certainly provide a connection of drviḍa and. Tamiḷ < tamiẓ. whereby the further development might have been *tamiẓ > *damiḷ > damiḷa- / damila- and further, with the intrusive, hypercorrect -r-, an analogical case of DED1033 Ta. kamuku, Tu. kangu areca nut, Skt. kramu. Sinhala BCE inscriptions cite dameḍa-, damela- denoting Tamil merchants and it appears that damiḷa- was older than draviḍa- which could be its Sanskritization. Based on what Krishnamurti states, the Sanskrit word draviḍa itself is later than damiḷa since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r-. The Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary lists for the Sanskrit word draviḍa a meaning of collective Name for 5 peoples, viz. the Āndhras, Karṇāṭakas, Gurjaras, Tailaṅgas, the Dravidian languages form a close-knit family. They are descended from the Proto-Dravidian language, there is reasonable agreement on how they are related to each other. Most scholars agree on four groups, North, Central, South-Central, earlier classifications grouped Central and South-Central Dravidian in a single branch. The classification below follows Krishnamurti in grouping South-Central and South Dravidian, languages recognized as official languages of India appear here in boldface. Some authors deny that North Dravidian forms a subgroup, splitting it into Northeast and Northwest. In some words, *c is retracted to /k/ and this development is however also found in several other Dravidian languages, including Kannada, Kodagu and Tulu. A few morphological parallels between Brahui and Kurukh-Malto are also known, but according to McAlpin they are analyzable as shared archaisms rather than shared innovations, approximately 29% of Indias population spoke Dravidian languages in 1981
8.
Old Kannada
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Proto-Kannada is said to have evolved after separating from its source around c.500 AD, while its script evolved during Ashokan times around the 4th or 3rd century CE from ancient Brahmi. Halegannada is the Kannada language which has transformed from the 5th century CE during the reign of the Kadambas of Banavasi, the Modern Kannada language has evolved in four phases over the years. Evolution, Proto Kannada > Pre Old Kannada > Old Kannada > Middle Kannada > New Kannada Halegannada is derived from two Kannada terms, hale and Kannada, Hale, a prefix in Kannada language, means old or ancient. In Kannada grammar there are sandhis in which while pronouncing two words in combined form, the ka becomes ga and so Hale and Kannada together becomes HaleGannada. Purvada HaleGannada A 5th century copper coin was discovered at Banavasi with an inscription in the Kannada script, in a report published by the Mysore Archaeological Department in 1936, Dr. M. H. Krishna, who discovered the inscription in 1936 dated the inscription to 450 CE. This inscription in old-Kannada was found in Halmidi village near Hassan district, many other inscriptions having Kannada words had been found like the Brahmagiri edict of 230 BCE by Ashoka. But this is the first full scale inscription in Kannada, Kannada was used in the inscriptions from the earliest times and the Halmidi inscription is considered to be the earliest epigraph written in Kannada. This inscription is known as the Halmidi inscription and consists of sixteen lines carved on a sandstone pillar. It has been dated to 450 CE and demonstrates that Kannada was used as a language of administration at that time. The original inscription is kept in the Office of the Director of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Karnataka, Mysore, a mantapa to house a fibreglass replica of the original inscription has been built at Hamidi village. The Government has begun to promote the village as a place of historical interest, evidence from edicts during the time of Ashoka the Great suggests that the Kannada script and its literature were influenced by Buddhist literature. References made in the Kavirajamarga, however, prove that Kannada literature flourished in the Chattana, Beddande, the 5th century Tamatekallu inscription of Chitradurga, and the Chikkamagaluru inscription of 500 CE are further examples. The grammar of the ancient Kannada language was in more complex than of modern Kannada. Phonology wise, there was use of the now obsolete letters ೞ and ಱ. Aspirated letters were not normally used, as there was less an influence from Sanskrit, words were permitted to end in consonants, the permitted consonants being, ನ್ ಣ್ ಲ್ ಳ್ ೞ್ ರ್ ಱ್ ಯ್ ಮ್. If words were borrowed from Sanskrit, they were changed to fit the tongue, most words were Dravidian in origin. Nouns declined according to how they ended and they were grouped into human and non-human. Examples of terminations of declension are, ಮ್, ಅನ್, ಅಳ್, ಅರ್, ಒನ್, ಒರ್, ಗಳ್, ಗೆ, ಅತ್ತಣಿಂ, ಇನ್, ಇಂದೆ, ಅಲ್, most terminations were suffixed to the oblique case of nouns
9.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
10.
Kannada alphabet
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Several minor languages, such as Tulu, Konkani, Kodava, Sanketi and Beary, also use alphabets based on the Kannada script. The Kannada and Telugu scripts share high mutual intellegibility with each other, other scripts similar to Kannada script are Sinhala script, and Old Peguan script. The Kannada script is an abugida of forty-nine letters, and is written from left to right. The character set is almost identical to that of other Brahmic scripts, consonantal letters imply an inherent vowel. Letters representing consonants are combined to form digraphs when there is no intervening vowel, otherwise, each letter corresponds to a syllable. The letters are classified into three categories, ಸ್ವರ svara, ವ್ಯಂಜನ vyan̄jana, and ಯೋಗವಾಹಕ yōgavāhaka, the Kannada words for a letter of the script are ಅಕ್ಷರ akshara, ಅಕ್ಕರ akkara, and ವರ್ಣ varṇa. Each letter has its own form and sound, providing the visible and audible representations, Kannada is written from left to right. The Kannada script derives from the Old Kannada script, which evolved around 10th century as the continuation of the Kadamba alphabet of the fourth century and this evolved from the ancient Brahmi script of the third century BCE. Over the centuries some changes have made to the Kannada script. These changes consist of, Modification of existing glyphs, In the early Kannada script, however, distinct signs were employed to denote the special consonants viz. the trill ಱ the retroflex lateral ಳ and the retroflex rhotic ೞ found only in South Indian languages, by 5th century. Introduction of new characters, Kannada script includes characters like ಶ, ಷ, ೠ, ఌ, ౡ, ಐ, ಔ, ಅಂ, ಅಃ, the introduction was done so that Sanskrit could be written using the Kannada script. These changes have facilitated the use of the Kannada script for writing many of the literary Indic languages, when a vowel follows a consonant, it is written with a diacritic rather than as a separate letter. The structured consonants are classified according to where the tongue touches the palate of the mouth and are classified accordingly into five structured groups and these consonants are shown here with their IAST transcriptions. See place of articulation for more information on tongue positions, the unstructured consonants are consonants that do not fall into any of the above structures, ಯ, ರ, ಱ, ಲ, ವ, ಶ, ಷ, ಸ, ಹ, ಳ, ೞ. The Kannada script is rich in conjunct consonant clusters, with most consonants having a standard subjoined form, a table of consonant conjuncts follows, although the forms of individual conjuncts may differ according to font. The decimal numerals in the script are, Written Kannada is composed of akshara or kagunita, the letters for consonants combine with diacitics for vowels. The consonant letter without any diacritic, such as ಕ ka, has the inherent vowel a ಅ, a consonant without a vowel is marked with a killer stroke, as ಕ್ k. This is known as hrasva ಹ್ರಸ್ವ, * This diacritic has the form ಿ when combined with other consonant letters
11.
