1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
2.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
3.
Tamil Nadu
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Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
Tamil Nadu
–
Location of Tamil Nadu (marked in red) in
India
Tamil Nadu
–
Sage
Agastya father of Tamil literature,
Sangam period
Tamil Nadu
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Megalithic Sarcophagus burial from Tamil Nadu.
4.
Kanyakumari district
–
Kanyakumari district is the southernmost district in Tamil Nadu state and mainland India. It is the second largest district in the state in terms of population density, the district stands first in terms of literacy rate in the state. Kanyakumari district has a topography with sea on three sides and the mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the northern side. A few artifacts unearthed by excavations in there. The Presidency was later renamed Tamil Nadu and Kanyakumari, today, is one of the 32 districts of Tamil Nadu state, many historical assumptions persist in the district and state, which associate sages such as Vyasa, Agastya, Tolkappiyar, Avvaiyar and Thiruvalluvar to the district. The district is also the birthplace of Ayyavazhi, the area that comprises the current Kanyakumari district was a part of the old Ay kingdom of the first and second Sangham ages. Following the decline of the Ay kingdoms, the area became Venad, the wealth of the Nanjalnadu beckoned many invaded including the Nayaks and later an Islamist army during the reign of Umayamma Rani. The Venad region was in anarchy before Marthanda Varma ascended the throne in 1729 AD, before his reign the Samanthan Nairs ruled the province. Under their rule anarchy was dominant in Kanyakumari region, however, Marthanda Varma brought a sense of disorder under control by annexing the nearby territories, putting down the feudal lords and establishing the strong state of Travancore. He had also bought some portions of Kanyakumari from the then viceroy making it the southern boundary, under his rule the district improved in a social context as well as economically. The famous battle of Colachel took place in the district, later, the maharajahs of Travancore built the forts at Aramboly to prevent any invasion from the Carnatic. Key elements of Velu Thampi Dalawas revolt occurred in the area, in the year 1949, the area became a part of the reestablished Travancore Cochin state. The people of Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks, an extreme agitation by Tamil speaking residents under the leadership of Marshal Nesamony took place for including Kanyakumari within Tamil Nadu. Eventually the merger happened in 1956 based on language reorganization of states, the district of Kanyakumari is the southern most districts in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is situated between 77°15 and 77°36 east latitude and 8°03 and 8°35 north longitude, the district has borders with Tirunelveli district, the Gulf of Mannar, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the state of Kerala. Kanyakumari includes the special grade village of Chinnamuttom, located at the southernmost point of the Indian Subcontinent, for administrative purposes, the district comprises four taluks, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, and Vilavancode. At the lower levels of administration, there are 99 village panchayats, the major towns of the district include, Agastheeswaram taluk, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari, Agastheeswaram, Suchindram and Rajakkamangalam. Kalkulam taluk, Padmanabhapuram-Thuckalay, Colachel, Kalkulam, Thiruvithamcode, Kurunthancode, Thiruvattar and Kulasekaram, Vilavancode Taluk, Karungal, Kuzhithurai-Marthandam, Vilavancode, Killiyur, Munchirai, Manjalumoodu Arumanai and Melpuram
Kanyakumari district
–
Statue of ancient Tamil poet
Thiruvalluvar who wrote the
Thirukkural, in
Kanniyakumari
Kanyakumari district
–
An octo-circular
Ayyavazhi Nizhal Thangal near
Thiruvattar on the
Martandam -
Kulasekaram road.
Kanyakumari district
–
View from the
Mathur Hanging Trough bridge with the
Pahrali river flowing below.
Kanyakumari district
–
Keeriparai, the district comprises a sizeable area of lush forests
5.
District Collector
–
A District Collector, often abbreviated to Collector, is the foremost Indian Administrative Service officer in charge of revenue collection and administration of a district in India. The Collector is assisted by Deputy Collectors, Assistant Collectors, Sub Collectors, District Administration in India is a legacy of the British Raj. District Collectors were members of the Indian Civil Service, and were charged with supervising general administration in the district, warren Hastings introduced the office of the District Collector in 1772. As District Magistrate, he exercised general supervision over the courts and in particular. The office was meant to achieve the purpose of collecting revenue. The Superintendent of Police, Inspector General of Jails, the Surgeon General, the Divisional Forest Officer, until the later part of the nineteenth century, no native was eligible to become a district collector. But with the introduction of competitive examinations for the Indian Civil Services. The district continued to be the unit of administration after India gained independence in 1947, the role of the District Collector remained largely unchanged, except for separation of most judicial powers to judicial officers of the district. They are appointed by the State government, from among the pool of Indian Administrative Service officers in the state, the members of the IAS are either directly recruited by the Union Public Service Commission or promoted from Provincial Civil Services. A District Magistrate, District Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Commissioner are transferred from this post by State government, District Collectors are entrusted with a wide range of duties in the jurisdiction of the district. Acts as ex-officio chairman of the District Development Authority in absence of Divisional Commissioner, a District Magistrate/District Collector/Deputy Commissioner/District Commissioner is assisted by some I. A. S and P. C
District Collector
–
A District Collector/Magistrate during the weekly administrative meeting in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India.
6.
Tamil-Malayalam language
–
The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. There are also groups of Dravidian-speaking scheduled tribes, who live beyond the mainstream communities, such as the Kurukh. Epigraphically the Dravidian languages have been attested since the 2nd century BCE, only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, Brahui in Pakistan and Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal. Caldwell coined the term Dravidian for this family of languages, based on the usage of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa in the work Tantravārttika by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa. In his own words, Caldwell says, The word I have chosen is Dravidian, from Drāviḍa, I have, therefore, no doubt of the propriety of adopting it. The 1961 publication of the Dravidian etymological dictionary by T, emeneau proved a notable event in the study of Dravidian linguistics. As for the origin of the Sanskrit word drāviḍa itself, researchers have proposed various theories, basically the theories deal with the direction of derivation between tamiẓ and drāviḍa. There is no definite philological and linguistic basis for asserting unilaterally that the name Dravida also forms the origin of the word Tamil, Kamil Zvelebil cites the forms such as dramila damiḷa and then goes on to say, The forms damiḷa/damila almost certainly provide a connection of drviḍa and. Tamiḷ < tamiẓ. whereby the further development might have been *tamiẓ > *damiḷ > damiḷa- / damila- and further, with the intrusive, hypercorrect -r-, an analogical case of DED1033 Ta. kamuku, Tu. kangu areca nut, Skt. kramu. Sinhala BCE inscriptions cite dameḍa-, damela- denoting Tamil merchants and it appears that damiḷa- was older than draviḍa- which could be its Sanskritization. Based on what Krishnamurti states, the Sanskrit word draviḍa itself is later than damiḷa since the dates for the forms with -r- are centuries later than the dates for the forms without -r-. The Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary lists for the Sanskrit word draviḍa a meaning of collective Name for 5 peoples, viz. the Āndhras, Karṇāṭakas, Gurjaras, Tailaṅgas, the Dravidian languages form a close-knit family. They are descended from the Proto-Dravidian language, there is reasonable agreement on how they are related to each other. Most scholars agree on four groups, North, Central, South-Central, earlier classifications grouped Central and South-Central Dravidian in a single branch. The classification below follows Krishnamurti in grouping South-Central and South Dravidian, languages recognized as official languages of India appear here in boldface. Some authors deny that North Dravidian forms a subgroup, splitting it into Northeast and Northwest. In some words, *c is retracted to /k/ and this development is however also found in several other Dravidian languages, including Kannada, Kodagu and Tulu. A few morphological parallels between Brahui and Kurukh-Malto are also known, but according to McAlpin they are analyzable as shared archaisms rather than shared innovations, approximately 29% of Indias population spoke Dravidian languages in 1981
Tamil-Malayalam language
–
Language families in South Asia
Tamil-Malayalam language
–
North
Tamil-Malayalam language
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Jambai Tamil Brahmi inscription dated to the early Sangam age
7.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
8.
