1.
Frankfurter Tor
–
The Frankfurter Tor is a large square in the inner-city Friedrichshain locality of Berlin, the capital city of Germany. It is situated in the centre of the district, at the intersection of Karl-Marx-Allee and Frankfurter Allee with the Warschauer Straße, the Frankfurter Tor station, on the citys U-Bahn line U5, is located under the square. The previously unnamed square received the name “Frankfurter Tor” on 8 November 1957 in the course of its reconstruction after World War II and these streets had both been renamed Stalinallee in 1949 in honor of the Soviet leader. The tops of the two towers are in the style of the domes designed by Carl von Gontard for Gendarmenmarkt, the buildings, square and street intersection at Frankfurter Tor are a listed ensemble, protected for its historic relevance
Frankfurter Tor
–
Frankfurter Tor, looking westward toward
Alexanderplatz (2005)
Frankfurter Tor
–
The north tower in 2013 showing one of the entrances to the U-Bahn station on Karl-Marx-Allee
2.
Plattenbau
–
Plattenbau is a building constructed of large, prefabricated concrete slabs. The word is a compound of Platte and Bau, although Plattenbauten are often considered to be typical of East Germany, the prefabricated construction method was used extensively in West Germany and elsewhere, particularly in public housing. In English the building method is also called large-panel system building or LPS, prefabrication was pioneered in the Netherlands following World War I, based on construction methods developed in the United States. The first German use of construction is what is now known as the Splanemann-Siedlung in Berlins Lichtenberg district. These two- and three-story apartment houses were assembled of locally cast slabs, inspired by the Dutch Betondorp in Watergraafsmeer, in East Germany, Plattenbau areas have been designated as Neubaugebiet. There were several common plattenbau designs, the most common series was the P2, followed by the WBS70, the WHH GT18, and Q3A. The designs were flexible and could be built as towers or rows of apartments of various heights, there have been projects with low rise plattenbauten such as the town of Bernau just north of Berlin. This town had an almost complete historic center of wooden framed buildings within its preserved city walls. Most of these were torn down after 1975 and during the eighties to be replaced by 2–4 story buildings constructed of prefabricated concrete slabs, a similar project was the Nikolaiviertel around the historic Nikolai church in Berlins old center. In the case of the Nikolaiviertel the buildings were made to more historic. Many plattenbau apartments were built in giant settlements, often on the edge of cities and their inconvenient locations were likely also a factor in their rapid deterioration. Eastern Berlin has many Plattenbauten, reminders of Eastern Bloc planned residential areas, with shops, the building method is also associated with problems with bad fire insulation, as well as bad sound insulation between units, which is a direct result of their method of construction
Plattenbau
–
Modernized Plattenbau in
Dresden.
Plattenbau
–
Berlin-
Marzahn, the largest East German Neubaugebiet (1987).
Plattenbau
–
West German Plattenbau in
Munich -Neuperlach.
Plattenbau
–
A building being constructed using prefabricated concrete elements, 2009.
3.
Socialist realism
–
Socialist realism is a style of realistic art that was developed in the Soviet Union and became a dominant style in that country as well as in other socialist countries. Socialist realism is characterized by the depiction of communist values, such as the emancipation of the proletariat. Although related, it should not be confused with social realism, Socialist realism was the predominant form of approved art in the Soviet Union from its development in the early 1920s to its eventual fall from popularity in the late 1960s. While other countries have employed a prescribed canon of art, socialist realism in Soviet Union persisted longer and was more restricted than elsewhere in Europe, Socialist realism was developed by many thousands of artists, across a diverse society, over several decades. Early examples of realism in Russian art include the work of the Peredvizhnikis, while these works do not have the same political connotation, they exhibit the techniques exercised by their successors. After the Bolsheviks took control of Russia on October 25,1917, there had been a short period of artistic exploration in the time between the fall of the Tsar and the rise of the Bolsheviks. In 1917, Russian artists began to return to traditional forms of art. Shortly after the Bolsheviks took control, Anatoly Lunacharsky was appointed as head of Narkompros and this put Lunacharsky in the position of deciding the direction of art in the newly created Soviet state. Lunacharsky created a system of aesthetics based on the body that would become the main component of socialist realism for decades to come. He believed that the sight of a body, intelligent face or friendly smile was essentially life-enhancing. He concluded that art had an effect on the human organism. By depicting the perfect person, Lunacharsky believed art could educate citizens on how to be the perfect Soviets, there were two main groups debating the fate of Soviet art, futurists and traditionalists. Russian Futurists, many of whom had been creating abstract or leftist art before the Bolsheviks, believed communism required a complete rupture from the past and, therefore, traditionalists believed in the importance of realistic representations of everyday life. By 1928, the Soviet government had enough strength and authority to end private enterprises, at this point, although the term socialist realism was not being used, its defining characteristics became the norm. The first time the term socialist realism was officially used was in 1932, the term was settled upon in meetings that included politicians of the highest level, including Stalin himself. Maxim Gorky, a proponent of literary socialist realism, published an article titled Socialist Realism in 1933. During the Congress of 1934 four guidelines were laid out for socialist realism, the work must be, Proletarian, art relevant to the workers and understandable to them. Typical, scenes of life of the people
Socialist realism
–
Socialist-Realist sculpture in
Vilnius, removed in 2015.
Socialist realism
–
A relief from the
Soviet military cemetery in Warsaw showing workers greeting victorious soldiers.
Socialist realism
–
The
All-Russia Exhibition Centre in Moscow.
Socialist realism
–
A portrait of Stalin by
Isaak Brodsky.
4.
Boulevard
–
A boulevard, often abbreviated Blvd, is a type of large road, usually running through a city. It is a misconception that every boulevard has a median. Phnom Penh has numerous boulevards scattered throughout the city, norodom Boulevard, Sisowath Boulevard, Monivong Boulevard, and Sothearos Boulevard are the most famous. Indira Gandhi Sarani, formerly Red Road, is a road in Kolkata that runs from Raj Bhavan to Fort William, the road, a wide boulevard, was built in 1820 which bisects the historic Kolkata Maidan. The British authorities during colonial era intended for the road to be able to host large parades, the name Red Road was given due to its surfacing. During the Second World War, the road, in the heart of Kolkata, the annual Kolkata Marathon starts from outside the Rangers Club on Red Road. The name Indira Gandhi Sarani was adopted in 1985, mumbais Marine Drive is a 4.3 km long C shaped coastal road located in South Mumbai along the Arabian Sea. It is also called the Queens Necklace because if the stretch is viewed from an elevated point, a promenade lies parallel to the road. It is one of the major tourist attractions in Mumbai, the Gateway of India is located just 1.7 km away from Marine Drive. Though rarely used, Marine Drives official name is Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Marg, local residents use it for morning exercises as well. It is also popular among youths who come here to enjoy the splash of water during high tide, New Delhis premier boulevard is the Rajpath, which is also a thoroughfare. New Delhi being the capital, many such thoroughfares were built widely to sustain the exploding traffic growth that New Delhi. Rajpath, a tree lined road with ponds and fountains, was designed, along with Janpath, various national events such as Independence Day parades and Republic Day parades among many others take place over here annually. Hyderabads Necklace Road is a boulevard adjoining the Hussain Sagar lake, in Chennai, the major road is the Mount Road. Another boulevard is Radakrishnan Salai, also called Cathedral Road, which is in Chennai in Tamil Nadu State in Southern India along the Bay of Bengal. In Iran, Boulevard is generally defined as a road surrounded by trees in sides and divided by a green space line including grass. There are many boulevards in Iran, one of the most famous one is Keshavarz Boulevard in Tehran which is usually referred to as The Boulevard. Isfahan has also a historical boulevard which is called Chaharbagh Boulevard, Tel Aviv, was originally designed along the guidelines set out by architect Sir Patrick Geddes
Boulevard
–
The
Champs Élysées in Paris, France.
Boulevard
Boulevard
–
The
Straße des 17. Juni in Berlin, Germany.
Boulevard
–
Marine Drive, Mumbai
5.
East Germany
–
East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
East Germany
–
GDR leaders: President
Wilhelm Pieck and Prime Minister
Otto Grotewohl, 1949
East Germany
–
Flag (1959–1990)
East Germany
–
SED First Secretary,
Walter Ulbricht, 1950
East Germany
–
Head of State:
Erich Honecker (1971–89)
6.
Berlin
–
Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
7.
Friedrichshain
–
Friedrichshain is a district of Berlin, Germany. From its creation in 1920 until 2001, it was a city borough. Formerly part of East Berlin, it is adjacent to Mitte, Friedrichshain is named after the Volkspark Friedrichshain, a vast green park at the northern border with Prenzlauer Berg. In the Nazi era, the borough was called Horst-Wessel-Stadt, Friedrichshain is one of the trendy districts of Berlin and has experienced gentrification. The largely working-class district was created in 1920 when Greater Berlin was established by referendum, Friedrichshain united the Frankfurter Vorstadt, already part of Berlin, and the villages of Boxhagen and Stralau. It took its name from the Volkspark, which was planned in 1840 to commemorate the centenary of Frederick the Great’s coronation, much of the district was settled in the rapid industrialization of the 19th and early 20th centuries, led by growth in manufacturing and crafts. It owed much to the opening of the line between Berlin and Frankfurt in 1846, and the opening of the first waterworks in 1865 at Stralauer Tor. In 1874 the Krankenhaus im Friedrichshain was opened, Berlins first hospital beside the university clinic Charité, in the early 1900s, the districts largest employer was the Knorr-Bremse brake factory, the Knorrpromenade, one of Friedrichshains most attractive streets, was built to house the management. The street network of Friedrichhain was originally specified in the Hobrecht-Plan, during World War II Friedrichshain was one of the most badly damaged parts of Berlin, as Allied strategic bombers specifically targeted its industries. As late as the nineties, some buildings still displayed bullet holes from the house to house fighting during the Battle of Berlin. After the war ended, the boundary between the US and Soviet occupation sectors ran between Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg, with Friedrichshain in the east and Kreuzberg in the west and this became a sealed border between East and West Berlin when the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. In the period of De-Stalinization following the Soviet leaders death, the boulevard was renamed Karl-Marx-Allee at one end, neither of these buildings serve their original function today. It is known for its bars, clubs, pubs. There were numerous squats in Friedrichshain, with many in and around Rigaer Straße, Mainzer Straße, following German reunification, the availability of comparatively cheap rented accommodation attracted students and artists. Nowadays numerous restoration works are under way and Friedrichshain is developing at a fast pace becoming more and more gentrified itself, at the opposite end of the district, the Volkspark Friedrichshain is a large park serving the densely populated area of Prenzlauer Berg on the other side. Its distinctive features include the Märchenbrunnen and two green and pleasant mountains consisting purely of rubble and the ruins of two World War II Flak towers, peaceful green oases like the Volkspark Friedrichshain offer opportunities for sports and recreation in leafy nature. The Spreeufer is lovely for walks along the riverside, concerning its culinary offerings, this area also boasts a great choice of restaurants in all price ranges as well as many charming cafés. Culture lovers enjoy this neighborhood because of various small exhibition spaces, venues, cinemas, Frankfurter Allee features various shopping facilities as well as the Ring-Center shopping mall
Friedrichshain
–
Oberbaumbrücke
Friedrichshain
–
Karl-Marx-Allee, the broad boulevard that bisects Friedrichshain, seen from TV tower
Friedrichshain
–
Märchenbrunnen in Volkspark Friedrichshain
Friedrichshain
–
Simon-Dach-Straße is the "heart" of Friedrichshain and one of the liveliest places in Berlin
8.
