1.
Sachsenhausen (Frankfurt am Main)
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Sachsenhausen-Nord and Sachsenhausen-Süd are two city districts of Frankfurt am Main, Germany. The division into a northern and a part is mostly for administrative purposes as Sachsenhausen is generally considered an entity. Both city districts are part of the Ortsbezirk Süd, as a whole, Sachsenhausen is the largest district by population and area in Frankfurt. It is located south of the Main river and borders the districts of Niederrad and Flughafen to the west, Sachsenhausen-Süd is mostly comprised by the Frankfurt City Forest. Sachsenhausen was founded as Frankfurts bridgehead in the 12th century, the oldest documents point to the year 1193. Unlike Frankfurts own historic city center, which burned to the ground after British bombing in 1944, the Frankfurt youth hostel is located on its riverside. The population of Sachsenhausen is 55,422, the River Main embankment hosts the citys largest flea market and some of Germanys best-known museums, it is also called the Museum Embankment. Sachsenhausen is known for its vibrant nightlife sporting over two bars, taverns and restaurants in the southern parts old town. The main street of Sachsenhausen is Schweizer Straße, a boulevard with bars. Ciderhouses that produce their own Apfelwein can be identified by the presence of a wreath of evergreen branches hanging outside the location or a similar image included on their signpost. The Textorstraße and the old town or Altstadt have the best known ciderhouses in Frankfurt, orchards of the Sperling apple can be seen across the countryside and, reputedly, local law requires that Apfelwein be the cheapest alcoholic beverage on sale in any public house. In addition, there is a new part of Sachsenhausen. Try to find the area from Deutschherrnufer numbered between 40 and 50, in the future the area will be located directly opposite the new buildings of the European Central Bank, which will be built on the other riverside. Landmarks of Sachsenhausen are the Henninger Turm and the Goetheturm, Sachsenhausen is also the location of the Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology
2.
Humboldt University of Berlin
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The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
3.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
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Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher and an important figure of German idealism. He achieved wide renown in his day and, while primarily influential within the tradition of philosophy, has become increasingly influential in the analytic tradition as well. Although he remains a figure, his canonical stature within Western philosophy is universally recognized. His philosophy of spirit conceptually integrates psychology, the state, history, art, religion and his account of the master–slave dialectic has been highly influential, especially in 20th-century France. Hegel has been seen in the 20th century as the originator of the thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad, however, as an explicit phrase, Hegel has influenced many thinkers and writers whose own positions vary widely. Hegel was born on August 27,1770 in Stuttgart, in the Duchy of Württemberg in southwestern Germany, christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig, was Rentkammersekretär at the court of Karl Eugen, Hegels mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa, was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court. She died of a fever when Hegel was thirteen. Hegel and his father caught the disease but narrowly survived. Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise, and a brother, Georg Ludwig, at the age of three Hegel went to the German School. When he entered the Latin School two years later, he knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother. In 1776, Hegel entered Stuttgarts gymnasium illustre, during his adolescence Hegel read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment, such as Christian Garve, Hegels studies at the Gymnasium were concluded with his Abiturrede entitled The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey. At the age of eighteen Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift, where he had as roommates the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each others ideas. All greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and they watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, Hegel at this time envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph, i. e. Having received his certificate from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister to an aristocratic family in Bern. During this period he composed the text which has known as the Life of Jesus
4.
Friedrich Schleiermacher
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He also became influential in the evolution of Higher Criticism, and his work forms part of the foundation of the modern field of hermeneutics. Because of his effect on subsequent Christian thought, he is often called the Father of Modern Liberal Theology and is considered an early leader in liberal Christianity. The Neo-Orthodoxy movement of the century, typically seen to be spearheaded by Karl Barth, was in many ways an attempt to challenge his influence. As a theology student Schleiermacher pursued an independent course of reading and neglected the study of the Old Testament, at the same time he studied the writings of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, and began to apply ideas from the Greek philosophers to a reconstruction of Kants system. Schleiermacher developed a deep-rooted skepticism as a student, and soon he rejected orthodox Christianity and he has himself read some of the skeptical literature, he says, and can assure Schleiermacher that it is not worth wasting time on. For six whole months there is no word from his son. In a moving letter of 21 January 1787, Schleiermacher admits that the doubts alluded to are his own and his father has said that faith is the regalia of the Godhead, that is, Gods royal due. Schleiermacher confessed, Faith is the regalia of the Godhead, you say, I cannot believe that he who called himself the Son of Man was the true, eternal God, I cannot believe that his death was a vicarious atonement. Two years later, in 1796, he became chaplain to the Charité Hospital in Berlin, here Schleiermacher became acquainted with art, literature, science and general culture. He was strongly influenced by German Romanticism, as represented by his friend Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel, though his ultimate principles remained unchanged, he placed more emphasis on human emotion and the imagination. Meanwhile, he studied Spinoza and Plato, both of whom were important influences and he became more indebted to Kant, though they differed on fundamental points. He sympathised with some of Jacobis positions, and took some ideas from Fichte, the literary product of this period of rapid development was his influential book, Reden über die Religion and his new years gift to the new century, the Monologen. This established the programme of his subsequent theological system, from 1802 to 1804, Schleiermacher served as a pastor in the Pomeranian town of Stolp. He relieved Friedrich Schlegel entirely of his responsibility for the translation of Plato. The obscurity of the style and its negative tone prevented immediate success. At the foundation of the University of Berlin, in which he took a prominent part, Schleiermacher obtained a theological chair, and soon became secretary to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. The twenty-four years of his career in Berlin began with his short outline of theological study. At the same time Schleiermacher prepared his chief theological work Der christliche Glaube nach den Grundsätzen der evangelischen Kirche and he felt isolated, although his church and his lecture-room continued to be crowded
5.
Wolfgang Menzel
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Wolfgang Menzel, German poet, critic and literary historian, was born at Waldenburg in Silesia. He studied at Breslau, Jena and Bonn, and after living for some time in Aarau and Heidelberg finally settled in Stuttgart, in 1866 his political sympathies again changed, and he opposed the particularism of the Prussian junkers and the anti-unionism of south Germany. He died on April 23,1873 at Stuttgart and his library of 18,000 volumes was afterwards acquired for the University of Strassburg. Menzel was a strident opponent of innovation in poetry and in particular of Heinrich Heine, German Literature, Vol.2, Vol.3. Boston, Hilliard, Gray and Company,1840, “Nationality and Cosmopolitsm, ” The American Eclectic, No. The History of Germany, From the Earliest Period to 1842, Vol.2, Works by Wolfgang Menzel at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Wolfgang Menzel at Internet Archive
6.