Languages of India
–
Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 75% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 20% of Indians. Other languages belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino-Tibetan, Tai-Kadai, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union were supposed to become international form of Indian numerals consequently apart from numerals in English language. The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language, English was legislated to be reduced to the status of a subsidiary official language after fifteen years. But this provision of the constitution was negated by a provision in Section 3, the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution lists 22 languages, which have been referred to as scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of language to Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam. According to Census of India of 2001, India has 122 major languages and 1599 other languages, however, figures from other sources vary, primarily due to differences in definition of the terms language and dialect. The 2001 Census recorded 30 languages which were spoken by more than a million speakers and 122 which were spoken by more than 10,000 people. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India, Persian, Persian was the court language during the Mughal period in India. It reigned as a language for several centuries until the era of British colonisation. Up until now, English is an important language in India and it is used in higher education and in some areas of the Indian government. Hindi, the most widely spoken language in India today, serves as the lingua franca across much of North, however, there have been anti-Hindi agitations in South India, most notably in the state of Tamil Nadu. There is also opposition in non-Hindi belt states towards any perceived imposition of Hindi in these areas, the southern Indian languages are from the Dravidian family. The Dravidian languages are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. Proto-Dravidian languages were spoken in India in the 4th millennium BCE, the Dravidian languages are classified in four groups, North, Central, South-Central and South Dravidian. The northern Indian languages from the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family evolved from Old Indic by way of the Middle Indic Prakrit languages, the Indo-Aryan languages developed and emerged in three stages — Old Indo-Aryan, Middle Indo-Aryan stage and New Indo-Aryan. The modern north Indian Indo-Aryan languages all evolved into distinct, recognisable languages in the New Indo-Aryan Age, Persian or Pharsi was brought into India by the Ghaznavi and other Turko-Afghan dynasties as the court language. Persians influenced the art, history and literature of the region for more than 500 years, resulting in the Persianisation of many Indian tongues, each of the northern Indian languages had different influences. For example, Hindustani was strongly influenced by Sanskrit, Persian, Modern Standard Hindi is recognised as the official language of India while Urdu is a scheduled language. The first official survey of language diversity in the Indian subcontinent was carried out by Sir George Abraham Grierson from 1898 to 1928, titled the Linguistic Survey of India, it reported a total of 179 languages and 544 dialects
Languages of India
–
Language families of the
Indian subcontinent
Languages of India
–
North Indian Brahmi found in Ashok pillar.
Languages of India
–
Tamil-Brahmi inscription in
Jambaimalai.
Languages of India
–
The
Halmidi inscription, the oldest known inscription in the Kannada script and language. The inscription is dated to the 450 CE - 500 CE period.
9.
Indian Standard Time
–
Indian Standard Time is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka, with a time offset of UTC+05,30. India does not observe daylight saving time or other seasonal adjustments, in military and aviation time IST is designated E*. Indian Standard Time is calculated on the basis of 82.30 E longitude, in Shankargarh Fort, in the tz database, it is represented by Asia/Kolkata. The Central observatory was moved from Chennai to a location at Shankargarh Fort Allahabad district, daylight Saving Time was used briefly during the China–Indian War of 1962 and the Indo–Pakistani Wars of 1965 and 1971. Inhabitants of the states have to advance their clocks with the early sunrise. In the late 1980s, a team of researchers proposed separating the country two or three time zones to conserve energy. The binary system that they suggested involved a return to British–era time zones, in 2001, the government established a four–member committee under the Ministry of Science and Technology to examine the need for multiple time zones and daylight saving. In Assam, tea gardens follow a separate time zone, known as the Chaibagaan or Bagan time, still Indian Standard Time remains the only officially used time. The filmmaker Jahnu Barua has been campaigning for a time zone for the past 25 years. In 2010, he suggested creating a time zone for the Development of Northeastern Region. In 2014, Chief Minister of Assam Tarun Gogoi started campaigning for another time zone for Assam, however, the proposal would need to be cleared by the Central Government of India. Official time signals are generated by the Time and Frequency Standards Laboratory at the National Physical Laboratory in New Delhi, the signals are based on atomic clocks and are synchronised with the worldwide system of clocks that support the Coordinated Universal Time. IST is taken as the time as it passes through almost the centre of India. To communicate the exact time to the people, the time is broadcast over the state-owned All India Radio. Telephone companies have dedicated phone numbers connected to mirror time servers that also relay the precise time, another increasingly popular means of obtaining the time is through Global Positioning System receivers
Indian Standard Time
–
IST in relation with the bordering nations
10.