Mitte
–
Mitte is the first and most central borough of Berlin. It was created in Berlins 2001 administrative reform by the merger of the districts of Mitte proper, Tiergarten and Wedding. It is one of the two boroughs which comprises former West and East Berlin districts, note that when Berliners speak of Mitte, they usually refer to the smaller locality and not to the larger borough. Mitte is located in the part of Berlin along the Spree River. It borders on Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf in the west, Reinickendorf in the north, Pankow in the east, Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg in the southeast, in the middle of the Spree lies Museum Island with its museums and Berlin Cathedral. The central square in Mitte is Alexanderplatz with the prominent Fernsehturm, Germanys highest building, juni to the Victory Column and the centre of former West Berlin in Charlottenburg, or Karl-Marx-Allee from Alexanderplatz to Friedrichshain and the eastern suburbs. The former Mitte district had established by the 1920 Greater Berlin Act and comprised large parts of the historic city around Alt-Berlin. Brandenburg Gate was the exit at the Berlin city boundary until 1861. Between 1961 and 1990, Mitte was the part of East Berlin, however at the same time it was surrounded by the Berlin Wall at its north, south. The immigrant community is diverse, however, Turks, Africans, Eastern Europeans. Kerület, Budapest, Hungary since 2005 Central Administrative Okrug, Moscow, Russia since 2006 Berlin Mitte Official homepage Official homepage of Berlin
Mitte
–
View over Mitte from
Berlin Cathedral
9.
Karl Marx
–
Karl Marx was a Prussian-born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. Born in Trier to a family, he later studied political economy. His work has influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history. These economic critiques were set out in works such as the three volumes, published between 1867 and 1894, that comprise Das Kapital. According to Marx, states are run in the interests of the class but are nonetheless represented as being in favor of the common interest of all. He predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. Marx actively fought for its implementation, arguing that the class should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism. Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and his work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. Many intellectuals, labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been influenced by Marxs work, Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of modern sociology and social science. Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and he was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of Prussias Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx was ancestrally Jewish, his grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis since 1723. Marx was also a cousin once removed of German Romantic poet Heinrich Heine, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland. Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant, a classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, then governed by an absolute monarchy. In 1815 Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 moving his family to a property near the Porta Nigra. Her sister Sophie Pressburg, was Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips Marxs uncle through this marriage, Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London. Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood, the third of nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Young Karl was baptised into the Lutheran Church in August 1824 along with his siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie. Young Karl was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, by employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government
Karl Marx
–
Marx in 1875
Karl Marx
–
Marx's birthplace in Trier. It was purchased by the
Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928 and now houses a museum devoted to him.
Karl Marx
–
Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s
Karl Marx
–
Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; they became lifelong friends and collaborators.
10.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
11.
Hermann Henselmann
–
Hermann Henselmann was a German architect most famous for his buildings constructed in East Germany during the 1950s and 1960s. Henselmann studied at the Kunstgewerbeschule in Berlin from 1922 to 1925, after the war he was appointed head architect in the city of Gotha and later in Weimar in the Soviet Zone of Germany, although his projects were subjected to harsh criticism for their Modernism. Henselmann was appointed architect for the city of Berlin in 1953. Plans for a Signal Tower drafted in 1958 became early drafts for the vast Fernsehturm, other late projects in a modernist and high rise style included the cylindrical Jen-Tower in Jena and a tower for the Leipzig University in the shape of an open book. Henselmanns later projects gave a modern, technocratic face to the German Democratic Republic and he dismissed the brief period of Socialist Realism as a childhood illness, though his buildings on Karl-Marx-Allee are now protected monuments. Henselmann retired as an architect in 1972
Hermann Henselmann
–
Hermann Henselmann (1949)
Hermann Henselmann
–
Karl-Marx-Allee, towards Strausberger Platz. The
TV tower at
Alexanderplatz is visible in the background (the initial design concept for the tower was created by Henselmann)
Hermann Henselmann
–
Frankfurter Tor,
Berlin
Hermann Henselmann
–
Haus des Lehrers and Congress Hall, Berlin
12.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
13.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
–
Karl Friedrich Schinkel was a Prussian architect, city planner, and painter who also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most prominent architects of Germany and designed both neoclassical and neogothic buildings and his most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin. Schinkel was born in Neuruppin, Margraviate of Brandenburg, when he was six, his father died in the disastrous Neuruppin fire of 1787. He became a student of architect Friedrich Gilly and his father, David Gilly, after returning to Berlin from his first trip to Italy in 1805, he started to earn his living as a painter. When he saw Caspar David Friedrichs painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog at the 1810 Berlin art exhibition he decided that he would never reach such mastery of painting, after Napoleons defeat, Schinkel oversaw the Prussian Building Commission. From 1808 to 1817 Schinkel renovated and reconstructed Schloss Rosenau, Coburg and he also rebuilt the ruins of Chorin Abbey. He believed that in order to avoid sterility and have a soul, a building must contain elements of the poetic and the past and his most famous extant buildings are found in and around Berlin. He also carried out improvements to the Crown Princes Palace and to Schloss Charlottenburg, Schinkel was also responsible for the interior decoration of a number of private Berlin residences. Later, Schinkel moved away from classicism altogether, embracing the Neo-Gothic in his Friedrichswerder Church, Schinkel died in Berlin, Province of Brandenburg. Schinkel, however, is noted as much for his theoretical work and these and other designs may be studied in his Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe and his Werke der höheren Baukunst. He also designed the famed Iron Cross medal of Prussia, with essays by Kurt W. Forster and Wolfgang Pehnt, ISBN 0-86559-105-9. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-88221-866-4, die Geschichte vom Leben und Sterben des Baumeisters Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Christoph von Wolzogen, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Unter dem bestirnten Himmel, edition Fichter, Frankfurt 2016, ISBN 978-3-943856-33-0. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, The Last Great Architect. Prefatory essay from Collection of Architectural Designs including those designs which have been executed and objects whose execution was intended by Karl Friedrich Schinkel
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
–
Schinkel in 1836
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
–
A stamp with Karl Friedrich Schinkel
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
–
Castle by the River (Schloß am Strom)
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
–
Gotische Kirche auf einem Felsen am Meer
14.
Stalin Statue (Berlin)
–
The Berlin Stalin statue was a larger-than-life bronze portrayal of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin. A Komsomol delegation had presented the sculpture to the East Berlin government on the occasion of the Third World Festival of Youth and Students in 1951. Stalin monuments were removed from public view by the leadership of the Soviet Union. In Berlin the statue and all street signs designating Stalinallee were hastily removed one night in a clandestine operation, the bronze sculpture was smashed and the pieces were recycled. Stalinallee, formerly the Große Frankfurter Straße, had badly damaged in World War II and was renamed on Stalin’s birthday,21 December 1949. These were to be constructed by and for workers and contain luxuries unknown in the previous cramped working-class flats in buildings destroyed in the war. The 4.80 meter high bronze statue showed the Soviet head of party and state in a military pose with a uniform and medals. The slightly conical three-meter high pedestal, variously described as being made of marble, the temporary location between Andreasstrasse and Koppenstrasse was across the street from a sports hall built in 1951 for the World Festival of Youth and Students. Which Soviet artist created the statue is a matter of debate among experts, according to one source it was presumably created in the atelier of the Soviet sculptor Grigory Postnikov. Other sources name Nikolai Tomsky and Sergey Merkurov, the latter because of similarities with an erected in 1937 in Moscow. A Russian source states that Tomsky created the monument, on the day of his interment, March 9, the monument was the destination of a funeral march in East Berlin which lasted over seven hours. On the day after Stalin’s death, minutes of silence were organized in his memory in the schools, the popular uprising on 17 June 1953 soon turned into a widespread revolt against the government of the German Democratic Republic and encompassed many East German cities. The focus of the demonstrations and confrontations in Berlin was originally the Stalinallee, there was turmoil also at the Stalin monument, which was bombarded with stones but not damaged. Stalin’s personality cult, dictatorship and crimes were denounced in a speech by Nikita Khrushchev at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956. The governments of other socialist countries, including the GDR, also renounced the Stalin cult, in the night from 13 to 14 November 1961 all the street signs on Stalinallee in Berlin were removed in a clandestine operation. That same night the statue was pushed off its pedestal with a bulldozer and a truck brought the bronze statue to a factory hall of Bauunion. Several members of a Stalinallee construction team under brigade leader Gerhard Wolf had the job of reducing the statue to small pieces under guard by security forces, the responsible Stasi member gave the following orders, “The monument is to be reduced to unrecognizable pieces. No remnants may be taken away, nothing is to be said about this entire matter. ”The statue’s pedestal was removed the next morning by soldiers of the GDRs National Peoples Army
Stalin Statue (Berlin)
–
Statue of Stalin on Stalinallee in Berlin-Friedrichshain, 1951
Stalin Statue (Berlin)
–
Unofficial photograph taken after the 1951 dedication of the Stalin monument
Stalin Statue (Berlin)
–
Stalin monument in April 1953 in the context of newly erected buildings on Stalinallee
Stalin Statue (Berlin)
–
Strausberger Platz under construction in 1953
15.
Komsomol
–
The All-Union Leninist Young Communist League, usually known as Komsomol, was a political youth organization in the Soviet Union. It is sometimes described as the division of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, although it was officially independent and referred to as the helper. The Komsomol in its earliest form was established in urban centers in 1918, during the early years, it was a Russian organization, known as the Russian Young Communist League, or RKSM. During 1922, with the unification of the USSR, it was reformed into an all-union agency and it was the final stage of three youth organizations with members up to age 28, graduated at 14 from the Young Pioneers, and at nine from the Little Octobrists. Before the February Revolution of 1917 the Bolsheviks did not display any interest in establishing or maintaining a youth division, after the Russian Civil War of 1917-1922 ended, the Soviet government under Lenin introduced a semi-capitalist economic policy to stabilize Russia’s floundering economy. This reform, the New Economic Policy, introduced a new policy of moderation and discipline. Lenin himself stressed the importance of education of young Soviet citizens in building a new society. The first Komsomol Congress met in 1918 under the patronage of the Bolshevik Party, Party intervention in 1922-1923 proved marginally successful in recruiting members by presenting the ideal Komsomolets as a foil to the bourgeois NEPman. However, the party was not very successful overall in recruiting Russian youth during the NEP period and this came about because of conflict and disillusionment among Soviet youth who romanticised the spontaneity and destruction characteristic of War Communism and the Civil War period. They saw it as their duty, and the duty of the Communist Party itself, however, the NEP had the opposite effect, after it started, many aspects of bourgeois social behavior began to reemerge. The contrast between the Good Communist extolled by the Party and the bourgeois capitalism fostered by NEP confused many young people, as a result, there was a major slump in interest and membership in the Party-oriented Komsomol. In March 1926, Komsomol membership reached a NEP-period peak of 1,750,000 members, only when Stalin came to power and abandoned the NEP in the first Five Year Plan did membership increase drastically. The youngest people eligible for Komsomol membership were fourteen years old, the upper age-limit for ordinary personnel was twenty-eight, but Komsomol functionaries could be older. Younger children joined the allied Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization, while membership was nominally voluntary, those who failed to join had no access to officially sponsored holidays and found it very difficult to pursue higher education. The Komsomol also served as a pool of labor and political activism. Active members received privileges and preferences in promotion, for example, Yuri Andropov, CPSU General Secretary in succession to Leonid Brezhnev, achieved political importance through work with the Komsomol organization of Karelia in 1940-1944. At its largest, during the 1970s, the Komsomol had tens of millions of members, the government, unions and the Komsomol jointly introduced Centers for Scientific and Technical Creativity for Youth. At the same time, many Komsomol managers joined and directed the Russian Regional, folklore quickly coined a motto, The Komsomol is a school of Capitalism, hinting at Vladimir Lenins Trade unions are a school of Communism
Komsomol
–
1933 Komsomol poster. Caption says "Prepare for worthy successors to the Leninist Komsomol"
Komsomol
–
All-Union Leninist Young Communist League Всесоюзный ленинский коммунистический союз молодёжи
Komsomol
–
Komsomol poster urging youth to become pilots.