University of Jena
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Friedrich Schiller University Jena is a public research university located in Jena, Thuringia, Germany. The university was established in 1558 and is counted among the ten oldest universities in Germany and it is affiliated with six Nobel Prize winners, most recently in 2000 when Jena graduate Herbert Kroemer won the Nobel Prize for physics. It was renamed after the poet Friedrich Schiller who was teaching as professor of philosophy when Jena attracted some of the most influential minds at the turn of the 19th century, as of 2014, the university has around 19,000 students enrolled and 375 professors. Its current president, Walter Rosenthal, was elected in 2014 for a six-year term, the plan was put into motion by his three sons and, after having obtained a charter from the Emperor Ferdinand I, the university was established on 2 February 1558. The university, jointly maintained by the Saxon Duchies who derived from partitioning of John Fredericks duchy, was thus named Ducal Pan-Saxon University or Salana, prior to the 20th century, University enrollment peaked in the 18th century. Founded as a home for the new religious opinions of the sixteenth century, the University of Jena has preserved a historical detention room or Karzer with famous caricatures by Swiss painter Martin Disteli. In the latter 19th century, the department of zoology taught evolutionary theory, with Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the later fame of Ernst Haeckel eclipsed Darwin in some European countries, as the term Haeckelism was more common than Darwinism. In 1905, Jena had 1,100 students enrolled and its staff numbered 112. In 1934 the university was renamed again, receiving its present name of Friedrich Schiller University, during the 20th century, the cooperation between Zeiss corporation and the university brought new prosperity and attention to Jena, resulting in a dramatic increase in funding and enrollment. During the Third Reich, staunch Nazis moved into leading position at the university, the racial researcher and SS-Hauptscharführer Karl Astel was appointed professor in 1933, bypassing traditional qualifications and process, he later became rector of the University in 1939. Also in 1933, many professors had to leave the university as a consequence of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, Student fraternities - in particular the Burschenschaften - were dissolved and incorporated into the Nazi student federation. Between the Jena connections and the NS students wide-ranging human and ideological connections were recorded, completely destroyed were the Botanical Garden, the psychological and the physiological institute and three chemical Institutes. An important event for the National Socialist period was the investigation of the pediatrician Yusuf Ibrahim, a Senate Commission noted the participation of the physician to the euthanasia murders of physically or mentally disabled children. In the 20th century the university was promoted through cooperation with Carl Zeiss, in 1905 the university had 1,100 students and 112 university teachers, so this figure has since been almost twenty-fold. The Thuringian State University is the comprehensive university of the Free State. Since 1995, there is a university association with the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, the aim is firstly to give the students the opportunity to visit with relatively few problems at the partner universities and events in order to broaden the range of subjects and topics. Currently e. g. has joined a cooperation in teaching in the field of bioinformatics, in addition, the cooperation provides the university management the opportunity to share experiences with their regular meetings and initiate common projects. So z. B. went from the bid to the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research from the University network
7.
Heidelberg University
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Heidelberg University is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is Germanys oldest university and it was the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire. Heidelberg has been an institution since 1899. The university consists of twelve faculties and offers programmes at undergraduate, graduate. The language of instruction is usually German, while a number of graduate degrees are offered in English. Associated with 31 Nobel Prize laureates, the university places an emphasis on research, modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology, psychiatric genetics, environmental physics, and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg faculty. Approximately 1,000 doctorates are completed every year, with more than one third of the students coming from abroad. International students from some 130 countries account for more than 20 percent of the student body. The universitys noted alumni include eleven domestic and foreign Heads of State or Heads of Government, the Great Schism of 1378 made it possible for Heidelberg, a relatively small city and capital of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to gain its own university. The Great Schism was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year, one successor resided in Avignon and the other in Rome. Rupert I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, as specified in the papal charter, the university was modelled after University of Paris and included four faculties, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine. On 18 October 1386 a special Pontifical High Mass in the Heiliggeistkirche was the ceremony that established the university, on 19 October 1386 the first lecture was held, making Heidelberg the oldest university in Germany. In November 1386, Marsilius of Inghen was elected first rector of the university, the rector seal motto was semper apertus—i. e. The book of learning is always open, the university grew quickly and in March 1390,185 students were enrolled at the university. This resulted in establishing a reputation for the university and its professors. Due to the influence of Marsilius, the university initially taught the nominalism or via moderna, the transition from scholastic to humanistic culture was effected by the chancellor and bishop Johann von Dalberg in the late 15th century. Humanism was represented at Heidelberg University particularly by the founder of the older German Humanistic School Rudolph Agricola, Conrad Celtes, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Johann Reuchlin. Æneas Silvius Piccolomini was chancellor of the university in his capacity of provost of Worms, in 1482, Pope Sixtus IV permitted laymen and married men to be appointed professors in the ordinary of medicine through a papal dispensation
8.
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
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Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität in Munich is a public research university located in Munich, Germany. The University of Munich is among Germanys oldest universities, in 1802, the university was officially named Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität by King Maximilian I of Bavaria in his as well as the universitys original founders honour. Among these were Wilhelm Röntgen, Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, Otto Hahn, pope Benedict XVI was also a student and professor at the university. The LMU has recently been conferred the title of university under the German Universities Excellence Initiative. LMU is currently the second-largest university in Germany in terms of student population, in the semester of 2015/2016. Of these,8,671 were freshmen while international students totalled 7,812 or almost 15% of the student population, the university was founded with papal approval in 1472 as the University of Ingolstadt, with faculties of philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence and theology. Its first rector was Christopher Mendel of Steinfels, who became bishop of Chiemsee. In the period of German humanism, the universitys academics included names such as Conrad Celtes, the theologian Johann Eck also taught at the university. From 1549 to 1773, the university was influenced by the Jesuits, the Jesuit Petrus Canisius served as rector of the university. At the end of the 18th century, the university was influenced by the Enlightenment, in 1800, the Prince-Elector Maximilianv IV Joseph moved the university to Landshut, due to French aggression that threatened Ingolstadt during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1802, the university was renamed the Ludwig Maximilian University in honour of its two founders, Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria and Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. The Minister of Education, Maximilian von Montgelas, initiated a number of reforms sought to modernize the rather conservative. In 1826, it was moved to Munich, the capital of the Kingdom of Bavaria, the university was situated in the Old Academy until a new building in the Ludwigstraße was completed. The locals were critical of the number of Protestant professors Maximilian. They were dubbed the Nordlichter and especially physician Johann Nepomuk von Ringseis was quite angry about them, in the second half of the 19th century, the university rose to great prominence in the European scientific community, attracting many of the worlds leading scientists. It was also a period of great expansion, from 1903, women were allowed to study at Bavarian universities, and by 1918, the female proportion of students at LMU had reached 18%. In 1918, Adele Hartmann became the first woman in Germany to earn the Habilitation, during the Third Reich, academic freedom was severely curtailed. In 1943 the White Rose group of anti-Nazi students conducted their campaign of opposition to the National Socialists at this university, the university has continued to be one of the leading universities of West Germany during the Cold War and in the post-reunification era
9.
Frankfurt
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The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.8 million and is Germanys second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 2013, the centre of the EU is about 40 km to the east of Frankfurts CBD. Frankfurt is culturally and ethnically diverse, with half of the population. A quarter of the population are foreign nationals, including many expatriates, Frankfurt is an alpha world city and a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and traffic. Its the site of many global and European headquarters, Frankfurt Airport is among the worlds busiest. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media, Frankfurts DE-CIX is the worlds largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the worlds largest trade fairs, major fairs include the Frankfurt Motor Show, the worlds largest motor show, the Music Fair, and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the worlds largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europes largest English Theatre and many museums, Frankfurts skyline is shaped by some of Europes tallest skyscrapers. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon. Its the seat of German sport unions for Olympics, football, Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. Frankfurt is considered a city as listed by the GaWC groups 2012 inventory. Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011, among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th by the Global Financial Centres Index 2013. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, Frankfurt Airport is one of the worlds busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germanys flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, in 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual Quality of Living survey of cities around the world. According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germanys most expensive city, Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union to have such a skyline and because of it Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, the other well known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt
10.