Postal Index Number
–
A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is a code in the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. The code is six digits long, the PIN Code system was introduced on 15 August 1972 by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications. The system was introduced to simplify the manual sorting and delivery of mail by eliminating confusion over incorrect addresses, similar place names, there are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region, the second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices, a state may have one or more sorting districts depending on the volumes of mail handled. The fourth digit represents the route on which a Delivery office is located in the sorting district and this is 0 for offices in the core area of the sorting district. The last two represent the delivery office within the sorting district starting from 01 which would be the GPO or HO. The numbering of the office is done chronologically with higher numbers assigned to newer delivery offices. If the volume of mails handled at an office is too large, a new delivery office is created. Thus two delivery offices situated next to each other only have the first four digits in common. Each PIN code is mapped to exactly one delivery post office which receives all the mail to be delivered to one or more lower offices within its jurisdiction, all of which share the same code. The delivery office can either be a General Post Office, a Head Office or Sub Office which are located in urban areas. The post from the office is sorted and routed to other delivery offices for a different PIN or to one of the relevant sub offices or branch offices for the same PIN. Branch offices are located in areas and have limited postal services
Postal Index Number
–
A post box with PIN (571120) marked on it
Postal Index Number
–
2-digit postcode areas in India(defined through the first two postcode digits)
11.
Vehicle registration plate
–
A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
Vehicle registration plate
–
Some
jurisdictions license non-traditional vehicles, such as
golf carts, particularly on on-road vehicles, such as this one in
Put-in-Bay, Ohio.
Vehicle registration plate
–
Burkina passenger plate
Vehicle registration plate
–
Burkina Faso Gendarmerie plate
Vehicle registration plate
–
Botswana plate
12.
Devi Kanya Kumari
–
Devi Kanya Kumari is goddess Shree Bhagavathy in the form of an adolescent girl child. Devi is also known as Shree Baala Bhadra or Shree Baala and she is popularly known as Bhagavathy Devi. She is also known by other names, including Kanya Devi and Devi Kumari. She is also worshiped as Shree Bhadrakali by devotees, Sage Parashurama is said to have performed the consecration of the temple. The worship of Devi Kanya Kumari dates back to the Vedic times and she has been mentioned in Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Sangam works Manimekalai, Puranaanooru and Nārāyaṇa Upanishad, a Vaishnava upanishad in the Taittiriya Samhita of Krishna Yajur Veda. As directed by his Guru Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Swami Vivekananda, came here to seek Devis blessing in December 1892 and it is in this location he decided to embark on the missionary work to a higher level of action rather than being passive like the usual Sanyasis. Swami Brahmananda and Swami Nirmalananda, another two disciples of Sri Ramakrishna Parama Hamsa, also worshiped Devi Kanyakumari, in fact, Swami Nirmalananda brought several small girls from many parts of Kerala to worship Bahagavathy in 1935-36 period. The rites and rituals of the temple is organised and classified by following Sankaracharyas treatise, Travancore joined the independent Indian Union in 1947. Later in the state partition Kanyakumari became part of Tamil Nadu. the supreme one, the less and with different forms, the nirguna, the unbiased. However, as the Veda and similar literature of ancient times are of Shruthi nature, so for using similies, and satyres for a poem, they personified many manifestations of the supreme almighty for better understanding. When Upanishads were created in the years, it changed into Smruthi. The personifications of the similes became characters in the Puranas’, during the later stage of Vedic era, when Purana, Vedanta and Itihas literatures emerged, the importance of the basic nature elements Agni, Varuna, Vayu and Indra in the literature decreased. The worshiping of The Supreme Almighty gradually became more developed and cultured along with the literature like Bhagavad Gita, different Vedantas resulted in the formation of various sects and communities addressed the Almighty in different names. The literatures became more focused on creating guides for leading a better way of life, different forms of worship arose, and different manifestations arose, however the worship was more or less directed towards The Almighty. The nature in which we are part of is defined as the manifested un-manifested form of the Almighty, the material or manifestation is everything in the universe people can feel with their senses. The non-material or unmanifested form of the Almighty is that things which people cannot feel by their senses, the feminine aspects of The Almighty are called as Prakriti, and the male aspects are called as Purusha. The Prakriti is addressed in different names by different Hindu communities as Adi-parashakti, Bhadra, Shakti, Devi, Bhagavathi, Amman, Rajarajeshwari, Shodashi, in Tantra, the worship of Prakriti is done in different methods, Dakshinachara, Vamachara and Madhyama in different temples. The name of Devi in temples during Saatvika or Dakshina rites is Shree Bhagavathy, shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence and substance of virtually everything in creation, seen or unseen, including Shiva himself
Devi Kanya Kumari
–
Bhagavthy Amman temple, Kanyakumari.
Devi Kanya Kumari
–
A view from atop to ocean
Devi Kanya Kumari
–
Shiva carrying the corpse of
Sati Devi
Devi Kanya Kumari
–
History
13.
Indian subcontinent
–
Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
Indian subcontinent
–
Indian subcontinent
14.
Laccadive Sea
–
The Laccadive Sea or Lakshadweep Sea is a body of water bordering India, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka. It is located to the west of Kerala and this warm sea has a stable water temperature through the year and is rich in marine life, with the Gulf of Mannar alone hosting about 3,600 species. Trivandrum, Kochi, Colombo, Quilon and Malé are the cities on the shore of the Laccadive Sea. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Laccadive Sea as follows, a line running from Dondra Head in Ceylon to the most Southerly point of Addu Atoll. The West coasts of Ceylon and India, water temperature is rather constant through the year, averaging 26–28 °С in summer and 25 °С in winter. Salinity is 34‰ in the center and northern part and up to 35. 5‰ in the south, the coasts are sandy but the deeper parts are covered in silt. There are numerous coral reefs in the sea, such as the Lakshadweep islands which are made up of atolls, the Gulf of Mannar is known for its pearl banks of Pinctada radiata and Pinctada fucata for at least two thousand years. Pliny the Elder praised the pearl fishery of the gulf as most productive in the world, although extraction of natural pearls is considered too expensive in most parts of the world, it is still conducted in the gulf. Also collected in numbers are Shankha mollusks whose shells are used as a ritual. Other mollusks of the sea are either too scarce or not popular in the Indian society, another traditional occupation in the Laccadive Sea is fishing. The annual fish catch is 2,000 to 5,000 tonnes from the Lakshadweep islands, perches, halfbeaks, Carangidae, needlefish and rays are also caught near the reefs. Shrimp, Achelata and small fish, such as Sprattus, Pomacentridae and Apogonidae are widely used as a bait by the Laccadive islanders. With about 3,600 species of flora and fauna, the Gulf of Mannar is regarded as one of the richest marine biological resources in the world. Of these 3,600 species,44 are protected,117 are corals,79 crustaceans,108 sponges,260 mollusks,441 fin fishes,147 seaweeds and 17 mangroves. In 1986, a group of 21 islands and nearby waters with the area of 560 km² were declared Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. The park and its zone were designated as a Biosphere Reserve in 1989. The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 10,500 km² of ocean, islands and the adjoining coastline, and is the largest such reserve in India. Most of its area is restricted for outsiders and the access of boats is subject to strict rules, from about 150,000 people living in the buffer zone and more than 70% of them depend on the coastal marine resources
Laccadive Sea
–
A View of the Laccadive Sea from
Villingili
Laccadive Sea
–
Laccadive Sea ലക്ഷദ്വീപ് കടല്
Laccadive Sea
–
Pearl fishing in the
Gulf of Mannar, ca. 1926
15.