Komsomol
–
Monument to Courage, Firmness and Faithfulness of Members of the Komsomol in
Sevastopol
16.
Workers Uprising of 1953 in East Germany
–
The Uprising of 1953 in East Germany started with a strike by East Berlin construction workers on 16 June 1953. It turned into an uprising against the German Democratic Republic government the next day. In Germany, the revolt is often called Peoples Uprising in East Germany, in remembrance of it,17 June became a national holiday of West Germany, prevailing until reunification. The uprising in East Berlin was violently suppressed by tanks of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany, in spite of the intervention of Soviet troops, the wave of strikes and protests was not easily brought under control. Even after 17 June there were demonstrations in more than 500 towns, in July 1952 the second party conference of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany took place in East Berlin. The party was acting on demands made by Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and this meant for example the division of the five Länder into 14 regions plus East Berlin. This decision was made amid the background of the economic situation in the country. In the course of the militarisation pushed by Soviet authorities, direct and indirect military expenditures rose, together with reparation payments, this totalled over 20% of the budget. Electricity was turned off in factories and public buildings at the onset of every evening. The dramatic increase of emigration in the first half of 1953, already high since the establishment of the GDR, constituted a serious economic, another factor that contributed to an already complicated political situation was the high number of political prisoners in the GDR. Suppression of the illegal organisation Junge Gemeinde, wrongly perceived as the youth organisation of the Evangelical Church. Ecclesiastic recreation centres were closed and taken over by the FDJ, high school students who belonged to a church were often expelled by the school authorities, sometimes even shortly before school graduation. Within this complicated background, the decision to raise the work norms was perceived as a provocation and these changes were coming into force by 30 June 1953, Ulbrichts 60th birthday. The decision was taken on 13–14 May 1953, and the Council of Ministers approved it on 28 May, following Stalins death in March 1953 and the massive increase in emigration the new Soviet government decided to ease the policies Stalin had demanded. On 4 June 1953, the Soviet government, alarmed at reports of unrest, georgy Malenkov warned them that if policy direction were not corrected immediately, there would be a catastrophe. After intense discussion the East German party eased policies and publicly admitted that mistakes had been made, however, according to the historian of East Germany, Manfred Wilke, that admission may have had the unintended effect of inflaming public opinion rather than easing tensions. Their numbers quickly swelled and a strike and protests were called for the next day. Early on 17 June 40,000 protesters had gathered in East Berlin, many protests were held throughout East Germany with at least some work stoppages and protests in virtually all industrial centers and large cities in the country
Workers Uprising of 1953 in East Germany
–
A Soviet
IS-2 tank in
Leipzig on 17 June 1953
Workers Uprising of 1953 in East Germany
–
A Soviet
T-34/85 tank in Berlin, 17 June 1953.
Workers Uprising of 1953 in East Germany
–
West Berlin stamp (1953)
17.
May Day
–
May Day is a public holiday usually celebrated on May 1. It is an ancient northern hemisphere spring festival and it is also a traditional spring holiday in many cultures. Dances, singing, and cake are usually part of the celebrations that the day includes, in the late 19th century, May Day was chosen as the date for International Workers Day by the Socialists and Communists of the Second International to commemorate the Haymarket affair in Chicago. International Workers Day may also be referred to as May Day and it is also associated with the Gaelic Beltane, most commonly held on April 30. The day was a summer holiday in many pre-Christian European pagan cultures. While February 1 was the first day of spring, May 1 was the first day of summer, hence, as Europe became Christianised, the pagan holidays lost their religious character and May Day changed into a popular secular celebration. A significant celebration of May Day occurs in Germany where it is one of days on which St. Walburga. The secular versions of May Day, observed in Europe and America, may be best known for their traditions of dancing around the maypole and crowning the Queen of May. Fading in popularity since the late 20th century is the giving of May baskets, small baskets of sweets or flowers, usually left anonymously on neighbours doorsteps. May 1 is also one of two feast days of the Catholic patron saint of workers St Joseph the Worker, a carpenter, husband to Mother Mary, and surrogate father of Jesus. Replacing another feast to St. Joseph, this date was chosen by Pope Pius XII in 1955 as a counterpoint to the communist International Workers Day celebrations on May Day. In the late 20th century, many neopagans began reconstructing traditions, traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole. Historically, Morris dancing has been linked to May Day celebrations, much of this tradition derives from the pagan Anglo-Saxon customs held during Þrimilci-mōnaþ along with many Celtic traditions. May Day has been a day of festivities throughout the centuries. May Day is most associated with towns and villages celebrating springtime fertility and revelry with village fetes, seeding has been completed by this date and it was convenient to give farm labourers a day off. Perhaps the most significant of the traditions is the maypole, around which traditional dancers circle with ribbons, the spring bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978, May Day itself – May 1 – is not a public holiday in England. Unlike the other Bank Holidays and common law holidays, the first Monday in May is taken off from schools by itself and this is because it has no Christian significance and does not otherwise fit into the usual school holiday pattern. May Day was abolished and its celebration banned by Puritan parliaments during the Interregnum, may 1,1707, was the day the Act of Union came into effect, joining England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain
May Day
–
Maypole dancing at Bishopstone Church,
Sussex, UK.
May Day
–
May Queen on village green,
Melmerby, England
May Day
–
Morris dancing on May Day in
Oxford, England, in 2004.
May Day
–
May blossom, the flower of the
May tree or common hawthorn, Crataegus monogyna
18.
Marxism
–
It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
Marxism
–
Karl Marx
Marxism
–
One of the 20th century's most prominent Marxist academics; the Australian archaeologist
V. Gordon Childe
19.
Postmodern architecture
–
The movement was given a doctrine by the architect and architectural theorist Robert Venturi in his 1966 book Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. The style flourished from the 1980s through the 1990s, particularly in the work of Venturi, Philip Johnson, Charles Moore, in the late 1990s it divided into a multitude of new tendencies, including high-tech architecture, neo-classicism and deconstructivism. The architect and architectural historian Robert Venturi led the attack in 1966 in his book, Complexity, … I welcome the problems and exploit the uncertainties. … I like elements which are rather than pure, compromising rather than clean. … I am for messy vitality over obvious unity, … I prefer both-and to either-or, black and white, and sometimes gray, to black or white. … An architecture of complexity and contradiction must embody the difficult unity of inclusion rather than the easy unity of exclusion, Venturis second book, Learning from Las Vegas, co-authored with his wife, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour, further developed his argument against modernism. He urged architects take into consideration and to celebrate the architecture in a place. He argued that ornamental and decorative elements accommodate existing needs for variety, Rossi insisted that cities be rebuilt in ways that preserved their historical fabric and local traditions. Similar ideas were and projects were put forward at the Venice Biennale in 1980, the call for a post-modern style was joined by Christian de Portzamparc in France and Ricardo Bofill in Spain, and in Japan by Arata Isozaki. Robert Venturi was both a prominent theorist of postmodernism and an architect who buildings illustrated his ideas, after studying at the American Academy in Rome, he worked in the offices of the modernists Eero Saarinen Louis Kahn until 1958, and then became a professor architecture at Yale University. One of his first buildings was the Guild House in Philadelphia and these two houses became symbols of the postmodern movement. He went on to design, in the 1960s and 1970s, Michael Graves designed two of the most prominent buildings in the postmodern style, the Portland Building and the Denver Public Library. The building has since added to the National Register of Historic Places. The most famous work of architect Charles Moore is the Piazza dItalia in New Orleans, drawing upon the Spanish Revival architecture of the city hall, Moore designed the Beverly Hills Civic Center in a mixture of Spanish Revival, Art Deco and Post-Modern styles. It includes courtyards, colonnades, promenades, and buildings, with open and semi-enclosed spaces, stairways and balconies. Philip Johnson began his career as a pure modernist, in 1935 he co-authored the famous catalog of the Museum of Modern Art exposition on the International Style, and studied with Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer at Harvard. His Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, inspired b a similar house by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became an icon of the modernist movement and he worked with Mies on another iconic modernist project, the Seagrams Building in New York City. However, his buildings in the 1970, such as IDS Center in Minneapolis and Pennzoil Place in Houston were massive, sober
Postmodern architecture
–
The
Sony Building (formerly AT&T building) in New York City, 1984, by
Philip Johnson, illustrating a "Postmodern" spin with the inclusion of a classical broken
pediment on the top which diverged from the boxy functional office towers common in
Modern Architecture.
Postmodern architecture
–
San Antonio Public Library,
Texas
Postmodern architecture
–
Ancient
ruyi symbol adorning
Taipei 101,
Taiwan
Postmodern architecture
–
125 London Wall (1992) by
Terry Farrell and Partners aimed to "repair the urban fabric" of the district, dominated by post-
Blitz modernist schemes.
20.
Philip Johnson
–
In 1978 he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and in 1979 the first Pritzker Architecture Prize. Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio on July 8,1906 and he was descended from the Jansen family of New Amsterdam, and included among his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out the first town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. In 1928 he met Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting formed the basis for a relationship of both collaboration and competition In 1930, Johnson joined the architecture department of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. There he arranged for American visits by Gropius and Le Corbusier, in 1932, working with Hitchcock and Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock, he organized the first exhibition on Modern architecture at the Museum of Modern Art in 1932. The show and their published book International Style, Modern Architecture Since 1922 played an important part in introducing modern architecture to the American public. When the rise of the Nazis in Germany forced the modernists Marcel Breuer and Mies van der Rohe to leave Germany, in 1936, in the depths of the Great Depression, he left the Museum of Modern Art for a brief venture into journalism and politics. In his 1994 biography of Johnson, Schultze wrote, In politics he proved to be a model of futility and he was never much of a political threat to anyone, still less an effective doer of either political good or political evil. In 1941, at the age of 35, Johnson abandoned politics and journalism and enrolled in the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in 1941, Johnson designed and actually built his first building, a house still existing at 9 Ash Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The house, strongly influenced by Mies van der Rohe, has a wall around the lot which merges with the structure, after the United States entered World War II in December 1941, Johnson enlisted in the Army. He spent his service during the war in the United States. In 1946, after he completed his service, Johnson returned to the Museum of Modern Art as a curator. At the same time, he began working to establish his architectural practice and he built a small house, in th style of Mies, in Saaponack, Long Island in 1946. This was followed by one of this most famous buildings, which he built for himself, the Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, completed in 1949, which has become a landmark of modern architecture. Johnson had curated an exhibit of Mies van der Rohes at the Museum of Modern Art in 1947, the house is a 56 foot by 32 foot glass rectangle, sited at the edge of a crest on Johnsons estate overlooking a pond. The buildings sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel, the floor, of brick, is not flush with the ground, the interior is an open space divided by low walnut cabinets, a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling. The New York Times described it in 2005 as one of the 20th centurys greatest residential structures, Johnson continued to add to the Glass House estate during each period of his career. After completing the Glass House, he completed two more houses in New Canaan in a similar to that of Mies, the Hodgson House
Philip Johnson
–
Philip Johnson at age 95 in his office,
Seagram Building, Manhattan with his model of a 30' by 60' sculpture created for a
Qatari collector. (2002)
Philip Johnson
–
Chapel of St. Basil (1992) on the Academic Mall at the
University of St. Thomas in
Houston, Texas.
Philip Johnson
–
Gate of Europe (Puerta de Europa) in
Madrid (1989)
Philip Johnson
–
A model of the
Glass House (1949) on display at the
Museum of Modern Art in New York City
21.