Art and culture of Karnataka
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The southern state of Karnataka, in India, has a distinct art and culture. The diverse linguistic and religious ethnicity that are native to state of Karnataka combined with their long histories have contributed immensely to the cultural heritage of the state. Apart from Kannadigas, Karnataka is home to Tuluvas, Kodavas, minor populations of Tibetan Buddhists and Siddhi tribes plus a few other ethnic groups also live in Karnataka. The traditional folk arts cover the gamut of music, dance, drama, storytelling by itinerant troupes. Yakshagana, a folk play, is one of the major theatrical forms of coastal Karnataka. Veeragase, Kamsale and Dollu Kunitha are popular dance forms, bharatanatya also enjoys wide patronage in Karnataka. Karnataka is the only Indian state where both Hindustani and Carnatic singers flourish, north Karnataka is predominantly famous for Hindustani music and South Karnataka is well known for Carnatic music. Other haridasas of medieval times were Kanakadasa, Vyasatirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, one of the earliest and prominent composers in South India was the saint, and wandering bard of yore Purandara Dasa. Though historians claim Purandara Dasa composed 75,000 -475,000 songs in Sanskrit and Kannada and he was a source of inspiration to the later composers like Tyagaraja. Karnataka has achieved a prominent place in the world of Hindustani music as well, several of Karnatakas Hindustani musicians won the Kalidas Sanman, Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan awards. Some famous performers are Gangubai Hangal, Puttaraj Gawai, Pt. Bhimsen Joshi, Pt. Mallikarjun Mansur, Basavaraj Rajguru, Sawai Gandharva, Pt. Ravindra Yavagal, Pt. Udayraj Karpur, Pt. Raghunath Nakod. There are Harmonium exponents like, Pt. Rambhau Bijapure, Pt. Vasant Kanakapur Yakshagana a form of drama is one of the major theatrical forms in coastal Karnataka. A fusion of folk and classical tradition makes Yakshagana a unique form of art which includes colourful costumes, music, dance, singing, award winning performers include Shambhu Hegde, Chittani Ramachandra Hegde. Yakshagana and Dollu Kunitha are two of the dance forms of Karnataka. Gamaka is a music form based on Karnakata Sangeetha. The Bengal renaissance, along with the influence of Ravi Varma school of painting. King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III patronised famous painters including Sundarayya, Tanjavur Kondayya and Alasinrayya, king Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV patronised K. Venkatappa, Keshavayya, Y. The Chamarajendra Technological Institute, Jaganmohan Art Gallery and Venkatappa Art Gallery are reminders of this heyday, chitrakala Parishat is an organisation in Karnataka dedicated to promote visual arts, particularly the folk and traditional art
12.
Coat of arms of Karnataka
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The coat of arms of Karnataka is the state emblem of Karnataka, India. The coat of arms is based on that of the Kingdom of Mysore and is carried on all official correspondences made by Government of Karnataka, the arms has a red shield charged with a white two-headed bird, Gandaberunda bordured in blue. The shield is flanked on either side by red-maned, yellow lion-elephant Sharabha supporters standing on a green, below the compartment lies written in stylized Devanāgarī, the national motto of India, सत्यमेव जयते. Emblems of Indian States National Emblem of India
13.
History of Karnataka
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The recorded history of Karnataka goes back more than two millennia. The credit for doing extensive study of prehistoric Karnataka goes to Robert Bruce-Foote. The pre-historic culture of Karnataka is called the culture, as opposed to the Sohan culture of North India. There are reports that a stone axe was discovered at Lingasugur in the Raichur district Neolithic sites of importance are Maski in Raichur district. To the end of the Neolithic era, during the Megalithic age, people in Karnataka began to use swords, sickles, axes, hammers, spikes, chisels and arrows. Scholarly hypothesis postulates contacts between the Indus Valley cities of Harappa and Lothal, citing the discovery of gold found in the Harappan sites that was imported from mines in Karnataka. Evidence of Neolithic habitation of areas in modern Karnataka and celts dating back to the 2nd century BCE were first discovered in 1872, there are reports that a polished stone axe was discovered at Lingsugur in the Raichur district, however the authenticity of these reports remains unverifiable. Megalithic structures and burial grounds were discovered in 1862 in the regions of Kodagu and Moorey Betta hills, while Neolithic sites were discovered in north Karnataka. Scholarly hypothesis postulates of contacts between the Indus Valley city of Harappa in 3000 BCE, citing the discovery of gold found in the Harappan sites that was imported from mines in Karnataka. Around 230 BCE, the Satavahana dynasty came to power and its rule lasted four centuries till the early 3rd century CE. These were the first kingdoms to give status to Kannada language as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of 450. Also, recent discovery of a 5th-century copper coin in Banavasi, ancient capital of the Kadambas, with Kannada script inscription on it, parts of Karnataka were conquered by the Chola Empire in the 11th century. Natives of the malnad Karnataka, the Hoysalas established the Hoysala Empire at the turn of the first millennium, the expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought large parts of modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under their rule. In the early 14th century, the Vijayanagara Empire with its capital at Hosapattana rose to challenge the Muslim invasions into the South. This empire was established by Harihara I and Bukka Raya who many historians claim were commanders of the last Hoysala King Veera Ballala III and the empire prospered for over two centuries. The Bahamani and Bijapur rulers encouraged Urdu and Persian literature and Indo Saracenic architecture, parts of Karnataka were conquered by Marathas, earlier under Chhatrapati Shivaji and later on after the War of 27 years. The Wodeyars of Mysore, former vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire, after Indian independence, the Wodeyar Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore became an Indian state, and the former Maharaja became its rajpramukh, or governor, Mysore state was renamed Karnataka in 1973
14.
Political history of medieval Karnataka
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The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the 4th to the 16th centuries, when the empires that evolved in the Karnataka region of India made a lasting impact on the subcontinent. Before this, alien empires held sway over the region, and this is the historical starting point in studying the development of the region as an enduring geopolitical entity and of Kannada as an important regional language. In the southern regions of Karnataka, the Western Gangas of Talakad were contemporaries of the Kadambas, the Muslim invasion of the Deccan resulted in the breaking away of the feudatory Sultanates in the 14th century. The rule of the Bahamani Sultanate of Bidar and the Bijapur Sultanate from the northern Deccan region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the nascent Islamic culture in the region. The hereditary ruling families and clans ably served the large empires and upheld the local culture, with the weakening of the Satavahanas, the Pallavas of Kanchi took control for a brief duration. The Kadambas were natives of the Talagunda region as proven by inscriptions, Mayurasharma, a Brahmin native of Talagunda who was humiliated by a Pallava guard, rose in rage against the Pallava control of the Banavasi region and declared his independence in 345. After many wars, the Pallava king had to accept the sovereignty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma, the fact that the Kadambas cultivated marital ties with the imperial Vakatakas and Gupta dynasties attests to their power. Here Kalidasa describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a seat in the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground. Historians view this act as one of assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty, the Kadambas would continue to rule parts of Karnataka and Goa for many centuries to come but never again as an independent kingdom. The oldest surviving Kadamba structure is one dating to the late 5th century in Halsi in modern Belgaum district. The most prominent feature of their style, one that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas. The Western Ganga Dynasty, contemporaries of the Kadambas, came to power from Kolar and they ruled the region historically known as Gangavadi comprising most of the modern southern districts of Karnataka. Acting as a state between the Kannada kingdoms of Karnataka region and the Tamil kingdoms of Tamilakam, the Western Ganga architectural innovations show mixed influences. Their sovereign rule ended around the time as the Kadambas when they came under the Badami Chalukya control. The Western Gangas continued to rule as a feudatory till the beginning of the century when they were defeated by the Cholas of Tanjavur. Their free standing pillars and Hero stones with sculptural detail are also considered a unique contribution, the Chalukya dynasty, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas. They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration, in the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power. The inscription describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha on seeing a number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II
15.