Cardamom Hills
–
Not to be confused with Cardamom Mountains in Cambodia. The Cardamom Hills are hills of southern India and part of the southern Western Ghats located in southeast Kerala and their name comes from the cardamom spice grown in much of the hills cool elevation, which also supports pepper and coffee. The Western Ghats, Periyar Sub-Cluster including the Cardamom Hills, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site, the Cardamom Hills central point is about 9°52′N 77°09′E. They cover about 2,800 km2 of mountainous terrain with deep valleys and it includes Idukki Dam and Mullaperiyar Dam. They conjoin the Anaimalai Hills to the northwest, the Palni Hills to the northeast, the crest of the hills form the boundary between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Anamudi in Eravikulam National Park, is the highest peak in western ghats, the hills experience average daily temperatures of 15 °C in winter to 31 °C in summer. The annual rainfall of 2,000 mm to 3,000 mm in Periyar decreases to less than 1,500 mm in the east in Srivilliputtur Wildlife Sanctuary, on the western side, two-thirds of the precipitation is received during the southwest monsoon from June to September. The areas also receive rainfall from the northeast monsoon and from pre-monsoon showers and these hills are made up largely of several contiguous protected areas intended to restrict human access, protect specific endangered species and preserve some of the still undeveloped forest biomes. The central part of the hills comprise the Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary covering an area of 777 km2, the 350 km2 core zone of the sanctuary is the Periyar National Park and Tiger Reserve. Periyar is an ecotourism destination. To the south of the Periyar Tiger Reserve are the forests of the Ranni, Konni. The Cardamom Hill Reserve is within the Cardamom Hills Idukki District and it comprises about 15,721 acres as per 1897 royal proclamation of the Kingdom of Travancore. But the extent of land in accordance with the boundaries of the notification is about 334 Sq miles. It is bordered by the Tamil Nadu border to the east, Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary on the south, the Periyar River on the west, now it is situated in the Idukki District of Kerala. According to the Chief Secretary of the Government of Kerala, Cardamom Hill land is Government land under the control of the Revenue Department for more than a century. The total extent of the Cardamom Hill area was 1071.9746 km2 of which 568.6 km2 was assigned under various Land Assignment Rules. The balance of 503.38 km2 is leased to farmers for cardamom cultivation The CHR accounts for about 70 percent of the production of India. CHR contains The Cardamom Research Station, situated in the Pampadumpara village of Udumbanchola taluk and it is located on the eastern side of Kumily-Munnar road
Cardamom Hills
–
Cardamom plants
16.
Western Ghats
–
Western Ghats மேற்கு தொடர்ச்சி மலை is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight hottest hot-spots of biological diversity in the world and it is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the edge of the Deccan Plateau. These hills cover 160,000 km2 and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India, the Western Ghats block southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m, at least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau, geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar, after the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the reaching a thickness of 3 km. Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of limestone, iron ore. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are found in the southern hills. The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north and it traverses south past the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The northern portion of the coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, the range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meets the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris in northwestern Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris connects Biligiriranga Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi, the highest peak in Western Ghats, following is a list of some of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats, The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats include Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani, majority of streams draining the Western Ghats join these rivers and carry large volume of water during the monsoon months
Western Ghats
–
A view of
Anamudi, the highest peak of the Western Ghats 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) from
Eravikulam National Park, Kerala.
Western Ghats
Western Ghats
–
The Dense Vegetation in the Watchumaram Region towards valparai
Western Ghats
–
Shola Grasslands and forests in the
Kudremukh National Park, Western Ghats,
Karnataka.
17.
Nagercoil
–
Nagercoil is a town in the southernmost Indian state of Tamil Nadu and a municipality and administrative headquarters of Kanyakumari District. The city is situated close to the tip of the Indian peninsula and it was briefly part of the erstwhile Travancore state, till almost a decade after Indias Independence from Britain in 1947. In 1956, it was merged with Tamil Nadu, in its earlier days, the town and its surroundings were known as Nanjilnadu. Nagercoil holds a number of institutions, hospitals, offices and industries. It is also the hub of industrial and commercial activity in the district, the minerals ilmenite and monazite are mined there. The land is surrounded by hills and lush paddy fields. It is also known for different varieties of bananas, Nagercoil is a land of great traditional and cultural significance. Nagercoil derives its name from an old temple called the Nagaraja Temple. It has been an important temple for Hindus, for centuries and is also a tourist attraction, according to certain accounts, it may once have been a Jain temple as icons of the Tirthankaras Mahavira and Parshvanatha are found on the pillars of the temple. Archaeological records also show Jain influences in ancient times, the modern history of the town is interwoven with the history of Travancore state. The modern town of Nagercoil grew around Kottar, now a locality within the municipal limits. The town came to prominence during and after the reign of Maharaja Marthanda Varma, the king of Travancore, although Travancore was considered by many to be a Hindu administration, the rulers generally showed religious tolerance, and were not hostile to European educators, missionaries and traders. The British in India considered Travancore a model native state, at the time, Travancore was the most socially developed, and one of the most economically developed, states under the British Raj. During the British Raj, Travancore was essentially a vassal-state to the British, at the time of Indias independence from Britain, the then Dewan of Travancore, Sir C. P. The late Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyer is still held in esteem in Nagercoil, for the many developmental projects he undertook in the then South Travancore. This was enacted in the Indian States Reorganisation Act,1956, according to 2011 census, Nagercoil had a population of 224,849 with a sex-ratio of 1,050 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 20,241 were under the age of six, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 4. 19% and. 17% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the city was 95. 35%, the city had a total of 59,997 households
Nagercoil
–
Political map of
South India, 210 B.C. Showing Nagercoil as Nanjil.
Nagercoil
–
A view of Padmanabhapuram Palace.
Nagercoil
–
Nagercoil with its Scenic Beauty is cradeled between the
Western Ghats
18.