Aldo Rossi
–
Aldo Rossi was an Italian architect and designer who accomplished the unusual feat of achieving international recognition in four distinct areas, theory, drawing, architecture and product design. He was the first Italian to receive the Pritzker Prize for architecture and he was born in Milan, Italy. After early education by the Somascan Religious Order and then at Alessandro Volta College in Lecco and his thesis advisor was Piero Portaluppi and he graduated in 1959. In 1955 he had started writing for, and from 1959 was one of the editors of, Rossi left in 1964, when the chief editorship went to Gian Antonio Bernasconi. Rossi went on to work for Società magazine and Il_contemporaneo, making Rossi one of the most active participants in the fervent cultural debate of the time and he married the Swiss actress Sonia Gessner, who introduced him to the world of film and theater. Culture and his family became central to his life and his son Fausto was active in movie-making both in front of and behind the camera and his daughter Vera was involved with theatre. He began his career at the studio of Ignazio Gardella in 1956. In 1963 also he began teaching, firstly as an assistant to Ludovico Quaroni at the school of urban planning in Arezzo, then to Carlo Aymonino at the Institute of Architecture in Venice. In 1965 he was appointed lecturer at the Polytechnic University of Milan, in 1971 he won the design competition for the extension of the San Cataldo Cemetery in Modena, which made him internationally famous. After suspension from teaching in Italy in those troubled times, he moved to ETH Zurich. In 1975, Rossi returned to the profession in Italy. In 1979 he was made a member of the prestigious Academy of Saint Luke, meanwhile, there was international interest in his skills. He taught at universities in the United States, including Cooper Union in New York City. In 1981 he published his autobiography, A scientific autobiography, in this work the author, in discrete disorder, brings back memories, objects, places, forms, literature notes, quotes, and insights and tries to. Go over things or impressions, describe, or look for ways to describe, in the same year he won first prize at the international competition for the design of an apartment block on the corner of Kochstraße and Wilhelmstraße in central Berlin. In 1984 together with Ignazio Gardella and Fabio Reinhart, he won the competition for the renovation of the Teatro Carlo Felice in Genoa, which was not fully completed until 1991. In 1985 and 1986 Rossi was director of the 3rd International Architecture Exhibition at the Venice Biennale including further away display spaces such as Villa Farsetti in Santa Maria di Sala. In 1987 he won two competitions, one for a site at the Parc de la Villette in Paris, the other for the Deutsches Historisches Museum in Berlin
Aldo Rossi
–
(ca. 1986-87)
Aldo Rossi
–
Aldo Rossi La Cupola Espresso Maker 1988, produced by Alessi
Aldo Rossi
–
Central staircase
Bonnefanten Museum,
Maastricht
Aldo Rossi
–
Teatro Carlo Felice, Genoa (1981)
22.
German reunification
–
The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October. Following German reunification, Berlin was once designated as the capital of united Germany. The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungarys border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain and it caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The united Germany is the continuation of the Federal Republic. For political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term reunification during the run-up to what Germans frequently refer to as die Wende, after 1990, the term die Wende became more common. The term generally refers to the events led up to the actual reunification, in its usual context. When referring to the events surrounding unification, however, it carries the connotation of the time. However, anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term Wende as it was introduced by SEDs Secretary General Egon Krenz, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupied sectors of control, under the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Germans lived under such imposed divisions throughout the ensuing Cold War, into the 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced a period of economic and political stagnation, and they correspondingly decreased intervention in Eastern Bloc politics. In 1987, US President Ronald Reagan gave a speech at Brandenburg Gate challenging Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down this wall that had separated Berlin. The wall had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that Churchill had referred to as the Iron Curtain. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of glasnost, perestroika and taken to more progressive levels by Gorbachev. Further inspired by images of brave defiance, a wave of revolutions swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence and thousands of East Germans escaped to the West, however, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the Party of Democratic Socialism—the former Socialist Unity Party of Germany—was heavily defeated in East Germanys first free elections. A grand coalition was formed under Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German wing of Kohls Christian Democratic Union, on a platform of speedy reunification, second, East Germanys economy and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. While East Germany had long been reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the East German mark had been practically worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–90 further magnified the problem. Discussions immediately began for a merger of the German economies
German reunification
–
Berlin Wall at the
Brandenburg Gate, 10 November 1989
German reunification
–
Map showing the division of
East and
West Germany until 1990, with
West Berlin in yellow.
German reunification
–
Brandenburg Gate in
Berlin, national symbol of today's
Germany and its reunification in 1990.
German reunification
–
Police officers of the East German
Volkspolizei wait for the official opening of the
Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989.
23.
GDR
–
East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
GDR
–
GDR leaders: President
Wilhelm Pieck and Prime Minister
Otto Grotewohl, 1949
GDR
–
Flag (1959–1990)
GDR
–
SED First Secretary,
Walter Ulbricht, 1950
GDR
–
Head of State:
Erich Honecker (1971–89)
24.
Berliner Zeitung
–
The Berliner Zeitung is a German daily newspaper based in Berlin, Germany. It was founded in East Germany in 1945 and continued publication after the reunification, Berliner Zeitung was first published on 21 May 1945 in East Berlin. The paper, a daily, is published by Berliner Verlag. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, the paper was bought by Gruner + Jahr, Gruner + Jahr later became sole owners and relaunched it in 1997 with a completely new design. A stated goal was to turn the Berliner Zeitung into Germanys Washington Post, the daily says its journalists come from east and west, and it styles itself as a young, modern and dynamic paper for the whole of Germany. It is the only East German paper to achieve national prominence since reunification, in 2003, the Berliner was Berlins largest subscription newspaper—the weekend edition sells approximately 207,800 copies, with a readership of 468,000. The current editor-in-chief is Brigitte Fehrle, Gruner + Jahr decided to leave the newspaper business and sold the Berliner Zeitung in 2002 to the publishing group Georg von Holtzbrinck. This sale was forbidden by the German authorities since Holtzbrinck already owned another major Berlin newspaper, Der Tagesspiegel, the Berliner Zeitung was then sold in the fall of 2005 for an estimated 150–180 million euros to the British company Mecom Group and the American company Veronis Suhler Stevenson. The employees criticized this sale vehemently, fearing that journalistic quality could suffer as a result of excessive profit expectations by Mecom boss David Montgomery, the Berliner Zeitung is the first German newspaper to fall under the control of foreign investors. Davids obsession at that time was removing as much traditional reporting as possible from the paper, on 23 March 2009, it was announced that the Berliner Verlag would be sold by Mecom to the publisher M. DuMont Schauberg in Cologne. The price is about 152 million Euro, Mecom was forced to sell its publishing interests in Germany as well as Norway because of heavy debts. David Montgomery, They never saw him coming
Berliner Zeitung
–
Sample front page of Berliner Zeitung
Berliner Zeitung
–
Berliner Zeitung Headquarters
Berliner Zeitung
–
Portrait of Rudolf Herrnstadt (1952).
25.
Fernsehturm Berlin
–
The Fernsehturm is a television tower in central Berlin, Germany. Close to Alexanderplatz in Berlin-Mitte, the tower was constructed between 1965 and 1969 by the government of the German Democratic Republic and it was intended as both a symbol of communist power and of Berlin. It remains the latter today, as it is visible throughout the central. With its height of 368 metres it is the tallest structure in Germany, of three tallest structures in Europe, it is 0. 5m shorter than the Riga Radio and TV Tower, and 8m taller than the Trbovlje Power Station in 2017. The tower has one of the most prominent symbols of the country and is often in the establishing shot of films set in Berlin. Due to its location near Alexanderplatz, it is occasionally called Alex Tower, the original total height of the tower was 365 metres, but it rose to 368 metres after the installation of a new antenna in 1997. The Fernsehturm is the fourth tallest freestanding structure in Europe, after Moscows Ostankino Tower, the Kiev TV Tower, the sphere is a visitor platform and a revolving restaurant in the middle of the sphere. The visitor platform, also called panoramic floor, is at a height of about 203 metres above the ground, the restaurant Telecafé, which rotates once every 30 minutes, is a few metres above the visitors platform at 207 metres. When first constructed, it turned once per hour, the speed was doubled following the towers 1997 renovation. Inside the shaft, two lifts shuttle visitors to the sphere of the tower within 40 seconds, a Stairway with 986 steps also provides access, however it is not accessible by wheelchair. The TV tower had several architects and its former design was done by Hermann Henselmann, and Jörg Streitparth. It was built by the East German architects Fritz Dieter, Günter Franke, Walter Herzog, Gerhard Kosel and Herbert Aust later also took part in the planning. The Tower was deliberately constructed in the center of the medieval center of Berlin. A medieval church stands next to the tower as a testament to the destruction of the old city, construction began on 4 August 1965. After four years of construction, the Fernsehturm began test broadcasts on 3 October 1969, regardless of its dark origins, it is among the best known sights in Berlin, and hosts around a million visitors a year. When the sun shines on the Fernsehturms tiled stainless steel dome, berliners nicknamed the luminous cross Rache des Papstes, or the Popes Revenge. For the same reasons, the structure was also called St. Walter, U. S. President Ronald Reagan mentioned this in his Tear down this wall speech on 12 June 1987. It is also known as the Toothpick and Telespargel due to its shape
Fernsehturm Berlin
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The Fernsehturm seen from
Park Inn Berlin
Fernsehturm Berlin
Fernsehturm Berlin
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The "Pope's Revenge"
Fernsehturm Berlin
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Berlin TV Tower at sunset
26.
Trabant
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The Trabant is an automobile produced from 1957 to 1990 by former East German auto maker VEB Sachsenring Automobilwerke Zwickau in Zwickau, Saxony. It is often regarded as a symbol of the defunct East Germany, the car had a reputation for being uncomfortable, slow, noisy, and dirty. Nevertheless, it was sought after in East Germany before the fall of the Berlin Wall. Dubbed a spark plug with a roof,3,096,999 examples of models of the Trabant were produced over nearly 30 years with few significant changes to its basic design. Older models of the car became popular among collectors in the United States due to their low cost. The Trabant also gained a following among car tuning enthusiasts and for use in rally racing, the name Trabant means satellite or companion in German, from Middle High German drabant, and it was was inspired by the Soviet Sputnik satellite. The cars are referred to as the Trabbi or Trabi. Produced without major changes for three decades, the Trabant became the most common automobile in East Germany. The car came to symbolize the country during the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, to acquire a Trabant, buyers in East Germany would be placed on a list, with the wait time to receive one depending on their proximity to Berlin, the capital. This made the Trabant the first car with a made of recycled material. The material was durable, such that the average lifespan of a Trabant was 28 years. The use of a reinforcing material was partially responsible for the misconception that it was made of cardboard – it was dubbed Zwickauer Rennpappe. The Trabant was the car to use Duroplast, after the pre-Trabant Zwickau P70. At the end of production in 1989, the Trabant delivered 19 kW from a 600 cc displacement and it took 21 seconds to accelerate from a stop to its top speed of 100 km/h. The engine produced very smoky exhaust and significant air pollution – nine times the hydrocarbons, the fuel consumption was 7 l/100 km. Since the engine did not have an oil system, two-stroke oil had to be added to the 24-liter fuel tank every time the car was filled up. Gas stations of the time, in countries where two-stroke engines were common, today, owners carry a container of two-stroke oil in the car for this purpose. Earlier models had no fuel gauge, a dipstick was inserted into the tank to determine how much fuel remained
Trabant
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Trabant
Trabant
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A Trabant 601 Limousine.
Trabant
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Trabant 601 Universal
Trabant
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A view inside the Trabant 601
27.