Unification of Karnataka
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Decades earlier, during British rule the first demands for a state based on Kannada demographics had been made. In effect, nearly two-thirds of what is now Karnataka fell outside the rule of the Wodeyar kings of Mysore and this meant that the Kannadigas in these regions in spite of their large numbers they did not have an administrative patronage. Kannadigas in the Hubli-Karnataka region for example, came under the rule of the Bombay Presidency where Marathi was the official language and those in the Hyderabad-Karnataka region came under the Nizams rule where Urdu was the main language. Kannadigas in South Canara came under the rule from Madras Presidency which used Tamil as the main language, under these conditions, a feeling of discontent began among Kannadigas outside Mysore. Thus, while the Kannadigas under the Nizam felt that Urdu was being forced on them at the expense of Kannada and these areas also remained economically undeveloped. This was called the Ekikarana or Unification movement, almost the entire southern half of Karnataka was then under the Wodeyars of Mysore with Nalvadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. The official language of the state was Kannada and the state was one of the more progressive states of the day. Important protagonists of the Ekikarana movement including Aluru Venkata Rao were from parts of Karnataka. One of the earliest and most important organisations that was chosen to lead the movement, the Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha, Dharwad was established in 1890. The Vidyavardhaka Sangha became the aegis under which leaders from all over Karnataka gathered to further their agitation, the influence and success of the Vidyavardhaka Sangha soon lead to more such organisations being set up throughout Karnataka. The most notable of these were the Kannada Sahitya Parishat that was set up in 1915, the Karnataka Sangha that began in 1916, Karnataka Samithi, Kasaragod was established in 1955 to advocate a merger of Kasaragod with Karanataka state. Umesha Rao, popularly known as Gadinadu Gandhi, was the first president of the organisation, on his death in 1957, B. S. Kakkillaya succeeded him as president until 1967. His photograph was among those used in the Karnataka Governments Suvarna Karnataka calendar of 2006, kallige Mahabala Bhandari, an advocate, was elected to the Kerala Assembly from Manjeshwaram Constituency in Kasaragod under the Samithi banner. U. P. Kunikullaya was similarly elected in 1967, the efforts of the Samithi led to the Kasgarod unification issue being referred to the Justice Mahajan Commission by the government of India in 1966. The commission upheld the claim for merger of Kasaragod with the state of Karnataka, the Parliament of India is yet to take a final decision in the matter. B. V. Kakkillaya took over the presidency of the Samithi in 2000, during his term as president, the government of Kerala nominated him as a member of the State Level Committee for Linguistic Minorities in Kerala. He, too, received the Rajyotsava award in 2006, speaking at a meeting of the Sangha in 1903, Alur Venkata Rao made a case for integrating all Kannada regions of Madras Province and north Karnataka with Mysore kingdom. Aluru himself was inspired by the protests that followed the British partitioning of Bengal, in 1907 and again in 1908, Rao organised the All-Karnataka Writers Conference in Dharwad
16.
Alupa dynasty
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The Alupa also known as Alva were a royal dynasty who ruled what is now coastal Karnataka, India. They ruled independently their kingdom known as Alvakheda since the beginning of the common era, Later with the dominance of Kadambas from Banavasi, they became feudatory to them. With the changing political scenario, soon became the vassals of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas. Their influence over coastal Karnataka lasted for about 1200 years, there is evidence that the Alupas followed the law of matrilineal inheritance since the Alupa king Soyideva was succeeded by his nephew Kulasekhara Bankideva. Ptolemy, the 2nd century geographer identifies the Tulu Nadu region as Olokhoira which is believed to be a corruption of the term Alva Kheda. Regarding the origin of the name B. A. Saletore has suggested that the name Alupa is derived from its variant Aluka which is an epithet of the divine serpent Shesha of Hindu epics. Fleet has suggested that the name Aluka may possibly denote the Nāgas who in early times were included in Chalukya dominions, Saletore further adds that the Naga origin of the Alupas is proved by two facts. The figure of a serpent which is found in an effaced Alupa stone inscription in the Gollara Ganapati temple in Mangalore. Saletore dismisses the idea regarding the Dravidian origin of the name from the Tamil word Alu meaning to rule or govern, the rule of other Chutu dynasty was restricted only to Banavasi, and the rule of Sadakanas were confined to Chandravalli region. The region of North Karnataka was more under so-called Elephant, Lion, Horse, again, later Shatavahana branch and Later Kuras moved southward to establish only in Banavasi. The region of Dakshina Kannada was free from any such an external influence, in south India, only three of the local dynasties are known to the history, namely the Sangam-age Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas. Alupas migrated to the region of Mangalore and took control of the coastal land stretching from Southern Kasaragod till modern Udupi with Mangalore as the epicenter. The region of South Canara prior to this rule is still tagged to the same ruling house though the ruling was more informal. With the Kadambas rule from Banavasi, Karnataka saw developments in the field of art, land of Karnataka saw more and more epigraphs that recorded the activities of the past, mostly erected in the temple premises. The first clear mention of Alupas comes from the Halmidi inscription of 450 CE where their possible early ruler Pashupathi of Alapa gana is mentioned, Pashupathi was the contemporary of the Kadambas. Hence for historical record, we can assume that the dynastic formation of Alupas took place around 5th century CE. Their royal emblem was the fish and they claimed to belong to the Pandyavamsha. Their coins carried the dynastic title Sri Pandya Dhananjaya which means Arjuna among the Pandyas, in the ancient times, the region was referred as Alvakheda and during the later part of the reign, the region was referred as Tulunadu
17.
Kadamba dynasty
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Kadamba was an ancient royal brahmin dynasty of Karnataka, India that ruled northern Karnataka and the Konkan from Banavasi in present-day Uttara Kannada district. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, the Kadambas of Banavasi ruled large parts of modern Karnataka state, King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil and their legacy was so impressive that even the Vijayanagar rulers who fought Deccan Sultanates hired descendants of the Kadambas to manage their Goa military naval fleet. There is no shortage of myths about the origin of the Kadambas, according to one account the dynasty was founded by one Trilochana Kadamba also known from the Halsi and Degamve records as Jayanta who had three eyes and four arms. He was born out of the sweat of Shiva, which had fallen under a Kadamba tree, according to another myth, Mayurasharma himself was born to Lord Shiva and mother earth and had three eyes. An inscription of the Nagarakhanda Kadambas, a later descendent dynasty, gives a legendary account, there are two theories to the origin of the Kadamba dynasty, a native Kannadiga origin and the other a north Indian origin. Mention of the north Indian origin of the Kadambas are only found in their records of their offshoot descendent dynasty and is considered legendary. But this theory has not found popularity as there is no indication of this account in any of their early records, on the contrary, the family derives its name from the Kadamba tree that is common only to the South India region. A claim has made that the Kadambas were none other than a tribe called the Kadambu. The Kadambus find mention in the Tamil Sangam literature as totemic worshippers of the Kadambu tree, being native Kannadigas, the Kadambas promptly gave administrative and political importance to their language, Kannada, after coming to power. It is thus claimed that the family of the Kadambas were undoubtedly of Kanarese descent, the Naga descent of the Kadambas has been stated in early inscriptions of King Krishna Varma I too, which confirms the family was from present day Karnataka. Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the sources of the Kadamba history. The Talagunda, Gundanur, Chandravalli, Halasi and Halmidi inscription are some of the important inscriptions that throw light on this ancient ruling family of Karnataka. They belonged to the Manavya Gotra and were Haritiputras, which connects them to the native Chutus of Banavasi, inscriptions of the Kadambas in Kannada and Sanskrit ascribed to the main dynasty and branch kingdoms have been published by historians. The Kadambas minted coins with Nagari, Kannada and Grantha legends which provide additional evidence of their history. Kadambas were the first rulers to use Kannada as an official administrative language
18.