Kanyakumari District
–
Kanyakumari district is the southernmost district in Tamil Nadu state and mainland India. It is the second largest district in the state in terms of population density, the district stands first in terms of literacy rate in the state. Kanyakumari district has a topography with sea on three sides and the mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the northern side. A few artifacts unearthed by excavations in there. The Presidency was later renamed Tamil Nadu and Kanyakumari, today, is one of the 32 districts of Tamil Nadu state, many historical assumptions persist in the district and state, which associate sages such as Vyasa, Agastya, Tolkappiyar, Avvaiyar and Thiruvalluvar to the district. The district is also the birthplace of Ayyavazhi, the area that comprises the current Kanyakumari district was a part of the old Ay kingdom of the first and second Sangham ages. Following the decline of the Ay kingdoms, the area became Venad, the wealth of the Nanjalnadu beckoned many invaded including the Nayaks and later an Islamist army during the reign of Umayamma Rani. The Venad region was in anarchy before Marthanda Varma ascended the throne in 1729 AD, before his reign the Samanthan Nairs ruled the province. Under their rule anarchy was dominant in Kanyakumari region, however, Marthanda Varma brought a sense of disorder under control by annexing the nearby territories, putting down the feudal lords and establishing the strong state of Travancore. He had also bought some portions of Kanyakumari from the then viceroy making it the southern boundary, under his rule the district improved in a social context as well as economically. The famous battle of Colachel took place in the district, later, the maharajahs of Travancore built the forts at Aramboly to prevent any invasion from the Carnatic. Key elements of Velu Thampi Dalawas revolt occurred in the area, in the year 1949, the area became a part of the reestablished Travancore Cochin state. The people of Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks, an extreme agitation by Tamil speaking residents under the leadership of Marshal Nesamony took place for including Kanyakumari within Tamil Nadu. Eventually the merger happened in 1956 based on language reorganization of states, the district of Kanyakumari is the southern most districts in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is situated between 77°15 and 77°36 east latitude and 8°03 and 8°35 north longitude, the district has borders with Tirunelveli district, the Gulf of Mannar, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the state of Kerala. Kanyakumari includes the special grade village of Chinnamuttom, located at the southernmost point of the Indian Subcontinent, for administrative purposes, the district comprises four taluks, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, and Vilavancode. At the lower levels of administration, there are 99 village panchayats, the major towns of the district include, Agastheeswaram taluk, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari, Agastheeswaram, Suchindram and Rajakkamangalam. Kalkulam taluk, Padmanabhapuram-Thuckalay, Colachel, Kalkulam, Thiruvithamcode, Kurunthancode, Thiruvattar and Kulasekaram, Vilavancode Taluk, Karungal, Kuzhithurai-Marthandam, Vilavancode, Killiyur, Munchirai, Manjalumoodu Arumanai and Melpuram
Kanyakumari District
–
Statue of ancient Tamil poet
Thiruvalluvar who wrote the
Thirukkural, in
Kanniyakumari
Kanyakumari District
–
An octo-circular
Ayyavazhi Nizhal Thangal near
Thiruvattar on the
Martandam -
Kulasekaram road.
Kanyakumari District
–
View from the
Mathur Hanging Trough bridge with the
Pahrali river flowing below.
Kanyakumari District
–
Keeriparai, the district comprises a sizeable area of lush forests
19.
Sangam period
–
Sangam period is the period in the history of ancient Tamil Nadu spanning from c. 4th century BC to c. It is named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centered in the city of Madurai, according to Tamil legends, there were three Sangam periods, namely Head Sangam, Middle Sangam and Last Sangam period. Historians use the term Sangam period to refer the last of these, so it is also called Last Sangam period, or Third Sangam period. The Sangam literature is thought to have produced in three Sangam academies of each period. The evidence on the history of the Tamil kingdoms consists of the epigraphs of the region, the Sangam literature. Approximately during the period between 400 BC to AD200, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties of Pandya, Chola and Chera, and a few independent chieftains, the Velir. There is a wealth of sources detailing the history, socio-political environment and cultural practices of ancient Tamilakam, including volumes of literature, tamilakams history is split into three periods, prehistoric, classical and medieval. A vast array of literary, epigraphical and inscribed sources from around the world provide insight into the socio-political and cultural occurrences in the Tamil nation. The religion of the ancient Tamils closely follow roots of nature worship, in the ancient Sangam literature, Sivan was the supreme God, and Murugan was the one celebrated by the masses, both of them were sung as deified Tamil poets ascending the Koodal academy. The Tamil landscape was classified into five categories, thinais, based on the mood, the season, other ancient works refer to Maayon and Vaali. The most popular deity was Murugan, who has from an early date been identified with Karthikeya. Kannagi, the heroine of the Silappatikaram, was worshiped as Pathini by many Tamils, there were also many temples and devotees of Thirumaal, Siva, Ganapathi, and the other common Hindu deities. The year was made up of twelve months and every two months constituted a season, with the popularity of Mazhai vizhavu, traditionally commencement of Tamil year was clubbed on April 14, deviating from the astronomical date of vadavazhi vizhavu. Pongal, பொங்கல் the festival of harvest and spring, thanking Lord Indiran and Lord El and this day comes on April 14/15. Mazhai Vizhavu, aka Indhira Vizha, the festival for want of rain, celebrated for one month starting from the full moon in Ootrai சித்திரை. It is epitomised in the epic Cilapatikaram in detail, soornavai Vizha, the slaying of legendary Kadamba Asura king Surabadma, by Lord, comes on the sixth day after new moon in Itrai. It is sung about in Thirumurugatrupadai and Purananuru anthology, vaadai Vizha or Vadavazhi Vizha, the festival of welcoming the Lord Surya back to home, as He turns northward, celebrated on December 21/22. It is sung about in Akanauru anthology, aathi Irai min means the star of the God on the Bull
Sangam period
–
South India in Sangam Period
Sangam period
–
Political map of South India, 210 B.C.E.
20.