Stalinist architecture
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Stalinist architecture is associated with the socialist realism school of art and architecture. As part of the Soviet policy of rationalization of the country, each was divided into districts, with allotments based on the citys geography. Projects would be designed for whole districts, visibly transforming a citys architectural image, the interaction of the state with the architects would prove to be one of the features of this time. The same building could be declared a formalist blasphemy and then receive the greatest praise the next year, as happened to Ivan Zholtovsky, the Vysotki or Stalinskie Vysotki, high-rises are a group of skyscrapers in Moscow designed in the Stalinist style. The English-language nickname for them is the Seven Sisters and they were built officially from 1947 to 1953 in an elaborate combination of Russian Baroque and Gothic styles and the technology used in building American skyscrapers. In terms of methods, most of the structures, underneath the wet-stucco walls, are simple brick masonry. Exceptions were Andrei Burovs medium-sized concrete block houses and large buildings like the Seven Sisters which necessitated the use of concrete. The masonry naturally dictated narrow windows, thus leaving a large area to be decorated. Fireproof terra cotta finishes were introduced during the early 1950s, though this was used outside of Moscow. Most of the roofing was traditional wooden trusses covered with metallic sheets, about 1948, construction technology improved – at least in Moscow – as faster and cheaper processes become available. Houses also became safer by eliminating wooden ceilings and partitions, ideologically they belong to mass housing, an intermediate phase before Khrushchevs standardized buildings known as Khrushchyovka. Stalinist architecture does not equate to everything built during Stalin’s era and it relied on labor-intensive and time-consuming masonry, and could not be scaled to the needs of mass construction. This inefficiency largely ended Stalinist architecture and resulted in construction methods which began while Stalin was still alive. Although Stalin rejected Constructivism, completion of constructivist buildings extended through the 1930s, industrial construction, endorsed by Albert Kahn and later supervised by Victor Vesnin, was influenced by modernist ideas. It was not as important to Stalins urban plans, so most industrial buildings are not part of the Stalinist category, even the first stage of the Moscow Metro, completed during 1935, was not scrutinized by Stalin, and so included substantial constructivist influence. Before 1917, the Russian architectural scene was divided between Russky Modern, and Neoclassical Revival and these people would eventually become Stalinisms architectural elders and produce the best examples of the period. Another school that began after the Revolution is now known as Constructivism, some of the Constructivists were young professionals who had established themselves before 1917, while others had just completed their professional education or didnt have any. They associated themselves with groups of artists, compensating for lack of experience with public exposure
Stalinist architecture
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The main entrance to
All-Union Agricultural Exhibition,
Moscow
Stalinist architecture
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One of the 22 rejected projects for
Kiev 's reconstruction
Stalinist architecture
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Wet stucco over masonry. Early elite block,
Patriarshy Ponds, Moscow. Art deco adaptation by
Vladimir Vladimirov
28.
Seven Sisters (Moscow)
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The Seven Sisters are a group of seven skyscrapers in Moscow designed in the Stalinist style. The term Seven Sisters is neither used nor understood by the population, Muscovites call them Vysotki or Stalinskie Vysotki. They were built from 1947 to 1953, in an combination of Russian Baroque. There were two more skyscrapers in the style that were never built, the Zaryadye Administrative Building. Between 1947 and 1956, Boris Iofan presented six new drafts for this site, in 1946, Stalin personally switched to another idea — construction of vysotki, a chain of reasonably-sized skyscrapers not tarnished by the memories of the Comintern. As Nikita Khrushchev recalled Stalins words, We won the war, foreigners will come to Moscow, walk around, and there are no skyscrapers. If they compare Moscow to capitalist cities, its a moral blow to us, sites were selected in between January 1947 and September 12,1947. Nothing is known about selection of sites or design evaluation, this process was kept secret. Old professionals like Shchusev, Zholtovsky etc. were not involved, instead, the job was given to the next generation of mature architects. In 1947, the oldest of them, Vladimir Gelfreikh, was 62, the youngest, Mikhail Posokhin, was 37. Individual commissions were ranked according to each architects status, and clearly segmented into two groups — four first-class and four second-class towers, job number one, a Vorobyovy Gory tower that would become Moscow State University, was awarded to Lev Rudnev, a new leader of his profession. Rudnev received his only in September 1948, and employed hundreds of professional designers. He released his draft in early 1949, in April 1949, the winner of the Stalin Prize for 1948 was announced. All eight design teams received first and second class awards, according to their project status, at this stage, these were conceptual drafts, often one would be cancelled and others would be altered. All the buildings employed over-engineered steel frames with concrete ceilings and masonry infill, exterior ceramic tiles, panels up to 15 square meters, were secured with stainless steel anchors. The height of buildings was not limited by political will. The effect of this project on real urban needs can be seen from these numbers, In 1947,1948,1949 respectively, Moscow built a total of 100,000,270,000, and 405,000 square meters of housing. The skyscrapers project exceeded 500,000 square meters In other words, on the other hand, the new construction plants, built for this project, were fundamental to Khrushchevs residential program just a few years later
Seven Sisters (Moscow)
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Miniature sheet of the First Congress of Soviet Architects showing the Palace of Soviets, 1937.
Seven Sisters (Moscow)
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Moscow State University
Seven Sisters (Moscow)
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Hotel Ukraina
Seven Sisters (Moscow)
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Ministry of Foreign Affairs
29.
Paris Commune
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The Paris Commune was a radical socialist and revolutionary government that ruled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871. Following the defeat of Emperor Napoleon III in September 1870, the French Second Empire swiftly collapsed, in its stead rose a Third Republic at war with Prussia, which laid siege to Paris for four months. A hotbed of radicalism, Frances capital was primarily defended during this time by the often politicized. In February 1871 Adolphe Thiers, the new executive of the French national government, signed an armistice with Prussia that disarmed the Army. Soldiers of the Communes National Guard killed two French army generals, and the Commune refused to accept the authority of the French government, the regular French Army suppressed the Commune during La semaine sanglante beginning on 21 May 1871. Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx, on 2 September 1870, after Frances unexpected defeat at the Battle of Sedan in the Franco-Prussian War, Emperor Napoleon III surrendered to the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. When the news reached Paris the next day, shocked and angry crowds came out into the streets, Empress Eugénie de Montijo, the Emperors regent, fled the city, and the Government of the Second Empire swiftly collapsed. Republican and radical deputies of the National Assembly went to the Hôtel de Ville, proclaimed the new French Republic, though the Emperor and the French Army had been defeated at Sedan, the war continued. The German army marched swiftly toward Paris, in Paris, however, the republican candidates dominated, winning 234,000 votes against 77,000 for the Bonapartists. Only about 40,000 were employed in factories and large enterprises, most were employed in industries in textiles, furniture. There were also 115,000 servants and 45,000 concierges, in addition to the native French population, there were about 100,000 immigrant workers and political refugees, the largest number being from Italy and Poland. The working class and immigrants suffered the most from the lack of activity due to the war. The Commune resulted in part from growing discontent among the Paris workers and this discontent can be traced to the first worker uprisings, the Canut Revolts, in Lyon and Paris in the 1830s. Many Parisians, especially workers and the classes, supported a democratic republic. They also wanted a more just way of managing the economy, if not necessarily socialist, socialist movements, such as the First International, had been growing in influence with hundreds of societies affiliated to it across France. In early 1867, Parisian employers of bronze-workers attempted to de-unionize their workers and this was defeated by a strike organized by the International. Later in 1867, a public demonstration in Paris was answered by the legal dissolution of its executive committee. The International had considerable influence even among unaffiliated French workers, particularly in Paris, the killing of journalist Victor Noir incensed Parisians, and the arrests of journalists critical of the Emperor did nothing to quiet the city
Paris Commune
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A barricade on Rue Voltaire, after its capture by the regular army during the Bloody Week
Paris Commune
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Louis Auguste Blanqui, leader of the Commune's far-left faction, was imprisoned for the entire time of the Commune.
Paris Commune
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Eugène Varlin led several thousand National Guard soldiers to march to the Hotel de Ville chanting 'Long Live the Commune!".
Paris Commune
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Revolutionary units of the National Guard briefly seized the Hotel de Ville on 31 October 1870, but the uprising failed.
30.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
31.
Berliner Morgenpost
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Berliner Morgenpost is a German newspaper, based and mainly read in Berlin, where it is the second most read daily newspaper. Founded in 1898 by Leopold Ullstein, the paper was taken over by Axel Springer AG in 1959 and it was sold to Funke Mediengruppe in 2013. The paper had a circulation of 145,556 issues in 2009 and it was awarded the European Newspaper of the Year in the category of regional newspaper by the European Newspapers Congress in 2012
Berliner Morgenpost
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The 29 January 2011 front page of Berliner Morgenpost
32.
Alexanderplatz
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Alexanderplatz is a large public square and transport hub in the central Mitte district of Berlin, near the Fernsehturm. Berliners often call it simply Alex, referring to a larger neighbourhood stretching from Mollstraße in the northeast to Spandauer Straße, the U-Bahn station of the present-day U2 line opened on 1 July 1913. It is surrounded by several notable structures including the Fernsehturm, the second tallest structure in the European Union, Alex also accommodates the Park Inn Berlin and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe, and Hermann Henselmanns Haus des Lehrers. During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, the Alexanderplatz demonstration on 4 November was the largest demonstration in the history of East Germany, ever since German reunification, Alexanderplatz has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. Despite the reconstruction of the line crossing, it has retained its socialist character. In 1993, architect Hans Kollhoffs master plan for a redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers was published. Due to a lack of demand it is unlikely these will be constructed, sidewalks were expanded to shrink one of the avenues, a new underground garage was built, and commuter tunnels meant to keep pedestrians off the streets were removed. The surrounding buildings now house chain stores, fast-food restaurants, the Alexa shopping mall, with approximately 180 stores opened nearby during 2007 and a large Saturn electronic store was built and is open on Alexanderplatz since 2008. The CUBIX multiplex cinema, which opened in November 2000, joined in 2007 the team of Berlinale cinemas, many historic buildings are located in the vicinity of Alexanderplatz. The reconstruction of the Baroque Stadtschloss near Alexanderplatz has been in planning for several years, Alexanderplatz is also the name of the S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations there. It is one of Berlins largest and most important transportation hubs, Berlin, Alexanderplatz, Transforming Place in a Unified Germany. Alexanderplatz - Overview of the changes
Alexanderplatz
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View over Alexanderplatz
Alexanderplatz
Alexanderplatz
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Alexanderplatz in 1796
Alexanderplatz
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Tram passing the World Clock
33.
Alte Nationalgalerie
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It is the original building of the National Gallery, whose holdings are now housed in several additional buildings. It is situated on Museum Island, a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site, the first impetus to founding a national gallery came in 1815. The idea gained momentum during the 1830s, but without an actual building, in 1841 the first real plans were created. This donation formed the basis of the current collection, the collection was first known as Wagenersche und Nationalgalerie and was housed in the buildings of the Akademie der Künste. The current building, shaped like a Roman temple with an apse, was designed by Friedrich August Stüler and after his death. Friedrich August Stüler began working on a design for the building in 1863, two years and two failed plans later, his third proposal was finally accepted. Stüler died before planning was completed and Carl Busse handled the details in 1865. In 1866, by order of the king and his cabinet, ground was broken in 1867 under the supervision of Heinrich Strack. In 1872 the structure was completed and interior work began, the opening took place on March 22,1876 in the presence of the Kaiser. Because of the modern construction using brick and iron, it was widely believed to be fireproof. The exterior and outer staircase were constructed of Triassic sandstone from Nebra, at the opening the collection was still relatively small. Next to Wageners collection, originally, was a display of cartoons by Peter von Cornelius that had been bequeathed to the Prussian government, the initial objective of the gallery was to collect contemporary, primarily Prussian art, as Berlin did not then have any repository of modern art. In 1874 Max Jordan became the first director of the National Gallery, in 1896 he was succeeded by Hugo von Tschudi, who acquired Impressionist works, risking conflict with the Kaiser because this ended the collections focus on German art. The German National Gallery thus became the most important museum for modern French Art at the turn of the century, in 1909, Ludwig Justi assumed the post of director, and added Expressionist works to the collection. Following the German Revolution of 1918–1919 that ended Imperial rule, he moved the art to the Kronprinzenpalais at the end of Unter den Linden. In 1933, the new Nazi authorities dismissed Justi, who was followed by Eberhard Hanfstaengl and he remained until 1937, when he too was dismissed. His successor, Paul Ortwin Rave, remained until 1950, although because of World War II the building was closed during much of that time and it was heavily damaged in Allied air raids. It was partly reopened in 1949, but reconstruction continued until 1969, between 1998 and 2001, the museum was renovated thoroughly by German architect HG Merz
Alte Nationalgalerie
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Alte Nationalgalerie (Old National Gallery)
Alte Nationalgalerie
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Picture of the Alte Nationalgalerie from
Heinrich August Pierer 's Universal-Lexikon, 1891.