Chalukya dynasty
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The Chalukya dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties, the earliest dynasty, known as the Badami Chalukyas, ruled from Vatapi from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi, after the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century and these Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani until the end of the 12th century. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India, the political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers, the rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called Chalukyan architecture. Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain, the 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas. While opinions vary regarding the origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay. Sircar, Hans Raj, S. Sen, Kamath, K. V. Ramesh, a theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage, the Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which is the lineage as their early overlords. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas, the Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas. A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and she had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin Is father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin Is grandfather and Ranaranga, his father. Kamath and Moraes claim it was a practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin, while the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region. The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra caste while other sources claim they were Kshatriyas, the historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D. C
19.
Rashtrakuta dynasty
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Rashtrakuta was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian Subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapura, other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native home and this clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively, an Arabic text, Silsilat al-Tawarikh, called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the kings by Jainism. During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada, Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, the origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, the sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions, ancient literature in the Pali language, contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and the notes of the Arab travellers. Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas, possibilities include the north western ethnic groups of India, the Kannadiga, Reddi, the Maratha, or the tribes from the Punjab region. Scholars however concur that the rulers of the dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit, and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages, the earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty. Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas, they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well, the heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh, an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. He then helped his father-in-law, Pallava King Nandivarman regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras of Malwa, dantidurgas successor Krishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and Konkan under his control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780 and he led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control, according to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule. The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarshas third son, Govinda III, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before, there is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time. During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains and his military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Arjuna of Mahabharata
20.
Hoysala Empire
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The Hoysala empire was a prominent Southern Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern-day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was moved to Halebidu. The Hoysala rulers were originally from Malnad Karnataka, a region in the Western Ghats range. By the 13th century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh, the Hoysala era was an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered primarily for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, well known temples which exhibit an amazing display of sculptural exuberance include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the arts, encouraging literature to flourish in Kannada. Kannada folklore tells a tale of a young man Sala, who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by striking dead a Tiger he encountered near the temple of the Goddess Vasantika at Angadi, the word strike literally translates to hoy in Hale Kannada, hence the name Hoy-sala. This legend first appeared in the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana, early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadava by referring to the Yadava vamsa as Hoysala vamsa. But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India, historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or Lord of the Male chiefs. This title in the Kannada language was used by the Hoysala kings as their royal signature in their inscriptions. Literary sources from that time in Kannada and Sanskrit have also helped confirm they were natives of the region known today as Karnataka, the first Hoysala family record is dated 950 and names Arekalla as the chieftain, followed by Maruga and Nripa Kama I. The next ruler, Munda, was succeeded by Nripa Kama II who held titles as Permanadi that show an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty. From these modest beginnings, the Hoysala dynasty began its transformation into a subordinate of the Western Chalukyas. Through Vishnuvardhanas expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a kingdom for the first time. He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and moved the capital from Belur to Halebidu, Vishnuvardhanas ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II, who freed the Hoysalas from subordination in 1187–1193. During this time, peninsular India saw a four way struggle for hegemony – Pandya, Kakatiya, Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom. He assumed the title Establisher of the Chola Kingdom, Emperor of the south and he founded the city of Bangalore according to Kannada folklore
21.
Western Ganga dynasty
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Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as Western Gangas to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from Kolar and later, after the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 CE as the dominant power in the Deccan, after a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire, the defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region. Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, the kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Chavundarayas writing, Chavundaraya Purana of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose, many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion to elephant management. Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the ancestry of the founders of the Western Ganga dynasty, some mythical accounts point to a northern origin, while theories based on epigraphy suggest a southern origin. These regions encompass an area of the southern Deccan where the three modern states merge geographically, the area they controlled was called Gangavadi and included regions of the modern districts of Mysore, Hassan Chamarajanagar, Tumkur, Kolar, Mandya and Bangalore in Karnataka state. At times, they controlled some areas in modern Tamil Nadu. The founding king of the dynasty was Konganivarma Madhava who made Kolar his capital around 350, by the time of Harivarma in 390, the Gangas had consolidated their kingdom with Talakad as their capital. Their move from the early capital Kolar may have been a one with the intention of containing the growing Kadamba power. In 529, King Durvinita ascended the throne after waging a war with his brother who was favoured by his father. Some accounts suggest that in this struggle, the Pallavas of Kanchi supported Avinitas choice of heir. From the inscriptions it is known that these battles were fought in Tondaimandalam, considered the most successful of the Ganga kings, Durvinita was well versed in arts such as music, dance, ayurveda and taming wild elephants. Some inscriptions sing paeans to him by comparing him to Yudhishthira and Manu – figures from Hindu mythology known for their wisdom, politically, the Gangas were feudatories and close allies who also shared matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas. This is attested by inscriptions which describe their joint campaigns against their arch enemy, from the year 725 onwards, the Gangavadi territories came to be called as the Gangavadi-96000 comprising the eastern and western provinces of modern south Karnataka. King Sripurusha fought the Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla successfully, bringing Penkulikottai in north Arcot under his control temporarily for which he earned the title Permanadi
22.
Vijayanagara
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Vijaya Nagara was the capital city of the historic Vijayanagara Empire which extended over South India. The citys ruins, surrounding the village of Hampi, are in Ballari district. Most of the city lies on the bank of the Tungabhadra River. The city was built around the center of the Virupaksha temple complex at Hampi. Other holy places lie within its environs, including the site that legend calls as Kishkindha, which includes the historically important Hanuman temple and it is known to house the cave home of Sugriva, the monkey king in the Hindu epic Ramayana. The city at its greatest extent was considerably larger than the described here. The central areas of the city, which include what are now called the Royal Centre and it includes the modern village of Hampi. Another village, Kamalapura, lies just outside the old walled city, surrounded by ruins, the nearest town and railway is in Hospet, about 13 kilometres by road. Hosapete lies within the extents of the old city, though most of the items of interest are walking distance of Hampi. The natural setting for the city is a landscape, dotted with granite boulders. The Tungabhadra river runs through it and provides protection from the north, beyond the hills, on the south bank on which the city was built, a plain extended further the south. Large walls and fortifications of hewn granite defended the centre of the city, the name translates as City of Victory, from vijaya and nagara. As the prosperous capital of the largest and most powerful kingdom of its time in all of India, after Timurs sack of Delhi, North India remained weak and divided up. South India was better off, and the largest and most powerful of the kingdoms was Vijayanagar. This state and city attracted many of the Hindu refugees from the north, the whole city was full of gardens, and because of them, as an Italian visitor in 1420, Nicolo Conti writes, the circumference of the city was sixty miles. A later visitor was Paes, a Portuguese who came in 1522 after having visited the Italian cities of the Renaissance. The city of Vijayanagar, he says, is as large as Rome and very beautiful to the sight, it is full of charm and wonder with its lakes and waterways. It is the city in the world and everything abounds
23.