Ptolemy
–
Claudius Ptolemy was a Greek writer, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, beyond that, few reliable details of his life are known. His birthplace has been given as Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid in a statement by the 14th-century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes. This is a very late attestation, however, and there is no reason to suppose that he ever lived elsewhere than Alexandria. Ptolemy wrote several treatises, three of which were of importance to later Byzantine, Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest, although it was entitled the Mathematical Treatise. The second is the Geography, which is a discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the treatise in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika but more known as the Tetrabiblos from the Greek meaning Four Books or by the Latin Quadripartitum. The name Claudius is a Roman nomen, the fact that Ptolemy bore it indicates he lived under the Roman rule of Egypt with the privileges and political rights of Roman citizenship. It would have suited custom if the first of Ptolemys family to become a citizen took the nomen from a Roman called Claudius who was responsible for granting citizenship, if, as was common, this was the emperor, citizenship would have been granted between AD41 and 68. The astronomer would also have had a praenomen, which remains unknown and it occurs once in Greek mythology, and is of Homeric form. All the kings after him, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 BC, were also Ptolemies, abu Mashar recorded a belief that a different member of this royal line composed the book on astrology and attributed it to Ptolemy. The correct answer is not known”, Ptolemy wrote in Greek and can be shown to have utilized Babylonian astronomical data. He was a Roman citizen, but most scholars conclude that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and he was often known in later Arabic sources as the Upper Egyptian, suggesting he may have had origins in southern Egypt. Later Arabic astronomers, geographers and physicists referred to him by his name in Arabic, Ptolemys Almagest is the only surviving comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy. Ptolemy presented his models in convenient tables, which could be used to compute the future or past position of the planets. The Almagest also contains a catalogue, which is a version of a catalogue created by Hipparchus
Ptolemy
–
Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy being guided by the muse Astronomy, from Margarita Philosophica by
Gregor Reisch, 1508. Although
Abu Ma'shar believed Ptolemy to be one of the
Ptolemies who ruled Egypt after the conquest of
Alexander the title ‘King Ptolemy’ is generally viewed as a mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated standing in science.
Ptolemy
–
Early
Baroque artist's rendition
Ptolemy
–
A 15th-century manuscript copy of the
Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geography (circa 150), indicating the countries of "
Serica " and "Sinae" (
China) at the extreme east, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (
Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (
Malay Peninsula).
Ptolemy
–
Prima Europe tabula. A C15th copy of Ptolemy's map of Britain
21.
Alexandria
–
Alexandria is the second largest city and a major economic centre in Egypt, extending about 32 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country. Its low elevation on the Nile delta makes it vulnerable to rising sea levels. Alexandria is Egypts largest seaport, serving approximately 80% of Egypts imports and exports and it is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria is also an important tourist destination, Alexandria was founded around a small Ancient Egyptian town c.331 BC by Alexander the Great. Alexandria was the second most powerful city of the ancient world after Rome, Alexandria is believed to have been founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια. Alexanders chief architect for the project was Dinocrates, Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. The city and its museum attracted many of the greatest scholars, including Greeks, Jews, the city was later plundered and lost its significance. Just east of Alexandria, there was in ancient times marshland, as early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The latter was rediscovered under water. An Egyptian city, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore also and it continued to exist as the Egyptian quarter of the city. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to his city, after Alexanders departure, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandrias continuous development, the Heptastadion, inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and and it became Egypts main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds. Alexandria was not only a center of Hellenism, but was home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there, in AD115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami, the Islamic prophet, Muhammads first interaction with the people of Egypt occurred in 628, during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha. He sent Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh with a letter to the king of Egypt and Alexandria called Muqawqis In the letter Muhammad said, I invite you to accept Islam, Allah the sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts
Alexandria
–
Alexandria Ἀλεξάνδρεια
Alexandria
Alexandria
–
Residential neighborhood in Alexandria
Alexandria
–
Fishing in Alexandria
22.
Roman Empire
–
Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
Roman Empire
–
The
Augustus of Prima Porta (early 1st century AD)
Roman Empire
–
Aureus of
Augustus, the first
Roman Emperor.
Roman Empire
–
A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England
Roman Empire
–
A 5th-century
papyrus showing a parallel Latin-Greek text of a speech by
Cicero
23.
Gulf of Mannar
–
The Gulf of Mannar is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean. It lies between the tip of India and the west coast of Sri Lanka, in the Coromandel Coast region. A species known as dugong is found here, the estuaries of Thamirabarani River of South India and the Malvathu Oya of Sri Lanka drain into the Gulf. Located on the tip of the subcontinent, the Gulf of Mannar is known to harbour over 3,600 species of flora and fauna. 117 hard coral species have recorded in the Gulf of Mannar. Sea turtles are frequent visitors to the gulf as are sharks, dugongs, however, the combined effects of 47 villages, with a total population of around 50,000 has meant that overharvesting of marine species has become a problem. The decline of populations has been accompanied with reducing numbers of pearl oyster, gorgonian coral. Endangered species include dolphins, dugongs, whales and sea cucumbers, in 1986, a group of 21 islets lying off the Tamil Nadu coast between Thoothukudi and Dhanushkodi was declared the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. The park and its 10 km buffer zone were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1989, the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 10,500 km² of ocean, islands and the adjoining coastline. The Gulf of Mannar is known for its banks of Pinctada radiata. Pliny the Elder praised the pearl fishery of the gulf as one of the most productive in the world, although extraction of natural pearls is considered too expensive in most parts of the world, it is still carried out in the gulf. The chief seaports on the Gulf of Mannar are Thoothukudi in Tamil Nadu, while these ports can accommodate deep-draft vessels, the shallow Palk Strait can only accommodate small shallow-draft vessels
Gulf of Mannar
–
Pearl fishing in the Gulf of Mannar, ca. 1926
Gulf of Mannar
–
Gulf of Mannar மன்னார் வளைகுடா මන්නාරමි බොක්ක
24.