July Revolution
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Supporters of the Bourbon would be called Legitimists, and supporters of Louis Philippe Orléanists. On 16 September 1824, Charles X ascended to the throne of France and he was the younger brother of Louis XVIII, who, upon the defeat of Napoleon I, and by agreement of the Allied powers, had been installed as King of France. Both Louis and Charles ruled by right rather than Revolution. Upon the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, continental Europe, the Congress of Vienna met to redraw the continents political map. Another very influential person at the Congress was Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, although France was considered an enemy state, Talleyrand was allowed to attend the Congress because he claimed that he had only cooperated with Napoleon under duress. Talleyrand proposed that Europe be restored to its borders and governments. France returned to its 1789 borders and the House of Bourbon, the Congress however forced Louis to grant the Charte constitutionnelle française, the French Constitution otherwise known as La Charte. This document was the trigger of the July Revolution. On 16 September 1824, after an illness of several months. Therefore, his brother, Charles, aged 66, inherited the throne of France. On 27 September Charles X as he was now known, made his entry into Paris to popular acclaim. But eight months later, the mood of the capital had sharply worsened in its opinion of the new king, the causes of this dramatic shift in public opinion were many, but the main two were, The imposition of the death penalty for anyone profaning the Eucharist. The provisions for financial indemnities for properties confiscated by the 1789 Revolution and these indemnities to be paid to any one, whether noble or non-noble, who had been declared enemies of the Revolution. Critics of the first accused the king and his new ministry of pandering to the Catholic Church, the second matter, that of financial indemnities, was far more opportunistic than the first. But opponents, many of whom were frustrated Bonapartists, began a campaign that Charles X was only proposing this in order to shame those who had not emigrated. Both measures, they claimed, were nothing more than clever subterfuge meant to bring about the destruction of La Charte and this, too, was about to change. On 12 April, propelled by both genuine conviction and the spirit of independence, the Chamber of Deputies roundly rejected the proposal to change the inheritance laws. The popular newspaper Le Constitutionnel pronounced this refusal a victory over the forces of counter-revolutionaries, the popularity of both the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies skyrocketed, and the popularity of the king and his ministry dropped
11.
David Strauss
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David Friedrich Strauss was a German liberal Protestant theologian and writer, who scandalized Christian Europe with his portrayal of the historical Jesus, whose divine nature he denied. His work was connected to the Tübingen School, which revolutionized study of the New Testament, early Christianity, Strauss was a pioneer in the historical investigation of Jesus. Strauss was born and died in Ludwigsburg, near Stuttgart, at age 12 he was sent to the evangelical seminary at Blaubeuren, near Ulm, to be prepared for the study of theology. In 1825 Strauss entered the University of Tübingen—the Tübinger Stift, in October 1831 Strauss resigned his office in order to study under Schleiermacher and Hegel in Berlin. Hegel died just as he arrived, and though Strauss regularly attended Schleiermachers lectures, Strauss tried to find kindred spirits amongst the followers of Hegel, but was not successful. Hegelians generally would not accept his conclusions, in 1832 Strauss returned to Tübingen, lecturing on logic, Plato, the history of philosophy and ethics with great success. However, in the fall of 1833 he resigned from this position in order to all his time to the completion of his Das Leben Jesu. The famous scholar Bruno Bauer led the attack of the Hegelians on Strauss, when young Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche began criticizing Strauss, Bauer gave Nietzsche every support he could afford. In the third edition of Das Leben Jesu, and in Zwei friedliche Blätter, Strauss made important concessions to his critics, some of which he withdrew, however, Strausss Das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet was a sensation. While not denying that Jesus existed, Strauss did argue that the miracles in the New Testament were mythical additions with little basis in actual fact, the Earl of Shaftesbury called the 1846 translation by Marian Evans the most pestilential book ever vomited out of the jaws of hell. What made Das Leben Jesu so controversial was Strausss characterization of the elements in the gospels as being mythical in character. In analysing the Bible in terms of self-coherence and paying attention to numerous contradictions, he rejected the actuality of the stories as happenings, according to Strauss, the early church developed these miracle stories in order to present Jesus as the Messiah of the Jewish prophecies. Strausss Das Leben Jesu closed a period during which biblical scholars divided and wrestled over the nature of the New Testament. The rationalists, deriving their views from the principles of the Enlightenment, in contrast, the supernaturalists defended not only the historical accuracy of the biblical accounts, but also the implicit and explicit claims of direct divine intervention. In 1840 and the following year Strauss published his On Christian Doctrine in two volumes, the main principle of this new work was that the history of Christian doctrines has basically been the history of their disintegration. With the publication of his Christliche Glaubenslehre, Strauss took leave of theology for over twenty years, in August 1841, he married Agnese Schebest, a cultivated and beautiful mezzo-soprano of high repute as an opera singer. Five years afterwards, after two children had been born, they agreed to separate, in 1848 he was nominated a member of the Frankfurt Parliament, but was defeated by Christoph Hoffmann. He was elected for the Württemberg chamber, but his actions were so conservative that his constituents requested him to resign his seat, two years later in 1864, he published the Life of Jesus for the German People
12.
Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon
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Saint-Simon unlike Marx did not regard the prevalent form of ownership as being paramount issue in the economy but rather the form of management. Furthermore, Saint-Simon held no opposition to capitalists as a whole unlike Marx, later Saint-Simons views influenced sociologist and economist Thorstein Veblen, including Veblens creation of institutional economics that has included prominent economists as adherents. Historian Alan Ryan states that by the 1950s it was clear that Saint-Simon had invented the modern understanding of industrial society, Saint-Simon and his secretary Auguste Comte developed what Comte would complete as sociology. Henri de Saint-Simon was born in Paris as a French aristocrat and his grandfathers cousin had been the Duke de Saint-Simon. When he was a man, being of a restless disposition. he went to America where he entered into American service. From his youth, Saint-Simon was highly ambitious and he ordered his valet to wake him every morning with, Remember, monsieur le comte, that you have great things to do. Among his early schemes was one to connect the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans by a canal, at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, Saint-Simon quickly endorsed the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity. In the early years of the revolution, Saint-Simon devoted himself to organizing an industrial structure in order to found a scientific school of improvement. He needed to raise funds to achieve his objectives, which he did by land speculation. During The Terror period, Saint-Simon was imprisoned on suspicion of engaging in counter-revolution activities and he was released in 1794 at the end of the Reign of Terror. After he recovered his freedom, Saint-Simon found himself immensely rich due to currency depreciation, thenceforth he decided to devote himself to political studies and research. When he was nearly 40 he went through a course of study and experiment to enlarge. One of these experiments was a marriage in 1801 to Alexandrine-Sophie Goury de Champgrand. After a years duration the marriage was dissolved by mutual consent, the result of his experiments was that he found himself completely impoverished, and lived in penury for the remainder of his life. The first of his numerous writings, mostly scientific and political, was Lettres dun habitant de Genève, in 1817 he began in a treatise entitled LIndustrie to propound his socialist views, which he further developed in LOrganisateur, a periodical on which Augustin Thierry and Auguste Comte collaborated. The first publication caused a sensation, though one that brought few converts, a couple of years later in his writing career, Saint-Simon found himself ruined, and was forced to work for a living. Diard died in 1810 and Saint-Simon found himself again. He was sent to a sanatorium in 1813, but with help from relatives he had time to recover his health
13.