Vijayanagara Empire
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The Vijayanagara Empire was based in the Deccan Plateau region in South India. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, the empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka. The writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò Da Conti, Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara have revealed the empires power and wealth. The empires legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi, the previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan, efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empires patronage enabled fine arts and literature to new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor, differing theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Vijayanagara empire. Others claim that they were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India. He created the Kampili kingdom, but this was a short lived kingdom during this period of wars, Kampili existed near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra river in northeastern parts of the present-day Karnataka state. It ended after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate, the triumphant army led by Malik Zada sent the news of its victory, over Kampili kingdom, to Muhammad bin Tughluq in Delhi by sending a straw-stuffed severed head of the dead Hindu king. Within Kampili, on the day of certain defeat, the populace committed a jauhar in 1327/28 CE, eight years later, from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom emerged the Vijayanagara Kingdom in 1336 CE. In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the south of the Tungabhadra river. The original capital was in the principality of Anegondi on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in todays Karnataka. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha, italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India. Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers and he quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu, the Sultanate invaded Vijayanagara in 1417 when the latter defaulted in paying the tribute
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Medieval City of Vijayanagara
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The City of Vijayanagara was the urban core of the imperial city and the surrounding principalities of the capital of the Vijayanagar empire during the 14th century to 16th century CE. Notes by foreign travellers such as Abdur Razzak, the Persian who visited Vijayanagara in 1440, the large area between the first and third fortifications contained agricultural fields, gardens and residences. The notes of Robert Sewell describe countless shops and bazaars filled with people from different nationalities between this fortification and the palace, the capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire was founded on the banks of the Tungabhadra River by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I in the early 14th century. The capital city grew with extraordinary rapidity in the decades of Sangama rule. The capital city had splendid layout with forts, palaces, gardens, the Italian traveler Nicolo Conti who visited the city in 1420 CE, estimated the circumference of the city to be sixty miles and was impressed by the strength of its fortifications. Recent excavations have unearthed archaeological artifacts dating from the 3rd century BC to early in the 2nd millennium and these sites include ash mounds, ancient settlements, megalithic cemeteries, temples and rock art. These findings show that the Vijayanagar area was settled for a long period before the creation of the empire. Starting at its outermost fortifications, the principality of Vijayanagar spans from Anegondi in the north to Hosapete in the south, vijayanagaras core, an area of 25 km², includes the Tungabhadra River flowing through rocky terrain with huge boulders piled in massive formations. In addition to this naturally daunting landscape, builders constructed fortifications surrounding the city in several layers. The rocky hillocks made excellent sentinel points for watch towers and granite boulders provided the raw material for temple construction, south of the river the rocky landscape disappears, replaced by flat cultivable land where large and small temples complexes were built. The largest human populations were located to the south of the lands that were watered by a system of clever ducts. At its peak, Vijayanagara may have had up to a million residents, for the sake of simplicity archaeologists have divided the capital area into many zones. Of these, the two zones are the Sacred Centre and the Royal Centre. The former, generally spread along the bank, is characterized by the highest concentration of religious structures. The Royal Centre is notable for its stately structures, both civil and military, the very seat of power of the empire was located at the core of this area. Islamic Quarter also sometimes called, as the Moorish Quarter is located between the slope of the Malyavanta hill towards and the Talarigatta Gate. According to the archaeologists, high-ranking Muslim officers of the kings court, two important legends associated with Hampi, the core area of Vijayanagar, had an important part in making it a pilgrim destination for several centuries prior to the Vijayanagara era. One legend describes a local Goddess, Pampa, who married Virupaksha on the Hemakuta Hill and was considered to be an incarnation of Parvati
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Military of Vijayanagara
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The Military of Vijayanagara supported the Vijayanagara Empire in particular with regard to the empires long-lasting rivalry with the Bahmani Sultanate. Besides a large standing army, the Vijayanagara rulers also maintained a powerful navy and this helped make the Viayanagara empire the most centralised polity ever to have emerged in South India. However, a portion of the imperial income was committed to military purposes. The numerical strength of the Vijayanagara army is disputed, rayawacha countered that the force contained 500,000 foot soldiers,60,000 cavalry and 1,200 war elephants. Deva Raya II, to counter the superior Bahmani cavalry, is believed to have enrolled 2000 Muslim cavalrymen to teach the art of archery to his Hindu soldiers and officers, the Vijayanagara army contained two main branches, being the Kaijeeta Sainya and the Amaranayaka Sainya. Razak Rayala says that the army was on salary, being paid four months rather than by the award of jagirs. The Amaranayaka Sainya was maintained using the feudal system of the Kakatiyas. For this purpose, the empire was divided into Amaras, that were granted to leaders called Nayakas, in return, these Nayakas supplied soldiers when required. The number supplied depended on the rank of the Nayaka, who himself divided lands among his subordinates, the Vijayanagara army consisted primarily of infantry, cavalry and war elephants, armed with bows and arrows, swords and lances as its principal weapons. Although the Vijayanagran kings had little interest in guns, the infantry did have a regiment of matchlockmen, the powerful navy enabled the Vijayanagara rulers to invade Sri Lanka repeatedly. Forts played an important role in medieval warfare, according to tradition, there were eight types of forts. However, Rayawachaka mentions four types of forts and they are giri, stala, jala and vana forts. Krishnaraya suggests that forts were constructed in Gadi and border areas. Pace wrote that many forts were present in border areas, deep forests were grown around forts. Catapults and damboli were used for fort defense, damboli is a cannon which throws stones on enemies. To occupy forts they used lagga systems, krishnadevaraya used them to occupy Kondaveedu fort. Emperor Krishna Deva Raya recruited soldiers, tulu, Kabbali and Morasa State clan members joined in large numbers. Forest tribes including Chenchu, Koya and Boya also sent recruits, Empire training facilities improved bravery, interest in war, and body strength
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Battle of Talikota