Pearl fishery
–
Pearl hunting is the act of recovering pearls from oysters in the sea. Pearl hunting used to be the industry in the Persian Gulf region. Before the beginning of the 20th century, the means of obtaining pearls was by manually gathering very large numbers of pearl oysters or mussels from the ocean floor or lake or river bottom. The bivalves were then brought to the surface, opened, more than a ton were searched in order to find at least 3-4 quality pearls. Because of the difficulty of diving and the nature of natural pearl growth in pearl oysters, pearls of the time were extremely rare. The Great Depression in the United States made it hard to get good prices for pearl shell, the natural pearls found from harvested oysters were a rare bonus for the divers. Many fabulous specimens were found over the years, by the 1930s, overharvesting had severely depleted the oyster beds. The government was forced to strictly regulate the harvest to prevent the oysters from becoming extinct, in the 19th century, divers in Asia had only very basic forms of technology to aid their survival at such depths. For thousands of years, most seawater pearls were retrieved by divers working in the Indian Ocean, in such as the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea. A fragment of Isidore of Charaxs Parthian itinerary was preserved in Athenaeuss 3rd-century Sophists at Dinner, Pearl divers near the Philippines were also successful at harvesting large pearls, especially in the Sulu Archipelago. In fact, pearls from the Sulu Archipelago were considered the finest of the world which were found in high bred shells in deep, clear, and rapid tidal waters. At times, the largest pearls belonged by law to the sultan, nonetheless many pearls made it out of the archipelago by stealth, ending up in the possession of the wealthiest families in Europe. Pearling was popular in Qatar, Bahrain, Japan, India, the Gulf of Mexico was particularly famous for pearling, which was originally found by the Spanish explorers. In the time of slavery in northern South America, a unique occupation amongst slaves was that of a pearl diver. A divers career was often short-lived because the waters being searched were known to be shark-infested, however, a slave who discovered a great pearl could sometimes purchase his freedom. Today, pearl diving has largely supplanted by cultured pearl farms. Particles implanted in the oyster encourage the formation of pearls, todays pearl industry produces billions of pearls every year. Ama divers still work, primarily now for the tourist industry, Pearl diving in the Ohio and Tennessee rivers of the United States still exists today
Pearl fishery
–
Pearl diver in Japan
Pearl fishery
–
A piece of clothing used by
Kuwaiti divers searching for
pearls. Demonstrated in the Maritime Museum in
Kuwait City,
Kuwait
Pearl fishery
–
A Ceylon Pearl Merchant (p.108, 1849)
Pearl fishery
–
Fish hook
25.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
–
The text has been ascribed to different dates between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE, but a mid-1st-century date is now the most commonly accepted. The Erythraean Sea, or in modern spelling, Eritrean Sea is presently a Greek name for the Red Sea, to the ancient Greeks it included the Indian Ocean, the work consists of 66 chapters, most of them about the length of a long paragraph in English. For instance, the short Chapter 9 reads in its entirety, the imports to this are as aforesaid, and from it likewise are exported the same goods, and fragrant gum called mokrotou. The inhabitants who trade here are more peaceful, in many cases, the description of places is sufficiently accurate to identify their present locations, for others, there is considerable debate. The description of the Indian coast mentions the Ganges River clearly, yet after that is somewhat garbled, the Periplus says that a direct sailing route from the Red Sea to the Indian peninsula across the open ocean was discovered by Hippalus. Many trade goods are mentioned in the Periplus, but some of the words naming trade goods are seen nowhere else in ancient literature, for example, one trade good mentioned is lakkos chromatinos. The name lakkos appears nowhere else in ancient Greek or Roman literature, some other named trade goods remain obscure. In the 10th-century manuscript, the text is attributed to Arrian, the Periplus was edited by Sigmund Gelen and first published in a modern edition by Hieronymus Froben in 1533. One historical analysis, published by Schoff in 1912, narrowed the date of the text to 60 CE. Schoff additionally provides an analysis as to the texts original authorship, and arrives at the conclusion that the author must have been a Greek in Egypt. By Schoffs calculations, this would have been during the time of Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, john Hill maintains that the Periplus can now be confidently dated to between 40 and 70 AD and, probably, between AD40 and 50. Because of the absence of any account of the journey up the Nile and across the desert from Coptos, ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the empire of Himyar and Saba, regrouped under a single ruler Charibael. The Frankincense kingdom is described further east along the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, the ruler of this kingdom is named Eleazus, or Eleazar, thought to correspond to King Iliazz Yalit I,27. Inland from this lies the metropolis Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All the frankincense produced in the country is brought by camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade also with the ports, with Barygaza and Scythia and Ommana. Ras Hafun in northern Somalia is believed to be the location of the ancient trade center of Opone, Ancient Egyptian, Roman and Persian Gulf pottery has been recovered from the site by an archaeological team from the University of Michigan
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
–
17th century map depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
–
Coin of the
Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the
Arabian Peninsula, in which stopped ships between Egypt and India passed. This is an imitation of a coin of
Augustus. 1st Century CE.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
–
Coins of king
Endybis, 227-235 CE.
British Museum. The left one reads in Greek "AΧWMITW BACIΛEYC", "King of Axum". The right one reads in Greek: ΕΝΔΥΒΙC ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis".
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
–
The Periplus explains that coins of the
Indo-Greek king
Menander I were current in Barigaza.
26.
Indus
–
The Indus River, also called Sindhū or Abāsīn, is a major south-flowing river in South Asia. The total length of the river is 3,180 km which makes it one of the longest rivers in Asia and it is the longest river and national river of Pakistan. The river has a drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2. Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3, making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow, the Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left tributary is the Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas. Its principal right tributaries are the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal. Beginning in a spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas. The Indus forms the delta of present-day Pakistan mentioned in the Vedic Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu, the river has been a source of wonder since the Classical Period, with King Darius of Persia sending his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river as early as 510 BC. In Pali, Síndhu means river, stream and refers to the Indus River in particular, the word Indus is the romanised form of the ancient Greek word Indós, borrowed from the old Persian word Hinduš which is in turn borrowed from the Sanskrit word Sindhu. Megastheness book Indica derives its name from the rivers Greek name, Indós, the ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indói, literally meaning the people of the Indus. The country of India and the Pakistani province of Sindh owe their names to the river, Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including one named Sindhu. The Rigvedic Sindhu is thought to be the present-day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its text –95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, Sindhu is seen as a strong warrior amongst other rivers which are seen as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter. The Indus River provides key resources for Pakistans economy – especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nations agricultural production. The word Punjab means land of five rivers and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, the Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan. The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet, the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri, the Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river and it gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi
Indus
–
Satellite image of the Indus River basin in Pakistan, and China.
Indus
–
River Indus in
Kharmang District,
Pakistan.
Indus
–
Babur crossing the Indus River.
Indus
–
The Indus River near Leh,
Ladakh, India
27.
Malabar Coast
–
The Malabar Coast is a long and narrow coastline on the south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, the term Malabar Coast is also sometimes used to refer to the entire Indian coast from the western coast of Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. The coast runs south of Goa to Kanyakumari on Indias southern tip. Indias southeastern coast is called the Coromandel Coast, the Malabar Coast is also sometimes used as an all-encompassing term for the entire Indian coast from Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. It is flanked by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Western Ghats on the east, the southern part of this narrow coast is referred to as the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests. The Malabar Coast, throughout recorded history from about 3000 BC, had been a trading center in commerce with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Jerusalem. Its most famous ports were Naura, Balita, Kochi, Calicut, and Mangalore, the Oddeway Torre settlement, which have served as centers of the Indian Ocean trade, for centuries. During Ming Chinas treasure voyages in the early 15th century, Admiral Zheng Hes fleet often landed at the Malabar Coast, Malabar Portuguese Empire Portuguese India Dutch Malabar Coromandel Coast
Malabar Coast
–
Bekal Fort Beach, Kerala.
Malabar Coast
–
Fishing in Mukkah, near Mangalore, Karnataka.
28.