Heinrich Heine
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Christian Johann Heinrich Heine was a German poet, journalist, essayist, and literary critic. He is best known outside Germany for his lyric poetry. Heines later verse and prose are distinguished by their satirical wit and he is considered part of the Young Germany movement. His radical political views led to many of his works being banned by German authorities, Heine spent the last 25 years of his life as an expatriate in Paris. Heine was born at Düsseldorf in what was then the Duchy of Berg and he was called Harry in childhood but became known as Heinrich after his conversion to Lutheranism in 1825. Heines father, Samson Heine, was a textile merchant and his mother Peira, née van Geldern, was the daughter of a physician. Heinrich was the eldest of four children, Heine was also a third cousin once removed of philosopher and economist Karl Marx, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland, with whom he became a frequent correspondent in later life. Düsseldorf was then a town with a population of around 16,000. The French Revolution and subsequent Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars involving Germany complicated Düsseldorfs political history during Heines childhood and it had been the capital of the Duchy of Jülich-Berg, but was under French occupation at the time of his birth. It then went to the Elector of Bavaria before being ceded to Napoleon in 1806 and it was first ruled by Joachim Murat, then by Napoleon himself. Upon Napoleons downfall in 1815 it became part of Prussia, thus Heines formative years were spent under French influence. The adult Heine would always be devoted to the French for introduction of the Napoleonic Code and he glossed over the negative aspects of French rule in Berg, heavy taxation, conscription, and economic depression brought about by the Continental Blockade. Heines parents were not particularly devout, as a young child they sent him to a Jewish school where he learned a smattering of Hebrew, but thereafter he attended Catholic schools. Here he learned French, which would be his second language - although he spoke it with a German accent. He also acquired a love for Rhineland folklore. In 1814 Heine went to a school in Düsseldorf where he learned to read English. The most successful member of the Heine family was his uncle Salomon Heine, in 1816 Heine moved to Hamburg to become an apprentice at Heckscher & Co, his uncles bank, but displayed little aptitude for business. He learned to hate Hamburg with its ethos, but it would become one of the poles of his life alongside Paris
14.
Heinrich Laube
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Heinrich Laube, German dramatist, novelist and theatre-director, was born at Sprottau in Prussian Silesia. He studied theology at Halle and Breslau, and settled in Leipzig in 1832, on his return, in 1834, from a journey to Italy, undertaken in the company of Karl Gutzkow, Laube was expelled from Saxony and imprisoned for nine months in Berlin. In 1836 he married the widow of Professor Hanel of Leipzig, in 1839 he again settled in Leipzig and began a literary activity as a playwright. In 1848 Laube was elected to the Frankfurt Parliament for the district of Elbogen, but resigned in the spring of 1849 and he has left a valuable record of his work in Vienna and Leipzig in the three volumes Das Burgtheater, Das norddeutsche Theater and Das Wiener Stadttheater. Laubes dramas are not remarkable for originality or for poetical beauty, their real, as a theater manager he had no equal in Germany, and his services in this capacity have assured him a more lasting name in German literary history than his writings. An edition of Laubes Ausgewählte Werke in 10 vols appeared in 1906 with an introduction by H. H. Houben and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Laube, Heinrich. This work in turn cites, Johannes Proelß, Das junge Deutschland Heinrich Bulthaupt, Dramaturgie des Schauspiels Gilman, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. This work in turn cites, Gottschall, “Heinrich Laube, ” in Unsere Zeit, vol. ii
15.
Theodor Mundt
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Theodor Mundt was a German critic and novelist. He was a member of the Young Germany group of German writers, born at Potsdam, Mundt studied philology and philosophy at Berlin. In 1832 he settled at Leipzig as a journalist, where he co-edited Blätter für litterarische Unterhaltung, in 1839 he married Klara Müller, who under the name of Luise Mühlbach became a popular novelist, and he moved in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of entering upon a career was for a time thwarted by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however, he was permitted to himself as Privatdozent. In 1848 he was appointed Professor of Literature and History in Breslau, and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Berlin, Mundt wrote extensively on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence in his time. He also wrote historical novels such as Thomas Münzer, Mendoza. With Karl August Varnhagen von Ense, he edited Karl Ludwig von Knebels letters, but perhaps Mundts chief title to fame was his part in the emancipation of women, a theme which he elaborated in Madonna, Unterhaltungen mit einer Heiligen. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Mundt. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds
16.
Federal Convention (German Confederation)
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The Federal Convention was the only central institution of the German Confederation from 1815 until 1848, and from 1850 until 1866. The Federal Assembly had its seat in the Palais Thurn und Taxis in Frankfurt and it was organized as a permanent congress of envoys. The German Confederation and its Federal Assembly came into existence as a result of the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the defeat of Napoleon, the original task was to create a new constitutional structure for Germany after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire eight years before. The founding act was the German Federal Act of June 8,1815, the Federal Assembly was created as a permanent congress of envoys of all member states, which replaced the former imperial central power of the Holy Roman Empire. The Federal Assembly took its seat at the palais Thurn und Taxis in Frankfurt, the Federal Assembly was presided over by the Austrian delegate and consisted of two executive bodies, the inner council and the plenary session. Its members were not elected, neither by popular vote nor by state parliaments, the inner council consisted of 17 envoys. The inner council determined the agenda and decided which issues should be discussed by the plenary session. Decisions of the circle required an absolute majority. The plenary session had 69 seats, according roughly to the states sizes, the plenary session was involved especially in decisions regarding constitutional changes, which required a majority of 2/3 of the plenary session. The decisions of the Federal Assembly had been mandatory for the member states, as well, the member states remained fully sovereign regarding customs, police and military. For example during 1835/36 the Federal Assembly decreeded rules for censorship, after the failure of the revolution the German Confederation was restored between 1850 and 1851. The Federal Assembly was reestablished in September 1850 and was used to suppress all democratic, the Federal Assembly was dissolved after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Although the North German Confederation was legally not the successor of the German Confederation, translation of corresponding German Wikipedia article
17.