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The Battle of Talikota was a watershed battle fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan sultanates. It ended in the defeat of Vijayanagara, resulting in its subsequent weakening, the battle took place at Talikota, today a town in northern Karnataka, about 80 kilometres to the southeast from the city of Bijapur. The Vijayanagara Empire was one of the largest Indian Empires originating from Southern India before the Maratha Empire, the throne of the Vijayanagara Empire had passed from Achyuta Raya, upon his death, to Rama Raya. The Sultanates were in constant fear of a much bigger Vijayanagara Empire united against it, the excessive pride of Vijayanagara in its strength and internal conflicts also added to the cause of the battle. By 29 December 1564 the first battles broke out, Qutb Shah and Nizam Shah, who were friends, decided to go on their own first and led their divisions to clash with Tirumala Deva Rayas division. The vijayanagar army inflicted defeat on the enemy and the Sultans fled in disarray losing thousands of men in the encounter, the Sultans were shaken by this encounter and asked Adil Shah to forget previous arguments and stand by them for the intended counter-attack. The Sultans met secretly and decided that the way to succeed was to resort to stratagem. Nizam Shah and Qutb Shah decided to parley with the Raya who was now planning a large counter-thrust into the flanks, at the same time Adil Shah sent a false message to the Hindu commander that he wished to remain neutral. As a result of these parleys Ramaraya delayed his counter-thrust giving a small, Sultan Imad Shah of Berar made the first thrust by attacking Tirumala Deva Raya s division guarding the Krishna ford. Tirumala fell upon him with his force and in a short but intense encounter destroyed the Sultans army. However, the sultans Nizam Shah, Qutb Shah, Barid Shah on one side and Adil Shah on the other used this distraction to cross the Krishna, Rama Raya, though surprised, rapidly responded. Despite being in his 70s he decided to lead the Hindu armies. He was faced by Nizam Shahs division, Ramarayas first brother Tirumala hurriedly returned to form the left wing of the Hindu army that was countered by Adil Shah and traitorous Hindus under the Maharatta chief Raja Ghorpade. His second brother Venkatadri formed the Hindu right wing that was opposed by Qutb Shah and Barid Shah, on 23 Jan 1565, the armies clashed on the plains near the villages of Rakshasi and Tangadi. Several reports claimed that over a million men were involved, Venkatadri struck early and within the first two hours the Hindu right wings heavy guns fired constantly on the ranks of Barid Shah. As the ranks were softened the Hindu infantry under Venkatadri ploughed through the divisions of Barid Shah annihilating them, the assault was so vigorous that it looked like a Hindu victory was imminent. Qutb Shah was also in retreat, when Nizam Shah sent his forces to shore up the ranks of the Sultans, Nizam Shah himself was then pressed hard by the heavy cannonade from Rama Rayas division and was facing a Hindu infantry thrust with Ramaraya at the helm. At this point the Sultans signaled to the Muslim officers in the Vijayanagaran army to launch a subversive attack, suddenly Ramaraya found his rear surprised by the two Muslim divisions in his ranks turning against him
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Sultanate
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Sultan is a noble title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning strength, authority, rulership, derived from the verbal noun سلطة sulṭah, the dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are referred to as a sultanate. A feminine form of sultan, used by Westerners, is Sultana or Sultanah, but Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial lady, because Turkish grammar uses the same words for women and men. However, this styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans, in a similar usage, the wife of a German field marshal might be styled Frau Feldmarschall. The female leaders in Muslim history are known as sultanas. Special case in Brunei, the Queen Consort is known as Raja Isteri with suffix Pengiran Anak if the queen consort is a royal princess. Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law and these are generally secondary titles, either lofty poetry or with a message, e. g. g. Sultan ul-Mujahidin as champion of jihad, ghaznavid Sultanate Sultans of Great Seljuk Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli Elisu Sultanate and a few others. A Sultan ranked below a Khan and this usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as sultan, but Ottomans themselves used padişah or hünkar to refer to their ruler, the emperors formal title consisted of sultan together with khan. In formal address, the children were also entitled sultan, with imperial princes carrying the title before their given name. Example, Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent, henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title sultan. In Kazakh Khanate a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty elected by clans, the best of sultans was elected as khan by people at Kurultai. See ru, Казахские султаны In a number of states under Mongol or Turkic rule. These administrations were often decimal, using originally princely titles such as khan, malik, in the Persian empire, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day captain in the West, socially in the fifth-rank class, styled Ali Jah
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Ahmadnagar Sultanate
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The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was a late medieval Indian kingdom, located in the northwestern Deccan, between the sultanates of Gujarat and Bijapur. Initially his capital was in the town of Junnar with its fort, in 1494, the foundation was laid for the new capital Ahmadnagar. In 1636 Aurangzeb, then Mugal viceroy of Deccan finally annexed the sultanate to the Mughal empire, Malik Ahmad was the son of Nizam-ul-Mulk Malik Hasan Bahri. After the death of his father, he assumed the appellation of his father and he founded the new capital Ahmadnagar on the bank of the river Sina. After several attempts, he secured the fortress of Daulatabad in 1499. After the death of Malik Ahmad in 1510, his son Burhan, in the initial days of his reign, the control of the kingdom was in the hands of Mukammal Khan, an Ahmadnagar official and his son. Burhan Shah I died in Ahmadnagar in 1553 and he left six sons, of whom Hussain succeeded him. After the death of Hussain Shah I in 1565, his minor son Murtaza ascended the throne, during his minority, his mother Khanzada Humayun Sultana better known in history as Chand Sultana or Chand Bibi ruled as a regent for several years. Murtaza Shah annexed Berar in 1572, on his death in 1588, his son Miran Hussain ascended the throne. But his reign could last only a more than ten months as he was poisoned to death. Ismail, a cousin of Miran Hussain was raised to the throne, but the power was in the hands of Jamal Khan. Jamal Khan was killed in the battle of Rohankhed in 1591 and soon Ismail Shah was also captured and confined by his father Burhan, winning the kingdom, Chand Bibi ascended the throne. After the death of Chand Bibi in July,1600 Ahmadnagar was conquered by the Mughals, although, Ahmadnagar city and its adjoining areas were occupied by the Mughals, an extensive part of the kingdom still remained in possession of the influential officials of the Nizam Shahi dynasty. Malik Ambar and other Ahmadnagar officials defied the Mughals and declared Murtaza Shah II as sultan in 1600 at a new capital Paranda, Malik Ambar became prime minister and Vakil-us-Saltanat of Ahmadnagar. Later, the capital was shifted first to Junnar and then to a new city Khadki, soon, Shah Jahan ordered the Subhedar of Deccan, Mahabat Khan to finish off the Nizamshahi when the commander-in-chief, Shahaji Bhosale was away. But soon, Shahaji with the assistance of Bijapur, placed an infant scion of the Nizam Shahi dynasty, Murtaza on the throne, the scion Nizam and Shahajis family was stationed in the Mahuli Fort. Shah Jahan quickly made an alliance with Mohammed Adilshah of Bijapur, Shahaji tried to break the siege externally several times, but failed. So Jijabai along with young Shivaji successfully escaped from Mahuli in disguise, however, the mother of scion Nizam, Sajeeda was caught while fleeing along with the Nizam
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Berar Sultanate
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Berar was one of the Deccan sultanates. It was established in 1490 following the disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate, the origin of the name Berar or Warhad as it is spelled in Marathi, is not known. Possibly it may be a corruption of Vidarbha, the name of a kingdom in the Deccan which is mentioned in the Mahabharata, the first authentic records show it to have been part of the Andhra or Satavahana empire. On the fall of the Chalukyas in the 12th century, Berar came under the sway of the Yadavas of Deogiri, the perils of this system became apparent when the province was divided into two separate provinces, named after their capitals Gawil and Mahur. The Bahmani dynasty was, however, already tottering to its fall and he proceeded to annex Mahur to his new kingdom and had capital at Ellichpur. Imad-ul-Mulk was by birth a Kanarese Hindu, but had captured as a boy in one of the expeditions against the Vijayanagara empire. Gavilgad and Narnala were also fortified by him and he died in 1504 and his successor, Ala-ud-din resisted the aggression of Ahmadnagar with the help from Bahadur Shah, sultan of Gujarat. The next ruler, Darya tried to align with Bijapur to prevent aggression of Ahamdnagar, in 1568 when Burhan Imad Shah was deposed by his minister Tufal Khan, and assumed the kingship
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Bidar Sultanate