Alte Nationalgalerie
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Eisenwalzwerk (The Iron Rolling Mill (Modern Cyclopes)) by
Adolph von Menzel.
Alte Nationalgalerie
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Mitte
34.
Altes Museum
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The Altes Museum is a museum building on Museum Island in Berlin, Germany. Since restoration work in 2010-11, it houses the Antikensammlung of the Berlin State Museums, the museum building was built between 1823 and 1830 by the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel in the neoclassical style to house the Prussian royal familys art collection. The historic, protected building counts among the most distinguished in neoclassicism and is a point of Schinkels career. Until 1845, it was called the Königliches Museum, along with the other museums and historic buildings on Museum Island, the Altes Museum was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. In the early century, Germanys bourgeoisie had become increasingly self-aware. King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia was a proponent of this humboldtian ideal for education. The crown prince even sent Schinkel a pencil sketch of a large hall adorned with a classical portico, Schinkels plans incorporated the Königliches Museum into an ensemble of buildings, which surround the Berliner Lustgarten. The Stadtschloss in the south was a symbol of power, the Zeughaus in the west represented military might. The museum to the north of the garden, which was to provide for the education of the people, stood as a symbol for science and art—and not least for their torchbearer, the self-aware bourgeoisie. Schinkel had developed plans for the Königliches Museum as early as 1822/23, construction was completed in 1828 and the museum was inaugurated on 3 August 1830. In 1841, King Friedrich Wilhelm IV announced in a royal decree, in 1845, the Königliches Museum was renamed the Altes Museum, the name it holds to this day. The royally appointed commission, which was responsible for the conception of the museum and this precluded the incorporation of ethnography, prehistory and the excavated treasures of the Near East, instead, these artifacts were primarily housed in Schloss Monbijou. With the completion of the Neues Museum by Friedrich August Stüler in 1855 and this was followed by the Nationalgalerie by Johann Heinrich Strack, the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum by Ernst von Ihne after plans by Stüler, and the Pergamonmuseum by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann. Thus Museum Island evolved into the institution it is today, during National Socialism, the Altes Museum was used as the backdrop for propaganda, both in the museum itself and upon the parade grounds of the redesigned Lustgarten. Following Schinkels designs, the murals of the rotunda were restored in 1982, however, neither the ornate ceilings of the ground floor exhibition rooms nor the pairs of columns under the girders were reconstructed. The Altes Museum was originally constructed to house all of the collections of fine arts. However, since 1904, the museum has housed the Antikensammlung, since 1998, the Collection of Classical Antiquities has displayed its Greek collection, including the treasury, on the ground floor of the Altes Museum. Special exhibitions are displayed on the floor of the museum
Altes Museum
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Altes Museum, Berlin, 2012
Altes Museum
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Altes Museum, ca. 1830
Altes Museum
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Historical photograph of the Altes Museum, before 1854
Altes Museum
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Altes Museum, 1950
35.
Berlin Cathedral
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Berlin Cathedral is the short name for the Evangelical Supreme Parish and Collegiate Church in Berlin, Germany. It is located on Museum Island in the Mitte borough, the current building was finished in 1905 and is a main work of Historicist architecture of the Kaiserzeit. The Berlin Cathedral has never been a cathedral in the sense of that term since it has never been the seat of a bishop. The bishop of the Evangelical Church in Berlin-Brandenburg is based at St. Marys Church, Berlin Cathedral has a long history starting as a Roman Catholic place of worship in the 15th century. The history of todays Supreme Parish and Collegiate Church and its community dates back to 1451, in 1454 Frederick Irontooth, after having returned – via Rome – from his pilgrimage to Jerusalem, elevated the chapel to become a parish church, richly endowing it with relics and altars. Pope Nicholas V ordered Stephan Bodecker, then Prince-Bishop of Brandenburg, a collegiate church is a church endowed with revenues and earning estates, in order to provide a number of canons, called in canon law a College, with prebends. In this respect a collegiate church is similar to a cathedral, so the college of St. Erasmus chapel, called Domstift in German, bestowed the pertaining church its colloquial naming, Domkirche. Frederick Irontooth provided the College with estates, sufficient to supply eight canon prebendaries, on 20 January 1469, Dietrich IV, then Prince-Bishop of Brandenburg, invested eight clergymen, chosen by Frederick Irontooth, as collegiate canons with the prebends. Pauls Church, built ca. in 1345, on 28 May 1536 most of the Black Friars moved to a Dominican monastery in Brandenburg upon Havel. Joachim II Hector assigned the thus void, three-nave church building to the Collegiate Church of Our Lady, the Holy Cross, peter, Paul, Erasmus and Nicholas and enlarged the College to 12 prebendaries, bestowing two of them to canons taken on from the Dominican convent. From 1545 on the family of Hohenzollern used the church building also as their burial place. In 1538, a new western façade with two towers was attached to the church, which – due to its prior status as a church of a mendicant order – had no tower before. In the next year Joachim II Hector converted from Catholicism to Lutheranism, the collegiate church thus became Lutheran too, like most of the electoral subjects and all the churches in the Electorate. However, Joachim II Hectors ideas of Reformation were different from the modern ones, after his conversion he enriched the collegiate church with luxuriant furnishings, such as paraments, monstrances, relics, chasubles, carpets and antependia. In 1613, John Sigismund publicly confessed his Calvinist faith, so he and his family, except of his steadfastly Lutheran wife Anna, converted, while most of his subjects remained Lutherans. Being now a Calvinist church the patronage of the Holy Trinity was increasingly skipped, in 1667 the dilapidated double-tower façade was torn down and in 1717 Martin Böhme erected a new baroque façade with two towers. With effect of 1 January 1710 Cölln was united with Berlin under the latter name, in 1747 the Supreme Parish Church was completely demolished to clear space for the baroque extension of the Berlin Palace. On 6 September 1750 the new baroque Calvinist Supreme Parish Church was inaugurated, the electoral tombs were transferred to the new building
Berlin Cathedral
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Berlin Cathedral seen from
Lustgarten
Berlin Cathedral
Berlin Cathedral
–
The Supreme Parish Church with its double-tower façade of 1538 with northerly adjacent parts of Berlin's Palace. Miniature shown in the present church building.
Berlin Cathedral
–
Collegiate Church in 1736 with its new towers
36.
Bode Museum
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The Bode Museum is one of the group of museums on the Museum Island in Berlin, Germany. It was designed by architect Ernst von Ihne and completed in 1904, originally called the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum after Emperor Frederick III, the museum was renamed in honour of its first curator, Wilhelm von Bode, in 1956. Closed for repairs since 1997, the museum was reopened on October 18,2006 after a €156 million refurbishment. True to the ethos of its director, Wilhelm von Bode, who believed in mixing art collections, it is now the home for a collection of sculptures, Byzantine art. The sculpture collection shows art of the Christian Orient, sculptures from Byzantium and Ravenna, sculptures of the Middle Ages, the Italian Gothic, and the early Renaissance. Late German Gothic works are represented by Tilman Riemenschneider, the south German Renaissance. In the future selected works of the Gemäldegalerie will be integrated into the sculpture collection and this is reminiscent of William von Bodes concept of style rooms, in which sculptures, paintings, and crafts are viewed together, as was usual in upper middle-class private collections. The Münzkabinett is one of the worlds largest numismatic collections and its range spans from the beginning of minting in the 7th century BC in Asia Minor up to the present day. With approximately 500,000 items the collection is an archive for historical research. Writing in The Financial Times on the occasion on the reopening in 2006, Neil MacGregor, director of the British Museum. Wilhelm von Bode, the manager of the Prussian Art Collections for the Berlin Museum, had spotted the bust in a London gallery. Shortly afterwards, The Times ran an article claiming that the bust was the work of Lucas, lucass son, Albert, then came forward and swore under oath that the story was correct and that he had helped his father to make it. Albert was able to explain how the layers of wax had been built up from old candle ends, he described how his father would stuff various debris, including newspapers. When the Berlin museum staff removed the base they found the debris, just as Albert had described it, despite this evidence, Bode continued to claim that his original attribution was correct. Various claims and counter-claims have been put forward about the bust, scientific examination has been inconclusive and unhelpful in dating the bust, although it is accepted as having at least some connection with Lucas. The bust remains on display in what is now the Bode Museum labelled England, on 27 March 2017, a solid gold coin called the Big Maple Leaf, issued by the Royal Canadian Mint in 2007 as a commemorative piece, was stolen from the museum. The coin, at 53cm in diameter and 3cm in thickness, is made of 24-carat gold and is worth around €3.7 million. A ladder was found on the train tracks nearby, leading German police to speculate that the thief entered the building by breaking open a window in the back of the next to the railway tracks
Bode Museum
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The Bode Museum
Bode Museum
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The Bode Museum in 1904
Bode Museum
–
At night
Bode Museum
–
The entrance hall
37.
Brandenburg Gate
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The Brandenburg Gate is an 18th-century neoclassical monument in Berlin, and one of the best-known landmarks of Germany. It is built on the site of a city gate that marked the start of the road from Berlin to the town of Brandenburg an der Havel. It is located in the part of the city centre of Berlin within Mitte, at the junction of Unter den Linden and Ebertstraße. One block to the stands the Reichstag building, which houses the German parliament. The gate is the entry to Unter den Linden, the renowned boulevard of linden trees. It was commissioned by King Frederick William II of Prussia as a sign of peace, having suffered considerable damage in World War II, the Brandenburg Gate was restored from 2000 to 2002 by the Stiftung Denkmalschutz Berlin. During the post-war Partition of Germany, the gate was isolated, the area around the gate was featured most prominently in the media coverage of the tearing down of the wall in 1989, and the subsequent German reunification in 1990. Georgen Tor, Stralower Tor, Cöpenicker Tor, Neues Tor, relative peace, a policy of religious tolerance, and status as capital of the Kingdom of Prussia facilitated the growth of the city. The Brandenburg Gate was not part of the old fortifications, but one of 18 gates within the Berlin Customs Wall, erected in the 1730s, including the old fortified city, the new gate was commissioned by Frederick William II of Prussia to represent peace. The gate consists of twelve Doric columns, six to each side, citizens originally were allowed to use only the outermost two on each side. Atop the gate is a Quadriga, a chariot drawn by four horses, the new gate was originally named the Peace Gate and the goddess is Eirene, the goddess of peace. The gates design is based upon the Propylaea, the gateway to the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the gate was the first element of Athens on the River Spree by architect Langhans. The Brandenburg Gate has played different political roles in German history, after the 1806 Prussian defeat at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, Napoleon was the first to use the Brandenburg Gate for a triumphal procession, and took its Quadriga to Paris. After Napoleons defeat in 1814 and the Prussian occupation of Paris by General Ernst von Pfuel, the Quadriga faces east, as it did when it was originally installed in 1793. Only the royal family was allowed to pass through the archway, as well as members of the Pfuel family. The Kaiser granted this honour to the family in gratitude to Ernst von Pfuel, in addition, the central archway was also used by the coaches of ambassadors on the single occasion of their presenting their letters of credence to council. When the Nazis ascended to power, they used the gate as a party symbol, the gate survived World War II and was one of the damaged structures still standing in the Pariser Platz ruins in 1945. The gate was damaged with holes in the columns from bullets
Brandenburg Gate
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The Brandenburg Gate
Brandenburg Gate
Brandenburg Gate
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The Brandenburg Gate
quadriga at night
Brandenburg Gate
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Berlin in 1688: The future site of the Brandenburg gate was near the middle left of the map, separating the
Tiergarten from
Unter den Linden. Travellers going west from the city toward
Brandenburg an der Havel could pass in this direction.