German Confederation
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Most historians have judged the Confederation to have been weak and ineffective, as well as an obstacle to the creation of a German nation-state. It collapsed due to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria, warfare, the 1848 revolution, and the inability of the members to compromise. In 1848, revolutions by liberals and nationalists were an attempt to establish a unified German state. Talks between the German states failed in 1848, and the Confederation briefly dissolved, but was re-established shortly after and it decidedly fell apart only after the Prussian victory in the Seven Weeks War of 1866. This led to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership in 1867, a number of South German states remained independent until they joined the North German Confederation, which was renamed the German Empire. The War of the Third Coalition lasted from about 1803 to 1806, following defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz by the French under Napoleon in December 1805, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II abdicated, and the Empire was dissolved on 6 August 1806. The resulting Treaty of Pressburg established the Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806, after the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt of October 1806 in the War of the Fourth Coalition, various other German states, including Saxony and Westphalia, also joined the Confederation. Only Austria, Prussia, Danish Holstein, Swedish Pomerania and the French-occupied Principality of Erfurt stayed outside the Confederation of the Rhine and these nations would later join in the War of the Sixth Coalition from 1812 to 1814. The German Confederation was created by the 9th Act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris, ending the War of the Sixth Coalition. The Confederation was formally created by a treaty, the Final Act of the Ministerial Conference to Complete and Consolidate the Organization of the German Confederation. This treaty was not concluded and signed by the parties until 15 May 1820, States joined the German Confederation by becoming parties to the second treaty. The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia and its allies on the other. In the Prague peace treaty, on 23 August 1866, Austria had to accept that the Confederation was considered to be dissolved, the following day, the remaining member states confirmed the dissolution. The treaty allowed Prussia to create a new Bundesverhältnis in the North of Germany, the South German states were proposed to create a South German Confederation but this did not come into existence. Prussia and its allies created the North German Confederation in 1867, because of French intervention it had to exclude, besides Austria, the South German states Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. During November 1870 the four states joined the North German Confederation by treaty. The North German Confederation Reichstag and Bundesrat accepted to rename the North German Confederation as the German Empire, the new constitution of the state, the Constitution of the German Confederation, introduced the new name and title on 1 January 1871. The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the largest, Austria and Prussia each had one vote in the Federal Assembly
18.
Mannheim
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Mannheim is a city in the southwestern part of Germany, the third-largest in the German state of Baden-Württemberg after Stuttgart and Karlsruhe. Mannheim is among the twenty largest cities in Germany, with a 2015 population of approximately 305,000 inhabitants, the city is at the centre of the larger densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region which has a population of 2,400,000 and is Germanys eighth-largest metropolitan region. Mannheim is located at the confluence of the Rhine and the Neckar in the corner of Baden-Württemberg. The Rhine separates Mannheim from the city of Ludwigshafen, just to the west of it in Rhineland-Palatinate, Mannheim is downstream along the Neckar from the city of Heidelberg. Mannheim is unusual among German cities in that its streets and avenues are laid out in a grid pattern, the eighteenth century Mannheim Palace, former home of the Prince-elector of the Palatinate, now houses the University of Mannheim. In addition, Mannheims SAP Arena is not only the home of the German ice hockey record champions the Adler Mannheim, but also the well-known handball team, the Rhein-Neckar Löwen. According to the Forbes magazine, Mannheim is known for its exceptional power and was ranked 11th among the Top 15 of the most inventive cities worldwide. The New Economy Magazine elected Mannheim under the 20 cities that best represent the world of tomorrow emphasizing Mannheims positive economic, since 2014, Mannheim has been a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network and holds the title of UNESCO City of Music. Mannheim is a Smart City the citys electrical grid is installed with a Power-line communication network, the citys tourism slogan is Leben. The civic symbol of Mannheim is der Wasserturm, a Romanesque water tower completed in 1886 that rises to 60 metres above the highest point of the art nouveau area Friedrichsplatz, Mannheim is the starting and finishing point of the Bertha Benz Memorial Route. The name of the city was first recorded as Mannenheim in a transaction in 766. The name is interpreted as the home of Manno, a form of a Germanic name such as Hartmann or Hermann. Mannheim remained a mere village throughout the Middle Ages, in 1606, Frederick IV, Elector Palatine started building the fortress of Friedrichsburg and the adjacent city centre with its grid of streets and avenues. On January 24,1607, Frederick IV gave Mannheim the status of a city, Mannheim was mostly levelled during the Thirty Years War around 1622 by the forces of Johan Tillys troops. After being rebuilt, it was severely damaged by the French Army in 1689 during the Nine Years War. During the eighteenth century, Mannheim was the home of the Mannheim School of classical music composers, Mannheim was said to have one of the best court orchestras in Europe under the leadership of the conductor Carlo Grua. The royal court of the Palatinate left Mannheim in 1778, two decades later, in 1802, Mannheim was removed from the Palatinate and given to the Grand Duchy of Baden. In 1819, Norwich Duff wrote of Mannheim, In 1819, the climate crisis of 1816-17 caused famine and the death of many horses in Mannheim
19.
Uriel Acosta
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Uriel da Costa or Uriel Acosta was a philosopher and skeptic who immigrated from Portugal to the Dutch Republic. Costa was born in Porto with the name Gabriel da Costa Fiuza and his father was an international merchant and tax-farmer. Costa also occupied an ecclesiastical office, while a student of canon law, he began to read the Bible and contemplate it seriously. He was aware that his family had Jewish origins, and in the course of his studies, after his father died, he began to very carefully reveal his newfound sentiments to his family. However, upon arriving in the Netherlands, Costa very quickly became disenchanted with the kind of Judaism he saw in practice there and he came to believe that the rabbinic leadership was too consumed by ritualism and legalistic posturing. In 1623 he published a book titled An Examination of the Traditions of the Pharisees, Costa believed that this was not an idea deeply rooted in biblical Judaism, but rather had been formulated primarily by rabbis. The work further pointed out the discrepancies between biblical Judaism and Rabbinic Judaism, he declared the latter to be an accumulation of mechanical ceremonies and practices, in his view, it was thoroughly devoid of spiritual and philosophical concepts. The book became controversial among the local Jewish community and was burned publicly. Costa was called before the leadership of Amsterdam for uttering blasphemous views against Judaism. He was fined a significant sum and excommunicated and he ultimately fled Amsterdam for Hamburg, Germany, where he was ostracized from the local Jewish community. He did not understand German, which further compounded his difficulties, left with no place to turn, in 1633 he returned to Amsterdam and sought a reconciliation with the community. He claimed that he would go back to being an ape amongst the apes, he would follow the traditions and practices, but with little real conviction. However, he again began to express rationalistic and skeptical views. He came to the conclusion that all religion was a human invention, ultimately he came to reject formalized, ritualized religion. In his view, religion was to be based only on natural law, in many ways his beliefs were Deistic, he believed that God resides in nature, which is full of peace and harmony, whereas organized religion is marked by violence and strife. Eventually Costa encountered two Christians who expressed to him their desire to convert to Judaism, in accordance with his views, he dissuaded them from doing so. For the communal leadership of Amsterdam, this was the final straw, for seven years he lived in virtual isolation, shunned by his family and loved ones. Ultimately, the loneliness was too much for him to handle, as a punishment for his heretical views, he was publicly given 39 lashes at the Portuguese synagogue in Amsterdam
20.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
21.