Barygaza
–
Bharuch, formerly known as Broach, is a city at the mouth of the river Narmada in Gujarat in western India. Bharuch is the headquarters of Bharuch District and is a municipality of about 370,000 inhabitants. Being one of the biggest industrial areas including Ankleshwar GIDC, it is at times referred as the capital of India. The city of Bharuch and its surroundings have been settled since times of antiquity and it was a ship building centre and sea port in the pre-compass coastal trading routes to points West, perhaps as far back as the days of the Pharaohs. The route made use of the regular and predictable monsoon winds or galleys, many goods from the Far East were shipped there during the annual monsoon winds, making it a terminus for several key land-sea trade routes. Bharuch was known to the Greeks, the various Persian Empires, in the Roman Republic and Empire, in the 3rd century, Bharuch port was mentioned as Barugaza. Arab traders entered Gujarat via Bharuch to do business, the British and the Dutch noted Bharuch’s importance and established their business centres here. At the end of the 17th century, it was plundered twice, afterwards, a proverb was composed about it, “Bhangyu Bhangyu Toye Bharuch”. As a trading depot, the limitations of coastal shipping made it a regular terminus via several mixed trade routes of the fabled spice, during the British Raj it was officially known as Broach. Bharuch has been the home to the Gujarati Bhargav Brahmin community for ages, the community traces its lineage to Maharshi Bhrigu rishi and Bhagwan Parshuram who is considered to be incarnation of Lord Vishnu. The Bhargav community still administers a large amount of public trusts in the city, however the present day Bhargav Brahmins have migrated to Mumbai, Surat, Vadodara, Ahmedabad and other countries like the USA, UK & Australia. The city has textile mills, chemical plants, long staple cotton, dairy products, Gujarats biggest liquid cargo terminal is situated there. It also houses many companies, such as Videocon, BASF, Reliance, Safari Construction Equipments Pvt. Ltd. Bharuch is a shopping centre known for its salty peanuts. Because of the colour of its soil, Bharuch is sometimes referred to as Kanam Pradesh. According to the Skanda Purana, the sage Bhrigu came to Bharuch sitting on a tortoise, the tortoise is known as Kachchha in Sanskrit. Hence the place was named Bhrigukachchha, another theory states that the city derived its name from Bhr̥igukachchha, the residence of the great saint Bhrigu Rishi. The city then known as Bharukachch, which was later abridged to Bharuch
Barygaza
–
Swaminarayan temple at NH-8 Zadeshwar, Bharuch
Barygaza
–
Sage Bhrigu's ashram is located on the
Narmada banks.
Barygaza
–
King Nahapana (119 AD – 124 AD) of Kshatraya era
Barygaza
–
Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
29.
Cholapuram
–
Cholapuram is a panchayat town in the Thanjavur district of the state of Tamil Nadu, India. In ancient time, its called as Pairavapuram. According to the 2001 Indian population census, the population of Cholapuram was 6,364, cholapurams literacy rate stood at 79%, which is higher than the national average of 59. 9%. The male literacy rate was 79%, compared to the literacy rate of 66%. Cholapuram also has a large number of people under the age of six. People from this panchayat town studied well and doing job in abroad, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and other major cities in India in IT, Medical. The income of Cholapurans residents is heavily dependent upon agriculture and the welding works, the major crops cultivated in are paddy, pulses, gingelly, groundnut and sugarcane. Minor crops like maize, soybeans, and red gram vegetables, cotton, casuarina trees, fruits, chili, banana trees, ginger, groundnut, major business in Cholapuram include the Indian Bank and the Indian Overseas Bank. The Cholapuram area is popular for welding works, there are number of general merchant stores, medicals, fertilizer shops, fancy stores, super market, Restaurants, Hotels and Sweet Stalls are doing business. The main bus terminal in Kumbakonam, provides inner and outer area transportation, there are airports located in Thanjavur and Trichy
Cholapuram
–
District headquarters
30.
Chera Dynasty
–
The Cheras were the principal ruling dynasty of the present-day state of Kerala and to a lesser extent, parts of Tamil Nadu in South India. Along with the Ay kingdom and the Ezhimala kingdom, they formed the kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era. The origins of the dynasty are unclear and it is understood that they were speakers of Proto-Tamil-Malayalam while some being practitioners of literary writing in Old Tamil. In fact, most of their history is reconstructed from the body of known as the Sangam literature written in Old Tamil around the 3rd century CE. While Pliny and Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Calobotras, the Periplus refers to them as the Keprobotras, the earliest Sanskrit works which refer to the Cheras and Kerala is probably the Aitreya Aranyaka. It refers to the land as Chera-pada - and as one of the three peoples who did not follow some ancient injunctions, there are also brief references by Katyanana, Edicts of Ashoka, Patanjali and Kautilya though Panini does not mention of the land. However, it is the Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam literature that form the most important sources for a detailed history of the Cheras. These works roughly span the period 100 CE to 300 CE, among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the Pattittupattu, the Agananuru, the Purananuru and the Silappatikaram. The exact antiquity of the Chera dynasty is difficult to establish, however, based on the travellers accounts and the Sangam literature, it can be confirmed that they were already existing around the 4th century BCE. The Sangam literature describes a line of Chera rulers. It records the names of the kings, the princes, the internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled and a connected account of the history of the period is an area of research. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the exact location of the Chera capital has been subject to some speculation. The Chera capital has been called, Vanchi and Karur in several works and this has led to several theories identifying the Chera capital in places called Karur in both Kerala and Tamil Nadu. However, it is clear that the capital was near the famous port known as Muziris. Pliny refers to Muziris as the Chera capital, while the author of the Periplus identifies the capital to be a couple of away from the mouth of the river at Muziris. Ptolemy who identifies the capital as Karoura gives a location that is very close to Muziris as well. The Cheras also seem to have battles with other neighbouring dynasties such as the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas
Chera Dynasty
–
Extent of Chera kingdom
Chera Dynasty
–
Family tree of the kings of the Chera dynasty based on Sangam literature. The monarchs ruled in the first two centuries of the Common Era.
India
pronunciation (help·info)) also known as Cape Comorin, is a town in Kanyakumari district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. The name comes from the Devi Kanya Kumari Temple in the region, in Tamil it is pronounced as 'Kan-niya-kumari', it is the southernmost tip of peninsular India, and is surrounded on three sides by the Laccadive Sea.[1]Kanyakumari town is the southern tip of the Cardamom Hills, an extension of the Western Ghats range, the nearest town is Nagercoil, the administrative headquarters of Kanyakumari District, 22 km (14 mi) away. Kanyakumari has been a town since Sangam period[2][3] and is a popular tourist destination.[4]
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Kanyakumari travel guide from Wikivoyage