38.
Checkpoint Charlie
–
Checkpoint Charlie was the name given by the Western Allies to the best-known Berlin Wall crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War. Checkpoint Charlie became a symbol of the Cold War, representing the separation of East and West, Soviet and American tanks briefly faced each other at the location during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. After the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc and the reunification of Germany and it is now located in the Allied Museum in the Dahlem neighborhood of Berlin. By the early 1950s, the Soviet method of restricting emigration was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, however, in occupied Germany, until 1952, the lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones remained easily crossed in most places. Consequently, the inner German border between the two German states was closed and a fence erected. Accordingly, Berlin became the route by which East Germans left for the West. Hence the Berlin sector border was essentially a loophole through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape, the 3.5 million East Germans who had left by 1961 totaled approximately 20% of the entire East German population. The emigrants tended to be young and well educated, the loss was disproportionately great among professionals — engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled workers. The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility, between 1949 and 1961, over 2½ million East Germans fled to the West. The numbers increased during the three years before the Berlin Wall was erected, with 144,000 in 1959,199,000 in 1960 and 207,000 in the first seven months of 1961 alone, the East German economy suffered accordingly. On August 13,1961, a barrier that would become the Berlin Wall separating East and West Berlin was erected by the East Germans. Two days later, police and army began to construct a more permanent concrete wall. Along with the wall, the 830 mile zonal border became 3, Checkpoint Charlie was a crossing point in the Berlin Wall located at the junction of Friedrichstraße with Zimmerstraße and Mauerstraße. It is in the Friedrichstadt neighborhood, Checkpoint Charlie was designated as the single crossing point for foreigners and members of the Allied forces. The Soviets simply called it the Friedrichstraße Crossing Point, the East Germans referred officially to Checkpoint Charlie as the Grenzübergangsstelle Friedrich-/Zimmerstraße. As the most visible Berlin Wall checkpoint, Checkpoint Charlie is frequently featured in spy movies, a famous cafe and viewing place for Allied officials, armed forces and visitors alike, Cafe Adler, is situated right on the checkpoint. It was an excellent viewing point to look into East Berlin while having something to eat and their reason was that they did not consider the inner Berlin sector boundary an international border and did not treat it as such. Soon after the construction of the Berlin Wall, a standoff occurred between U. S. and Soviet tanks on either side of Checkpoint Charlie, by October 27,10 Soviet and an equal number of American tanks stood 100 yards apart on either side of the checkpoint
Checkpoint Charlie
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A view of Checkpoint Charlie in 1963, from the American sector
Checkpoint Charlie
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Checkpoint Charlie in 1986
Checkpoint Charlie
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Replica of the famous sign at the former East–West Berlin border
Checkpoint Charlie
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Berlin Wall 1975
39.
Checkpoint Charlie Museum
–
The Checkpoint Charlie Museum is a museum in Berlin. It is named after the crossing point on the Berlin Wall. On display are the photos and related documents of successful escape attempts from East Germany, together with the apparatus, hot-air balloons, getaway cars, chairlifts. It began as an exhibition by human rights activist Dr. Rainer Hildebrandt on 19 October 1962, just outside the Berlin Wall, the street was divided along its whole length, the buildings in the east had been vacated and their windows were bricked up. The Haus am Checkpoint Charlie opened in its present location in 1963, the museum is operated by the Arbeitsgemeinschaft 13. August, and the director is Alexandra Hildebrandt, widow of Rainer and it is one of the most frequently visited museums in Berlin, with 850,000 visitors in 2007. Through its presentation of the ways in which people tried to escape East Germany, it aims to bring that period of history to life. While some considered this public exhibit to be appropriate, others considered it a form of cheap populism, the following year, the crosses which made up the memorial were removed, following a court order enacted by the owner of the site. In 2008, the museum gave the number of people killed up until 1989 on the Berlin Wall. The aim was to document the best border security system in the world, further exhibitions followed,1973, Artists interpret THE WALL,1976, BERLIN – from a front-line city to Europes bridge,1984, FROM GANDHI TO WALESA – non-violent struggle for human rights. Original objects from successful escapes demonstrate the courage and creativity of the escapees, the exhibition presents the history of both parts of the divided city – their contrasts and similarities – from the end of World War II onward. Further stages in the show the building of the Wall, the Four Power Agreement, the 750th anniversary celebrations. Checkpoint Charlie was the border crossing between East and West. In October 1961 American and Russian tanks engage in a following the USAs intervention to defend the fundamental rights of Berlins occupying powers. Again and again Checkpoint Charlie is the scene of demonstrations, escape attempts are either successful or fail just in front of the white borderline. On 17 August 1962, Peter Fechter bleeds to death before the eyes of the world. Finally, on 22 June 1990, in the presence of the ministers of the four victorious powers of World War II. In 2007, the Museum created a new permanent exhibition on the history of NATO, in the run-up to the opening of the exhibition Charles C
Checkpoint Charlie Museum
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Haus am
Checkpoint Charlie
Checkpoint Charlie Museum
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The
Freedom Memorial
Checkpoint Charlie Museum
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Main article
Checkpoint Charlie Museum
–
Mitte
40.
DDR Museum
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The DDR Museum is a museum in the centre of Berlin. The museum is located in the governmental district of East Germany, right on the river Spree. The museum is the 11th most visited museum in Berlin and its exhibition shows the daily life in East Germany in a direct hands-on way. For example, a listening device gives visitors the sense of being under surveillance. The museum was opened on July 15,2006, as a private museum, the private funding is unusual in Germany, because German museums are normally funded by the state. In 2008, the DDR Museum was nominated for the European Museum of the Year Award, robert Rückel, GDR-Guide, everyday life of a long-gone state in 22 chapters. Berlin, DDR Museum Verlag 2009, ISBN 978-3-939801-14-6
DDR Museum
–
The museum's logo
DDR Museum
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living room in the DDR
41.
Deutsches Historisches Museum
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It is often viewed as one of the most important museums in Berlin and is one of the most frequented. The museum is located in the Zeughaus on the avenue Unter den Linden as well as in the adjacent Exhibition Hall designed by I. M. Pei, the German Historical Museum is under the legal form of a foundation registered by the Federal Republic of Germany. Its highest-ranking body is the Board of Trustees with representatives of the Federal Government, the German Bundestag and the governments of the German Länder, or states. The museum was founded on 28 October 1987, on the occasion of the 750th anniversary of the founding of Berlin, it was inaugurated in the Reichstag building in former West Berlin. A commission consisting of 16 leading historians, art historians and museum directors worked out a concept for the museum in 1985/86, the final version became the basis for the founding of the DHM. The core of the Museums brief was to present German history in an international context, originally the Museum was to be located near the Reichstag Building at the Spreebogen, the government complex at the bend of the River Spree. The architecture competition for the project was won by the Italian architect Aldo Rossi in 1988, and thus the Zeughaus of 1695 – the oldest building on Unter den Linden – became the seat of the German Historical Museum. The first exhibitions were shown in the Zeughaus in September 1991, the DHM began expanding its collections shortly after its founding. Opening in December 1994, the former Permanent Exhibition, then entitled German History in Images and Testimonials, the façade of the Zeughaus was restored between 1994 and 1998 on the basis of historical documents. The building was closed from 1998 until 2003 while extensive restoration measures were carried out by the office of Winfried Brenne. The new building by I. M. Pei with an area of 2,700 m2 on four floors. The Permanent Exhibition German History in Images and Artefacts was inaugurated in the Zeughaus by Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel on 2 June 2006, as of 30 December 2008 the DHM assumed the legal form of a Public Law Foundation of the Federal Government. Founded in 2009 to establish a centre for the remembrance and documentation of flight and expulsion, the four floors of the I. M. Pei Exhibition Hall are devoted to the Museums temporary exhibitions. The Zeughauskino, a theatre seating 165 guests, is an integral part of the German Historical Museum and is located in the Zeughaus. Its main aim is to bring together historical and film-historical questions in a programme that is marked by film series to accompany exhibitions as well as thematic retrospectives. In 2012, following a decision, the heirs of Hans Sachs were granted possession of his collection which had been expropriated from Dr. Sachs by the Nazis in 1938. The German Historical Museum has the most extensive object database of all museums in Germany that can be consulted on the Internet, the collections of the Museum are recorded and administered in the database. It currently comprises around 500,000 objects and provides digital photos of some 70 percent of these objects, reproduction rights for commercial purposes are managed by the DHM picture archive, which charges industry-standard usage fees
Deutsches Historisches Museum
–
Facade of the
Zeughaus, the Museum's main building
Deutsches Historisches Museum
–
The extension of the museum
42.
Gendarmenmarkt
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The Gendarmenmarkt is a square in Berlin and the site of an architectural ensemble including the Konzerthaus and the French and German Churches. In the centre of the stands an monumental statue of Germanys renowned poet Friedrich Schiller. The square was created by Johann Arnold Nering at the end of the century as the Linden-Markt. The Gendarmenmarkt is named after the cuirassier regiment Gens dArmes, which had stables at the square until 1773, during World War II, most of the buildings were badly damaged or destroyed. Today all of them have been restored, Gendarmenmarkt was first built in 1688. It was a marketplace and part of the citys Western expansion of Friedrichstadt, the French Church is the older of the two churches, was built by the Huguenot community between 1701 and 1705. It was modelled after the destroyed Huguenot church in Charenton-Saint-Maurice, France, the tower and porticoes, designed by Carl von Gontard, were added to the building in 1785. The French Church has a platform, a restaurant and a Huguenot museum. The German Church is located to the south of the Gendarmenmarkt and it has a pentagonal structure and was designed by Martin Grünberg and built in 1708 by Giovanni Simonetti. This church belonged to the Lutheran community and it too was modified in 1785 by Carl von Gontard, who built the domed tower. The German Church was completely destroyed by fire in 1945, during World War II, after German reunification it was rebuilt, finished in 1993 and re-opened in 1996 as a museum of German history. The Konzerthaus Berlin is the most recent building on the Gendarmenmarkt and it was built by Karl Friedrich Schinkel in 1821 as the Schauspielhaus. It was based on the ruins of the National Theatre, which had destroyed by fire in 1817. Parts of the building columns and some outside walls from the destroyed building. Like the other buildings on the square, it was badly damaged during World War II. The reconstruction, finished in 1984, turned the theatre into a concert hall, today, it is the home of the Konzerthausorchester Berlin. The Gendarmenmarkt hosts one of Berlins most popular Christmas markets, website of das Konzerthaus Der Gendarmenmarkt on Berlin Tourism Gendarmenmarkt Panorama
Gendarmenmarkt
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2008 panorama of the Gendarmenmarkt, showing the Konzerthaus, flanked by the German Church (left) and French Church (right)
Gendarmenmarkt
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Gendarmenmarkt around 1900
Gendarmenmarkt
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View of Gendarmenmarkt with the Konzerthaus to the right and the German Church in the back, as seen from the top of the French Church, 2011
Gendarmenmarkt
–
Gendarmenmarkt at dusk
43.