Social novel
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It is also referred to as the sociological novel. While early examples are found in 18th century England, social novels have been written throughout Europe, however, whereas Inchbald laid responsibility for social problems with the depravity and corruption of individuals, Godwin, in Caleb Williams, saw societys corruption as insurmountable. In England during the 1830s and 1840s the social novel arose out of the social and political upheavals which followed the Reform Act of 1832 and these works were directed at the middle class to help create sympathy and promote change. It is also referred to as the condition of England novel, the Chartist movement was a working-class political reformist movement that sought universal male suffrage and other parliamentary reforms. Chartism failed as a movement, however, five of the Six Points of Chartism would become a reality within a century of the groups formation. A significant early example of genre is Sybil, or The Two Nations. Published in the year,1845, as Friedrich Engelss The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844. Disraeli was interested in dealing with the conditions in which the majority of Englands working classes lived. The book is a roman à thèse, a novel with a thesis, disraelis interest in this subject stemmed from his interest in Chartist movement. It also gives an insight into the Chartist campaign with which Kingsley was involved in the 1840s, shirley Charlotte Brontës second published novel after Jane Eyre is also a social novel. Dickens was a critic of the poverty and social stratification of Victorian society. In a New York address, he expressed his belief that, Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple, Charles Dickenss Hard Times is set in a small Midlands industrial town. It particularly criticizes the effect of Utilitarianism on the lives of the classes in cities. John Ruskin declared Hard Times to be his favourite Dickens work due to its exploration of important social questions, walter Allen characterised Hard Times as being an unsurpassed critique of industrial society, though later superseded by works of D. H. Lawrence. Karl Marx asserted that Dickens issued to the more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians. For in reality his target is not so much society as human nature, arguably, Victor Hugos 1862 work Les Misérables was the most significant social protest novel of the 19th Century in Europe. His work touches upon most of the political and social issues, both Hugo and Zola were politically engaged, and suffered exile due to their political positions. Russian author Leo Tolstoy championed reform for his own country, particularly in education, Tolstoy did not consider his most famous work, War and Peace to be a novel
22.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
23.
Carte de visite
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The carte de visite, abbreviated CdV, was a type of small photograph which was patented in Paris by photographer André Adolphe Eugène Disdéri in 1854, although first used by Louis Dodero. It was usually made of a print, which was a thin paper photograph mounted on a thicker paper card. The size of a carte de visite is 54.0 mm ×89 mm mounted on a card sized 64 mm ×100 mm, in 1854, Disdéri had also patented a method of taking eight separate negatives on a single plate, which reduced production costs. The Carte de Visite was slow to gain widespread use until 1859 and this made the format an overnight success. The new invention was so popular it was known as cardomania and it spread throughout Europe and then quickly to America, each photograph was the size of a visiting card, and such photograph cards were traded among friends and visitors. Albums for the collection and display of cards became a fixture in Victorian parlors. The immense popularity of these card photographs led to the publication and collection of photographs of prominent persons. By the early 1870s, cartes de visite were supplanted by cabinet cards, which were also usually albumen prints, cabinet cards remained popular into the early 20th century, when Kodak introduced the Brownie camera and home snapshot photography became a mass phenomenon. The carte de visite photograph proved to be a popular item during the American Civil War. Soldiers, friends and family members would have a means of obtaining photographs. Photos of Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and other celebrities of the era became an instant hit in the North, people were not only buying photographs of themselves, but also collecting photographs of celebrities. Cabinet card Postcard Business card Gernsheim, Helmut, dr. Robert Leggat MA M. Ed Ph. D. The history of photograph Silkenat, David, a Typical Negro, Gordon, Peter, Vincent Coyler, and the Story Behind Slaverys Most Famous Photograph. Available on Wisconsin Historical Images, the Wisconsin Historical Societys online image database, also included are 64 photographs attributed to Mathew Brady. Southern Cartes de Visite Collection, A. S, williams III American Collection, Division of Special Collections, University of Alabama Libraries. Over 3300 digitized cartes-de-visite, the majority of them from southern studios, the Carte de Visite file at the New-York Historical Society Cartes de Visite of California photographers at Beinecke Library
24.
Household Words
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Household Words was an English weekly magazine edited by Charles Dickens in the 1850s. It took its name from the line in Shakespeares Henry V, during the planning stages, titles originally considered by Dickens included The Robin, The Household Voice, The Comrade, The Lever, and The Highway of Life. Household Words was published every Saturday from March 1850 to May 1859, each number cost a mere tuppence, thereby ensuring a wide readership. Theoretically, the paper championed the cause of the poor and working classes, only the name of Dickens, the journals conductor, appeared, articles were unsigned and, in spite of its regularly featuring an advertiser, the paper was unillustrated. To boost slumping sales Dickens serialised his own novel, Hard Times and that Dickens owned half of the company and his agents, John Forster and William Henry Wills, owned a further quarter of it was insurance that the author would have a free hand in the paper. Wills was also appointed editor and, in December 1849, Dickenss acquaintance, writer. The journal contained a mixture of fiction and nonfiction, a large amount of the non-fiction dealt with the social issues of the time. These included, The Seven Poor Travellers in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, Eliza Lynn Linton, Adelaide Anne Procter, the Holly Tree Inn in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, William Howitt, Harriet Parr, and Adelaide Anne Procter. The Wreck of the Golden Mary in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, Percy Hetherington Fitzgerald, Adelaide Anne Procter, Harriet Parr, the Frozen Deep, a play written with Wilkie Collins and initially performed in the converted schoolroom of Dickens London residence, Tavistock House. Other contributors to Household Words included author James Payn, a complete key to who wrote what and for how much in Household Words was compiled in 1973 by Anne Lohrli, using an analysis of the office account book maintained by Dickens subeditor, W. H. Wills. Household Words, A Weekly Journal 1850–1859, Toronto, University of Toronto Press,1973. See also Household Words, Faculty of English Library, Cambridge University, Dickens Journals Online, an online edition of Dickenss journals, Household Words and All the Year Round
25.
Kaspar Hauser
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Kaspar Hauser was a German youth who claimed to have grown up in the total isolation of a darkened cell. Hausers claims, and his subsequent death by stabbing, sparked much debate, theories propounded at the time linked him with the grand ducal House of Baden. These have long since been rejected by historians, on 26 May 1828, a teenage boy appeared in the streets of Nuremberg, Germany. He carried a letter with him addressed to the captain of the 4th squadron of the 6th cavalry regiment and its heading read, Von der Bäierischen Gränz / daß Orte ist unbenant /1828. The letter stated that the boy would now like to be a cavalryman as his father was, there was another short letter enclosed purporting to be from his mother to his prior caretaker. It stated that his name was Kaspar, that he was born on 30 April 1812 and that his father, in fact this letter was found to have been written by the same hand as the other one. A shoemaker named Weickmann took the boy to the house of Captain von Wessenig, further demands elicited only tears or the obstinate proclamation of Dont know. He was taken to a station, where he would write a name. He showed that he was familiar with money, could say some prayers and read a little, because he provided no account of himself, he was imprisoned as a vagabond. He spent the two months in Luginsland Tower in Nuremberg Castle in the care of a jailer named Andreas Hiltel. Despite what many later accounts would say, he was in physical condition and could walk well, for example. He was of a healthy facial complexion and approximately 16 years old, mayor Binder, however, claimed that the boy had an excellent memory and was learning quickly. Various curious people visited him to his apparent delight and he refused all food except bread and water. He claimed that he found rye bread and water next to his bed each morning, periodically the water would taste bitter and drinking it would cause him to sleep more heavily than usual. On such occasions, when he awakened, his straw was changed and his hair and nails were cut. Hauser claimed that the first human being with whom he ever had contact was a man who visited him not long before his release. This man, Hauser said, taught him to write his name by leading his hand, after learning to stand and walk, he was brought to Nuremberg. Furthermore, the stranger allegedly taught him to say the phrase I want to be a cavalryman, as my father was and this tale aroused great curiosity and made Hauser an object of international attention
26.