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Bidar sultanate was one of the Deccan sultanates of late medieval southern India. The sultanate was founded in 1492 by Qasim Barid, who was a Turk from Georgia and he joined the service of the Bahmani sultān Muhammad Shah III. He started his career as a sar-naubat but later became the mir-jumla of the Bahmani sultanate, during the reign of Mahmud Shah Bahmani, he became the de facto ruler. After his death in 1504, his son Amir Barid became the prime minister, after the death of Mahmud Shah Bahmani in 1518, he was succeeded by four sultans, one after another, but they were mere puppets in the hands of Amir Barid. When the last Bahmani ruler Kalimullah fled to Bidar in 1527, but he never assumed any royal title. In 1542, he was succeeded by his son Ali Barid, Ali Barid joined the other Deccan sultans in the battle of Talikota against the Vijaynagar Empire in January,1565. After his death in 1580, Ali Barid was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Barid, after his death in 1591, he was succeeded by his infant son Ali Barid II, who was soon dethroned by one of his relative, Amir Barid II. In 1601, he was overthrown by one of his relative. In 1609, he was succeeded by the last ruler, Amir Barid III, in 1619, he was defeated by the Bijapur sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II. Bidar was annexed to Bijapur sultanate, Amir Barid III and his sons were brought to Bijapur and kept under surveillance Ali Barid Shah I was an important figure during the Battle of Talikota. In 1619, Amir Barid III was defeated by the Bijapur sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Bidar was annexed to Mughal sultanate
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Adil Shahi dynasty
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Bijapur had been a province of the Bahmani Sultanate, before its political decline in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on 12 September 1686, the founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, was appointed Bahmani governor of the province, before creating a de facto independent Bijapur state. Yusuf and his son, Ismail, generally used the title Adil Khan, Khan, meaning Chief in Mongolian and adopted in Persian, conferred a lower status than Shah, indicating royal rank. Only with the rule of Yusufs grandson, Ibrahim Adil Shah I, the Bijapur Sultanates borders changed considerably throughout its history. Its northern boundary remained relatively stable, straddling contemporary Southern Maharashtra, the Sultanate expanded southward, first with the conquest of the Raichur Doab following the defeat of the Vijayanagar Empire at the Battle of Talikota in 1565. Later campaigns, notably during the reign of Mohammed Adil Shah, extended Bijapurs formal borders, Bijapur was bounded on the West by the Portuguese state of Goa and on the East by the Sultanate of Golconda, ruled by the Qutb Shahi dynasty. The former Bahmani provincial capital of Bijapur remained the capital of the Sultanate throughout its existence, Bijapur was caught up in the instability and conflict resulting from the collapse of the Bahmani Empire. Bijapur eventually conquered the neighbouring Sultanate of Bidar in 1619, the Portuguese Empire exerted pressure on the major Adil Shahi port of Goa, until it was conquered during the reign of Ibrahim II. The Sultanate was thereafter relatively stable, although it was damaged by the revolt of Shivaji, Shivaji founded an independent Maratha Kingdom which went on to become the Maratha Empire, one of largest empires in India, just before the British conquered India. The greatest threat to Bijapurs security was, from the late 16th century, although it may be the case that the Mughals destroyed the Adilshahi it was Shivajis revolt which weakened the Adilshahi control. Various agreements and treaties imposed Mughal suzerainty on the Adil Shahs, by stages, the demands of their Mughal overlords sapped the Adil Shahs of their wealth until the Mughal conquest of Bijapur in 1686. The founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, may have been a Georgian slave who was purchased by Mahmud Gawan from Iran, yet, Salma Ahmed Farooqui, states, Yusuf was a son of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. According to the historian Mir Rafi-uddin Ibrahim-i Shirazi, or Rafi, Yusufs full name was Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah Savah or Sawahi, the son of Mahmud Beg of Sawa in Iran. Rafis history of the Adil Shahi dynasty was written at the request of Ibrahim Adil Shah II, Rafi-uddin later became the governor of Bijapur for about 15 years. Yusufs bravery and personality raised him rapidly in Sultans favour, resulting in his appointment as the Governor of Bijapur and he built the Citadel or Arkilla and the Faroukh Mahal. Yusuf was a man of culture and he invited poets and artisans from Persia, Turkey and Rome to his court. Hes well known as a ruler who took advantage of the decline of the Bahmani power to himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur in 1498. He married Punji, the sister of a Maratha warrior, when Yusuf died in 1510, his son Ismail was still a boy
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Deccan sultanates
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The Deccan sultanates were five dynasties of various ethnic backgrounds that ruled late medieval kingdoms, namely, Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar in south-western India. The Deccan sultanates were located on the Deccan Plateau, between the Krishna River and the Vindhya Range and these kingdoms became independent during the break-up of the Bahmani Sultanate. In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year, Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528. In 1510, Bijapur repulsed an invasion by the Portuguese against the city of Goa, although generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota. In 1574, after a coup in Berar, Ahmadnagar invaded and conquered it, in 1619, Bidar was annexed by Bijapur. The territory of the sultanate was located in the northwestern Deccan, initially his capital was in Junnar. In 1494, the foundation was laid for the new capital Ahmadnagar, Malik Ahmed Shah after several attempts, secured the great fortress of Daulatabad in 1499. After his death in 1510, his son Burhan, a boy of seven was installed in his place, Burhan Shah I died in Ahmadnagar in 1553. He left six sons, of whom Hussain succeeded him, after the death of Hussain Shah I in 1565, his minor son Murtaza ascended the throne. During his minority, his mother Khanzada Humayun Sultana ruled as a regent for several years, Murtaza Shah annexed Berar in 1574. On his death in 1588, his son Miran Hussain ascended the throne, but his reign could last only a little more than ten months as he was poisoned to death. Ismail, a cousin of Miran Hussain was raised to the throne, but the power was in the hands of Jamal Khan. Jamal Khan was killed in the battle of Rohankhed in 1591 and soon Ismail Shah was also captured and confined by his father Burhan, after the death of Burhan Shah his eldest son Ibrahim ascended the throne. Ibrahim Shah died only after a few months in the battle with Bijapur sultanate, soon, Chand Bibi, the aunt of Ibrahim Shah, proclaimed Bahadur, the infant son Ibrahim Shah as the rightful Sultan and she became the regent of him. In 1596, Mughal attack led by Murad was repulsed bravely by Chand Bibi, after the death of Chand Bibi in July,1600 Ahmadnagar was conquered by the Mughals and Bahadur Shah was imprisoned. But Malik Ambar and other Ahmadnagar officials defied the Mughals and declared Murtaza Shah II as sultan in 1600 at a new capital Paranda, Malik Ambar became prime minister and Vakil-us-Saltanat of Ahmadnagar. Later, the capital was shifted first to Junnar and then to a new city Khadki. After the death of Malik Ambar, his son Fath Khan surrendered to the Mughals in 1633 and handed over the young Nizam Shahi ruler Hussain Shah, who was sent as a prisoner to the fort of Gwalior
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Qutb Shahi dynasty
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The Qutb Shahi dynasty was a Muslim Turkmens dynasty that initially patronized Persianate culture. Its members were called the Qutub Shahis and were the ruling family of the kingdom of Golkonda in modern-day India. The Golconda sultanate was constantly in conflict with the Adil Shahis, in 1636, Shah Jahan forced the Qutb Shahis to recognize Mughal suzerainty, which lasted until 1687 when the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb conquered the Golcondan sultanate. The dynastys founder, Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk, migrated to Delhi with his uncle, Allah-Quli, some of his relatives, later he migrated south, to the Deccan and served the Bahmani sultan, Mohammad Shah. He conquered Golconda, after the disintegration of the Bahmani Kingdom into the five Deccan sultanates, soon after, he declared independence from the Bahmani Sultanate, took the title Qutub Shah, and established the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda. He was later assassinated in 1543 by his son, Jamsheed and he later died in 1550 from cancer. Jamsheeds young son reigned for a year, at time the nobility brought back. During the reign of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, relations between Hindus and Muslims were strengthened, even to the point of Hindus resuming their religious festivals like Diwali and Holi. Some Hindus rose to prominence in the Qutb Shahi state, the most important example being the ministers Madanna and Akkanna. Golconda, and with the construction of the Char Minar, later Hyderabad served as capitals of the sultanate, the dynasty ruled Golconda for 171 years, until the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb conquered the Deccan in 1687. The Qutub Shahi rulers were great builders, whose structures included the Char Minar, Quli Qutb Mulks court became a haven for Persian culture and literature. Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote poems in Dakhini Urdu, Persian and Telugu, subsequent poets and writers, however wrote in Urdu, while using vocabulary from Persian, Hindi and Telugu languages. By 1535, the Qutub Shahis were using Telugu for their revenue, although Telugu was not their mother tongue, the Golconda rulers spoke and wrote Telugu, and patronized Telugu so exclusively they were termed the Telugu Sultans. In 1543, fearing for his life, Prince Ibrahim Quli fled to the Vijayanagaran court, upon his enthronement as sultan in 1550, Ibrahim Quli was thoroughly acquainted with Telugu aesthetics. The Qutb Shahi architecture was Indo-Persian, a culmination of Hindu, Moorish, Mughal, some examples of Golcondan Indo-Persian architecture are the Golconda Fort, tombs of the Qutb Shahis, Char Minar and the Char Kaman, Mecca Masjid and the Toli mosque. The Qutb Shahi dynasty has been considered a composite of Hindu-Muslim religio-social culture and these structures are made of beautifully carved stonework, and surrounded by landscaped gardens. They are open to the public and receive many visitors, Hyderabad Deccan Battle of Talikota For FURTHER READING, Chopra, R. M. The Rise, Growth And Decline of Indo-Persian Literature,2012, Iran Culture House, New Delhi