Hotel Adlon
–
The Hotel Adlon Kempinski Berlin is a luxury hotel in Berlin, Germany. The legendary original Hotel Adlon was one of the most famous hotels in Europe and it opened in 1907 and was largely destroyed in 1945 in the closing days of World War II, though a small wing continued operating until 1984. The current hotel, which opened on August 23,1997, is a new building with an inspired by the original. In 1873 the Hotel Imperial opened in Vienna, followed by the Hôtel Ritz Paris in 1898, in Berlin, capital of the German Empire the Wilhelmine high society was eager to keep up with their rival metropolises. In 1905 Lorenz Adlon, a wine merchant and restaurateur originally from Mainz. Adlon ran several coffeehouses in Berlin, among others in the Berlin Zoological Garden, the Kaiser cleared the way for Adlons purchase of the Palais and for the subsequent demolition of the historic building. Designed by Carl Gause and Robert Leibnitz, the hotel was built at a cost of 20 Million Gold Marks,2 Million of which were the majority of Adlons personal fortune. Behind a rather sober façade, the hotel was the most modern in Germany with hot and cold running water, an on-site laundry, as well as its own power plant to generate electricity. The hotel was decorated in a mix of Neo-Baroque and Louis XVI styles and furnished by the Mainz company of Bembé, the Adlon opened on October 23,1907 with the Kaiser, his wife, and many other notables in attendance. It quickly became the center of Berlin. As the rooms in the Stadtschloss were cold and drafty, the Kaiser paid a retainer to keep suites available for his guests. Likewise the Foreign Office used the Adlon for accommodation during state visits, with guests including Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, many wealthy Berliners lived for extended periods of time in the hotel, while its ballrooms hosted official government functions and society events. He therefore never looked before crossing in front of it, tragically, this resulted in Adlon being hit by a car in 1918 at that spot. Three years later, on April 7,1921, he was hit by a car at exactly the same spot. Lorenzs son Louis Adlon took over management of the hotel with his wife Hedda, the hotel was a favorite hangout of international journalists, including William L. Shirer, who mentions it frequently in his writings. Parts of the hotel were converted to a field hospital during the final days of the Battle of Berlin. The hotel survived the war without any damage, having avoided the bombs. However, on the night of May 2,1945 a fire, started in the wine cellar by drunken Red Army soldiers
Hotel Adlon
–
The current Hotel Adlon Kempinski Berlin
Hotel Adlon
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Palais Redern, about 1900
Hotel Adlon
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Hotel Adlon, 1926
Hotel Adlon
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1945: Red Army Soldiers fly the Soviet flag from the Hotel Adlon
44.
Humboldt University of Berlin
–
The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
Humboldt University of Berlin
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Monument to Wilhelm von Humboldt in front of the main building. Artist: Paul Otto
Humboldt University of Berlin
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Seal of the Universitas Humboldtiana Berolinensis (
Latin)
Humboldt University of Berlin
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Statue of
Alexander von Humboldt outside Humboldt University, from 1883 by artist Reinhold Begas. Note the Spanish inscription describing him as "the second discoverer of Cuba".
Humboldt University of Berlin
–
The Berlin University in 1850.
45.
Lustgarten
–
The Lustgarten is a park on Museum Island in central Berlin, near the site of the former Berliner Stadtschloss of which it was originally a part. At various times in its history, the park has used as a parade ground, a place for mass rallies. After the devastation of Germany during the Thirty Years War, Berlin was redeveloped by Friedrich Wilhelm and his Dutch wife, in 1713, Friedrich Wilhelm I became King of Prussia and set about converting Prussia into a militarised state. In 1790, Friedrich Wilhelm II allowed the Lustgarten to be turned back into a park, in the early 19th century, the enlarged and increasingly wealthy Kingdom of Prussia undertook major redevelopments of central Berlin. A 13-metre high fountain in the centre, operated by an engine, was one of the marvels of the age. In 1871, the fountain was replaced by an equestrian statue of Friedrich Wilhelm III by Albert Wolff. The statue was unveiled on 16 June 1871, between 1894 and 1905, the old Protestant church on the northern side of the park was replaced by a much larger building, the Berlin Cathedral, designed by Julius Carl Raschdorff. During the years of the Weimar Republic, the Lustgarten was frequently used for political demonstrations, the Socialists and Communists held frequent rallies there. In August 1921,500,000 people demonstrated against right-wing extremist violence, after the murder of Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau, on 25 June 1922,250,000 protested in the Lustgarten. On 7 February 1933,200,000 people demonstrated against the new Nazi Party regime of Adolf Hitler, under the Nazis, the Lustgarten was converted into a site for mass rallies. In 1934, it was paved over and the statue removed. Hitler addressed mass rallies of up to a million people there, on 18 May 1942 a resistance group lead by Herbert Baum consisting mainly of Jewish men and women, tried to destroy a propaganda exhibition The Soviet Paradise in the Lustgarten. This resulted in the discovery of the group, the death of Baum in Gestapo detention, in a retaliation action, the Reich Main Security Office arrested 500 Jewish men at the end of May, and immediately murdered half of them. A memorial stone made by Jürgen Raue installed in 1981 commemorates the resistance group, in 1944 the statue of Friedrich Wilhelm III by Albert Wolff was melted down to reuse the metal in war production. By the end of World War II in 1945, the Lustgarten was a bomb-pitted wasteland, the German Democratic Republic left Hitlers paving in place, but planted lime trees around the parade ground to reduce its militaristic appearance. The whole area was renamed Marx-Engels-Platz, the City Palace was demolished and later replaced by the modernist Palace of the Republic on part of the site. A movement to restore the Lustgarten to its role as a park began once Germany was reunified in 1990. In 1997, the Berlin Senate commissioned the landscape architect Hans Loidl to redesign the area in the spirit of Lennés design, the Lustgarten now features fountains and is once again a park in the heart of a reunited Berlin
Lustgarten
–
The Lustgarten, looking north-east towards the
Berlin Cathedral.
Lustgarten
–
Simplified map of the Lustgarten, showing the
Altes Museum (Old Museum) and Berliner Dom.
Lustgarten
–
The Lustgarten in 1900, looking north-west toward the Old Museum.
46.
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe
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It consists of a 19,000 m2 site covered with 2,711 concrete slabs or stelae, arranged in a grid pattern on a sloping field. The stelae are 2.38 m long,0.95 m wide and they are organized in rows,54 of them going north–south, and 87 heading east–west at right angles but set slightly askew. An attached underground Place of Information holds the names of approximately 3 million Jewish Holocaust victims, building began on April 1,2003, and was finished on December 15,2004. It was inaugurated on May 10,2005, sixty years after the end of World War II and it is located one block south of the Brandenburg Gate, in the Friedrichstadt neighborhood. The cost of construction was approximately €25 million, nestled next to the Tiergarten, it has a central location in the Friedrichstadt district of Berlin. The memorial is close to the Reichstag building and the Brandenburg Gate. It can be reached by transportation, via the Potsdamer Platz exit on the U-Bahn Line 2, Lines 1,2, or 25 of the S-Bahn and Bus Lines 100,200,347, M41. The monument is located on the location of the Berlin Wall. It acts as a point, connecting the various holocaust monuments spread across the city and the country. The center represents a central focus on the memorial sites across Germany which stress the living memory aspect of remembrance. In Berlin an example of this is the Stolpersteine initiative – plaques on street pavements, usually outside the main entrance. The monument is composed of 2711 rectangular concrete blocks, laid out in a grid formation and this lets for long, straight, and narrow alleys between them, along which the ground undulates. The installation is an experiment in montage, a Kuleshov of the juxtaposition of image. People have applauded the location of the memorial, during the war, the area acted as the administrative center of Hitlers killing machine. “His chancellery building, designed by Albert Speer and since demolished, was a few hundred yards away just to the south, however, observers have noted the memorials resemblance to a cemetery. The abstract installation leaves room for interpretation, the most common being that of a graveyard. “The memorial evokes a graveyard for those who were unburied or thrown into unmarked pits, Wolfgang Thierse, the president of Germanys parliament described the piece as a place that where people can grasp what loneliness, powerlessness and despair mean. Mr. Thierse talked about the memorial as creating a type of fear in the visitor
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe
–
Visitors walking among the stelae
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe
–
The Memorial
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe
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The memorial covered in snow, February 2009
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe
–
This article includes a
list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient
inline citations. Please help to
improve this article by
introducing more precise citations. (November 2015)
47.
Museum Island
–
Museum Island is the name of the northern half of an island in the Spree river in the central Mitte district of Berlin, Germany, the site of the old city of Cölln. The Neues Museum finished in 1859 according to plans by Friedrich August Stüler, destroyed in World War II, it was rebuilt under the direction of David Chipperfield for the Egyptian Museum of Berlin and re-opened in 2009. It exhibits the sculpture collections and late Antique and Byzantine art, the Pergamon Museum, the final museum of the complex, constructed in 1930. It contains multiple reconstructed immense and historically significant buildings such as the Pergamon Altar, in 1999, the museum complex was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. A first exhibition hall was erected in 1797 at the suggestion of the archaeologist Aloys Hirt, in 1822, Schinkel designed the plans for the Altes Museum to house the royal Antikensammlung, the arrangement of the collection was overseen by Wilhelm von Humboldt. The island, originally an area, was dedicated to art. Further extended under succeeding Prussian kings, the collections of art. They are today maintained by the Berlin State Museums branch of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, Museum Island further comprises the Lustgarten park and the Berlin Cathedral. Between the Bode and Pergamon Museums it is crossed by the Stadtbahn railway viaduct, the adjacent territory to the south is the site of the former Stadtschloss and the Palace of the Republic. These include the Priams Treasure, also called the gold of Troy, excavated by Heinrich Schliemann in 1873, then smuggled out of Turkey to Berlin and today kept at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow. Then, six months later, Peter-Klaus Schuster took over and set in motion a far more ambitious program intended to turn Museum Island into a Louvre on the Spree. The federal government pledged $20 million a year through 2010 for projects to enhance Berlins prestige and Unesco declaring the island a World Heritage Site. The contents of the museums were decided on as follows, The Pergamon, with the Greek altar that gives it its name, the Neues Museum presented archaeological objects as well as Egyptian and Etruscan sculptures, including the renowned bust of Queen Nefertiti. The Altes Museum, the oldest on the island, displayed Greek and Roman art objects on its first floor, the Bode Museums paintings went from Late Byzantine to 1800. And, as now, the Alte Nationalgalerie will cover the 19th century, the James Simon Gallery, a $94 million visitors’ center designed by the British architect David Chipperfield, is being built beside the Neues Museum. It will in turn be linked to the Neues, Altes, Pergamon, once the Museum Island Master Plan is completed, the so-called Archaeological Promenade will connect four of the five museums in the Museum Island. The Promenade will begin at the Old Museum in the south, lead through the New Museum, before World War II, these museums were connected by bridge passages above ground, they were destroyed due to the effects of the war. There have never been plans to them, instead, the central courts of individual museums will be lowered
Museum Island
–
The
Bode Museum at the northern end of the Museum Island.
Museum Island
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Museum Island with Pergamon and Bode Museum, 1951
Museum Island
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Altes Museum,
Lustgarten, and
Berlin Cathedral
Museum Island
–
Neues Museum
Media related to Karl-Marx-Allee at Wikimedia Commons