Jewish emancipation
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It included efforts within the community to integrate into their societies as citizens. It occurred gradually between the late 18th century and the early 20th century, Jewish emancipation followed the Age of Enlightenment and the concurrent Jewish enlightenment. Various nations repealed or superseded previous discriminatory laws applied specifically against Jews where they resided, many became active politically and culturally within wider European civil society as Jews gained full citizenship. They emigrated to countries offering better social and economic opportunities, such as the Russian Empire, some European Jews turned to Socialism, others to Jewish nationalism, Zionism. Jews were subject to a range of restrictions throughout most of European history. The practice of their religions was often restricted, and they had to swear special oaths, Jews were not allowed to vote, and some countries formally prohibited their entry, such as Norway, Sweden and Spain after the expulsion in the late 15th century. The Charter is ratified again by subsequent Polish Kings, Casimir the Great of Poland in 1334, Casimir IV of Poland in 1453, after massive expulsions of Jews from Western Europe, they found a refuge in the lands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Large parts of Poland suffered relatively little from the outbreak, while the Jewish immigration brought valuable manpower, the greatest increase in Jewish numbers occurred in the 18th century, when Jews came to make up 7% of the Polish population. The rabbinate was the highest goal of many young Jewish men, and the study of the Torah, Jewish involvement in gentile society began during the Age of Enlightenment. Haskalah, the Jewish movement supporting the adoption of enlightenment values, haskalah followers advocated coming out of the ghetto, not just physically but also mentally and spiritually. On September 28,1791, France became the country of the world, after Poland 500 years earlier. There were 40,000 Jews living in France at the time and they were the first to confront the opportunities and challenges offered by emancipation. The civic equality the French Jews attained became a model for other European Jews, newfound opportunities began to be provided to the Jewish people, and they slowly pushed toward equality in other parts of the world. In 1796 and 1834, the Netherlands granted the Jews equal rights with gentiles, napoleon freed the Jews in areas he conquered in Europe outside France. Greece granted equal rights to Jews in 1830, the early stages of Jewish emancipation movements were part of the general progressive efforts to achieve freedom and rights for minorities. While this was a movement, it was also a pursuit for equal rights, thus, the emancipation movement would be a long process. The question of rights for Jews was tied to demands for constitutions. In 1781, the Prussian civil servant Christian Wilhelm Dohm published the famous script Über die bürgerliche Emanzipation der Juden, Dohm disproves the antisemitic stereotypes and pleads for equal rights for Jews
27.
Yiddish
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Yiddish is the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews. Yiddish is written with a fully vocalized alphabet based on the Hebrew script, the earliest surviving references date from the 12th century and call the language לשון־אַשכּנז or טײַטש, a variant of tiutsch, the contemporary name for Middle High German. Colloquially, the language is sometimes called מאַמע־לשון, distinguishing it from לשון־קדש, the term Yiddish, short for Yiddish-Teitsch, did not become the most frequently used designation in the literature until the 18th century. In the late 19th and into the 20th century the language was commonly called Jewish, especially in non-Jewish contexts. Modern Yiddish has two major forms, Eastern Yiddish is far more common today. It includes Southeastern, Mideastern, and Northeastern dialects, Eastern Yiddish differs from Western both by its far greater size and by the extensive inclusion of words of Slavic origin. Western Yiddish is divided into Southwestern, Midwestern, and Northwestern dialects, the term Yiddish is also used in the adjectival sense, synonymously with Jewish, to designate attributes of Ashkenazi culture. Prior to the Holocaust, there were over 10 million speakers of Yiddish, 85% of the Jews who died in the Holocaust were Yiddish speakers, assimilation following World War II further decreased the use of Yiddish both among survivors and Yiddish-speakers from other countries. However, the number of speakers is increasing in global Hasidic communities, the established view is that, as with other Jewish languages, Jews speaking distinct languages learned new co-territorial vernaculars, which they then Judaized. Exactly what German base lies behind the earliest form of Yiddish is disputed, both Weinreich and Solomon Birnbaum developed this model further in the mid-1950s. In Weinreichs view, this Old Yiddish substrate later bifurcated into two versions of the language, Western and Eastern Yiddish. They retained the Semitic vocabulary needed for religious purposes and created a Judeo-German form of speech, recent linguistic research has finessed, contested, or challenged the Weinreich model, providing alternative approaches to the origins of Yiddish. Some theorists argue that the fusion occurred with a Bavarian dialect base, the two main candidates for the germinal matrix of Yiddish, the Rhineland and Bavaria, are not necessarily incompatible. There may have been developments in the two regions, seeding the Western and Eastern dialects of Modern Yiddish. Dovid Katz proposes that Yiddish emerged from contact between speakers of High German and Aramaic-speaking Jews from the Middle East, wexlers model has met with little academic support, and strong critical challenges, especially among historical linguists. Alternative theories recognize the extent of Yiddishs Germanic vocabulary. Ashkenaz was centered on the Rhineland and the Palatinate, in what is now the westernmost part of Germany and its geographic extent did not coincide with the German principalities of the time, and it included northern France. Ashkenaz bordered on the inhabited by another distinctive Jewish cultural group, the Sephardim or Spanish Jews
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Yiddish theatre
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Yiddish theatre consists of plays written and performed primarily by Jews in Yiddish, the language of the Central European Ashkenazi Jewish community. The range of Yiddish theatre is broad, operetta, musical comedy, themes such as immigration, assimilation and poverty can be found in many Yiddish theatre productions. Nonetheless, the culture of the Eastern European Jews was permeated with music, song and these elements were to figure prominently in the Yiddish theatre. As with ancient Greek drama, many elements of Yiddish theatre arose as a refinement of religious practice. In a Jewish context psalms to the glory of God were almost always sung rather than spoken, religious services involved what was known in Hebrew as menatseach, essentially call-and-response. Traditional dances were associated with holidays, such as Sukkot. Often satiric and topical, Purim plays were performed in the courtyard of the synagogue. These made heavy use of masks and other devices, the masquerade generally extended to the whole congregation. Over time, these stories became less a subject matter than a pretext for topical. Mordechai became a role for a clown. Purim plays were published as early as the early 18th century, at least eight Purim plays were published between 1708 and 1720, most of these do not survive, but one survives in the Jüdische Merkwürdigkeiten, a collection by Johann Jakob Schudt. Another similar current in Jewish culture was a tradition of masked dancers performing after weddings, less refined versions of the same also occurred in 18th-century Germany. Additionally, there was a tradition of dialogues in the Jewish poetry known as Tahkemoni. Al-Harizis work contained dialogues between believer and heretic, man and wife, day and night, land and ocean, wisdom and foolishness, avarice, such dialogues figured prominently in early Yiddish theatre. The origin of theatre in Christian societies in Europe is often traced to Passion Plays and other religious pageants, Jews had far more exposure to secular European theatre once that developed. Professional Yiddish theatre is dated from 1876, although there is scattered evidence of earlier efforts. Schertspierer of Vienna, with characters and good dramatic situations. Around the same time, there are indications of a traveling Yiddish-language theatre troupe in Galicia, in 1854, two rabbinical students from Zhytomyr put on a play in Berdichev
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Operetta