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Kodagu district
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Kodagu is an administrative district in Karnataka, India. Before 1956 it was an administratively separate Coorg State, at which point it was merged into an enlarged Mysore State and it occupies an area of 4,102 square kilometres in the Western Ghats of southwestern Karnataka. In 2001 its population was 548,561,13. 74% of which resided in the urban centres. Agriculture is the most important factor that upholds the economy of Kodagu, Coorg is rich in natural resources which included timber and spices. Madikeri is the headquarters of Kodagu, Kodagu is known for its coffee and its people. The dominant group are the indigenous and other ethnic groups, the chief languages presently spoken in Kodagu are Kodava, Are Bhashe, Kannada, Tulu, Konkani and Urdu. Kodagu is home to the speakers of the Kodava language. Kodagu is located on the slopes of the Western Ghats. It has an area of 4,102 km2. It is a district, the lowest elevation of which is 120 metres above sea-level. The highest peak, Tadiandamol, rises to 1,750 metres, with Pushpagiri, the main river in Kodagu is the Kaveri, which originates at Talakaveri, located on the eastern side of the Western Ghats, and with its tributaries, drains the greater part of Kodagu. In July and August, rainfall is intense, and there are often showers into November, yearly rainfall may exceed 4,000 millimetres in some areas. In dense jungle tracts, rainfall reaches 3,000 to 3,800 millimetres and 1,500 to 2,500 millimetres in the district to the west. Kodagu has a temperature of 15 °C, ranging from 11 to 28 °C, with the highest temperatures occurring in April. The principal town, and district capital, is Madikeri, or Mercara, other significant towns include Virajpet, Kushalanagara, Somwarpet and Gonikoppal. The district is divided into the three talukas, Madikeri, Virajpet and Somwarpet. Virajpet is the largest Taluk and comprises the towns Virajpet, Gonikoppal, Siddapura, Ponnampet, the Kodavas were the earliest agriculturists in Kodagu, having lived there for centuries. Being a warrior community as well, they carried arms during times of war and had their own chieftains, the Haleri dynasty, an offshoot of the Keladi Nayakas, ruled Kodagu between 1600 and 1834
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History of Kodagu
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The district of Kodagu in present-day Karnataka comprises the area of the former princely state of the same name. Kannada inscriptions speak of Kudagu nad as well, both the name of the natives and of the region are synonymous. The Haleri dynasty was an offshoot of Keladi Nayakas also called Ikkeri Arasu dynasty, the capital was removed in 1681 by Muddu Raja to Madikeri. In 1770 a disputed succession led to the intervention of Hyder Ali of Mysore in favour of Linga Raja, who had fled to him for justice, as a gesture of his gratitude the Raja ceded certain territories and offered to pay tribute. On Linga Rajas death in 1780 Hyder Ali interned his sons, who were minors, in a fort in Mysore, in 1782, however, the Kodavas rose in rebellion and drove out the Mysore troops. Two years later Tipu Sultan incited the Kodavas to become violent by means of a speech made in Madikeri. In that speech he spoke about five brothers having a wife in common among the Hindus and he punished the Kodavas and reduced the country, but the Kodavas having again rebelled in 1785, he vowed their destruction. Kodagu was partitioned among Mysorean proprietors, and held down by garrisons in four forts, by the ill meant treaty of peace Kodagu, though not adjacent to the British East India Companys territories, was included in the cessions forced upon Tipu. On the spot where he had first met the British commander, General Abercromby and those who were converted into Islam by Tipu were settled in Kodagu in their respective villages. Parts of Northern Kodagu had been depopulated as Tipus men had killed the Kodava farmers of those regions, so the Raja got Tulu and Kannada farmers from neighbouring Sulya and Sakleshpura to settle down in those regions. Meanwhile craftsmen and farmers from Northern Kerala, called Airi and Heggade, were settled in parts of Kodagu at that time. Konkani Roman Catholics who escaped imprisonment in Srirangapatna were settled down in Virajpet town, while some 80,000 Kodavas were reported missing, some 10, 000-15,000 Kodavas still existed in Kodagu at that time. The total population of Kodagu was very small at that time as a result of the mass killings and his brother Linga Raja, however, after acting as regent for his niece, announced in 1811, his own assumption of the government. He died in 1820, and was succeeded by his son Chikka Vira Raja, a youth of twenty, among his victims were all the members of the families of his predecessors, including Devammaji. The last few Rajas and their family members married members of the Mukkatira and it was a short but bloody campaign that occurred in which a number of British men and officers were killed. Near Somwarpet, where the Coorgs were led by Mathanda Appachu the resistance had been most furious, but this Coorg campaign came to a quick end when the Raja himself cowardly surrendered to the British. On 11 April 1834, the raja was deposed by Colonel Fraser, the agent with the force. In 1852 the raja, who had deported to Vellore, obtained leave to visit England with his favorite daughter Gauramma
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Captivity of Kodavas at Seringapatam
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These captives were forcibly deported, some of them were converted and some were killed. The estimated numbers of the captives vary according to different sources, during the Third Anglo-Mysore War 5,000 Coorg men along with their families, amounting to 12,000 people escaped from prison in Seringapatam and came back into Coorg. The conquest of Coorg, by Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore and father of Tipu Sultan, lasted 3 months, the fort of Coorg surrendered in 1765 and the Raja had previously fled into Malabar region. Hyder conquered Coorg from its king and placed his garrison in its capital Madikeri and he gave gifts to the twelve barons who had been under the king, levied money from them and returned to his capital Seringapatam in Mysore. When Hyder Ali unexpectedly invaded Coorg, some Coorgs were assembled on a hill when Hyders troops encompassed it. Hyder offered five rupees for every head of a Coorg that was brought before him, after some time when his soldiers brought him 700 heads, Hyder got the carnage stopped. Coorg was again invaded by Hyder in 1773 at the invitation of Linga Raja who claimed the throne for his nephew Appaji Raja against Devappa Raja of Horamale, in 1774, Devaya the Raja of Kodagu rebelled, made his escape and hid in Basavapatnam. He was traced, caught and imprisoned in Srirangapatna, Hyder had him punished and had eminent men hanged. After occupying the country, Hyder gave it to Appaji Raja, Appaji died in 1776 and Linga Raja, his uncle, succeeded him. Linga Raja died in 1780 leaving behind his sons, the eldest being Vira Rajendra. As they were young, Hyder became their guardian and took over Coorg completely, instead of setting a son of the previous Raja, Hyder Ali made a priest the ruler in Coorg. The Coorgs were enraged with this and hence revolted in June 1782, Hyder got the princes removed from Madikeri to Goruru so as to deprive the Coorgs of a rallying point. The Coorgs had rebelled and driven out the Sultanates forces, when Tipu became ruler of Mysore he ordered the princes removed from Goruru and placed in Periapatam. Then he sent Hyder Ali Beg and Raja Kankeri to suppress the Coorg rebels, at first they achieved some success but were then defeated by the Coorgs. Beg fled while Raja Kankeri was killed, in 1785 Tipu marched into Coorg and defeated the stiff resistance of the rebels. Tipu occupied Mercara renamed it Zafarabad, appointed Zain ul Abidin Mahdavi the faujdar in charge of Coorg, but when Tipu left, two Nairs came to Coorg, occupied it and prepared to take Mercara. They incited the Coorgs and rebellion broke out in Kodagu that same year. The faujdar then appealed to Tipu for help, in response Tipu sent some troops with general Janulabdin into Coorg to the Faujdars relief
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