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Operetta is a genre of light opera, light in terms both of music and subject matter. By this time, the part of the genre name had become misleading. With this new connotation, opéra comique had dominated the French operatic stage since the decline of tragédie lyrique, most researchers acknowledge that the credit for creating the operetta form should go to Hervé, a singer, composer, librettist, conductor, and scene painter. In 1842 he wrote the little opérette, LOurs et le pacha, based on the vaudeville show by Scribe. In 1848, Hervé made his first notable appearance on the Parisian stage, with Don Quichotte et Sancho Pança, hervés most famous works are the Gounod-parody Le Petit Faust and Mamzelle Nitouche. Jacques Offenbach further developed and popularized operetta, giving it its enormous vogue during the Second Empire, Offenbachs earliest one-act pieces included Les deux aveugles, Le violoneux and Ba-ta-clan, and his first full-length operetta success was Orphée aux enfers. Offenbachs tradition was carried on by Robert Planquette, André Messager. What characterizes Offenbachs operettas is both the way they portray life, and the extremely frivolous way this is done. The character was modeled after Offenbachs female star Hortense Schneider. Considering how Zolas Nana describes an Offenbach-style operetta performance in Paris, it is not surprising that the mostly male, upper-class audiences in other cities like Vienna and Berlin longed to see these shows in their home towns as well, which inspired worldwide performance of Offenbachs works. The highly erotic way Offenbachs operettas were originally played, with stars like Hortense Schneider created a reaction from certain parts of the general public. Operetta was considered an art form. Indeed, together with its grotesque qualities, frivolity is one of the elements of authentic operetta à la Offenbach. It was only later, when audiences widened and became more middle and lower class, the most significant composer of operetta in the German language was the Austrian Johann Strauss II. His first operetta was Indigo und die vierzig Räuber and his third operetta, Die Fledermaus, became the most performed operetta in the world, and remains his most popular stage work. Its libretto was based on a written by Offenbachs librettists. In all, Strauss wrote 16 operettas and one opera, most with great success when first premiered, many of his lesser operettas are now largely forgotten, since his later librettists were less talented and he often composed independently of the plot. Strausss operettas, waltzes, polkas, and marches often have a strongly Viennese style, the Theater an der Wien never failed to draw huge crowds when his stage works were first performed
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Libretto
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A libretto is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or musical. The term libretto is also used to refer to the text of major liturgical works, such as the Mass, requiem and sacred cantata. Libretto, from Italian, is the diminutive of the word libro, sometimes other language equivalents are used for libretti in that language, livret for French works and Textbuch for German. A libretto is distinct from a synopsis or scenario of the plot, in that the libretto contains all the words and stage directions, while a synopsis summarizes the plot. The relationship of the librettist to the composer in the creation of a work has varied over the centuries, as have the sources. In the context of a modern English language musical theatre piece, Libretti for operas, oratorios and cantatas in the 17th and 18th centuries generally were written by someone other than the composer, often a well-known poet. Metastasio was one of the most highly regarded librettists in Europe and his libretti were set many times by many different composers. Another noted 18th-century librettist was Lorenzo Da Ponte, who wrote the libretti for three of Mozarts greatest operas, as well as for other composers. Eugène Scribe was one of the most prolific librettists of the 19th century, providing the words for works by Meyerbeer, Auber, Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini and Verdi. The French writers duo Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy wrote a number of opera and operetta libretti for the likes of Jacques Offenbach, Jules Massenet. Arrigo Boito, who wrote libretti for, among others, Giuseppe Verdi and Amilcare Ponchielli, the libretto is not always written before the music. Some composers wrote their own libretti, Richard Wagner is perhaps most famous in this regard, with his transformations of Germanic legends and events into epic subjects for his operas and music dramas. Hector Berlioz, too, wrote the libretti for two of his works, La Damnation de Faust and Les Troyens. Alban Berg adapted Georg Büchners play Woyzeck for the libretto of Wozzeck, sometimes the libretto is written in close collaboration with the composer, this can involve adaptation, as was the case with Rimsky-Korsakov and his librettist Belsky, or an entirely original work. In the case of musicals, the music, the lyrics, thus, a musical such as Fiddler on the Roof has a composer, a lyricist and the writer of the book. In rare cases, the composer writes everything except the dance arrangements - music, lyrics and libretto, Other matters in the process of developing a libretto parallel those of spoken dramas for stage or screen. A famous case of the latter is Wagners 1861 revision of the original 1845 Dresden version of his opera Tannhäuser for Paris, since the late 19th century some opera composers have written music to prose or free verse libretti. The libretto of a musical, on the hand, is almost always written in prose
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Encyclopedia Americana
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Encyclopedia Americana is one of the largest general encyclopedias in the English language. Following the acquisition of Grolier in 2000, the encyclopedia has been produced by Scholastic, the encyclopedia has more than 45,000 articles, most of them more than 500 words and many running to considerable length. The works coverage of American and Canadian geography and history has been a traditional strength, most articles are signed by their contributors. Long available as a 30-volume print set, the Encyclopedia Americana is now marketed as an online encyclopedia requiring a subscription, in March 2008, Scholastic said that print sales remained good but that the company was still deciding on the future of the print edition. The company did not produce an edition in 2007, a change from its previous approach of releasing a revised print edition each year, the most recent print edition of the Encyclopedia Americana was published in 2006. The online version of the Encyclopedia Americana, first introduced in 1997, continues to be updated and this work, like the print set from which it is derived, is designed for high school and first-year college students along with public library users. Grolier Online is not available to individual subscribers, francis Lieber, a German political exile, who came to Boston, Massachusetts in 1827, began publication of Encyclopedia Americana in 1829. The 13 volumes of the first edition were completed in 1833, just before the beginning of the 20th century Richard S. Some of the old material was carried over into the new encyclopedia, the short article method of Brockhaus was continued. Thus in 1902 a new version in 16 volumes that carried some of the old material was published. The magazines editor, Frederick Converse Beach, was editor-in-chief, and was said to be assisted by hundreds of eminent scholars, the relationship with Scientific American was terminated in 1911. From 1907 to 1912, the work was published as The Americana, a major new edition appeared in 1918–20 in 30 volumes, with George Edwin Rines as editor-in-chief. An Annual or Yearbook was also published each year beginning in 1923, the encyclopedia was purchased by Grolier in 1945. Sales during this period were accomplished primarily through mail-order and door-to-door operations, telemarketing and third-party distribution through their Lexicon division added to sales volumes in the 1970s. By the late 1970s, Grolier had moved its operations to Danbury, in 1988 Grolier was purchased by the French media company Hachette, which owned a well-known French-language encyclopedia, the Hachette Encyclopedia. Hachette was later absorbed by the French conglomerate the Lagardère Group, a CD-ROM version of the encyclopedia was published in 1995. Although the text and images were stored on separate disks, it was in keeping with current at the time. More importantly, the work had been digitized, allowing for release of a version in 1997
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Daniel Coit Gilman
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Daniel Coit Gilman was an American educator and academic. He was also co-founder of the Russell Trust Association, which administers the affairs of Yales Skull. At Yale he was a classmate of Andrew Dickson White, who would serve as first president of Cornell University. The two were members of the Skull and Bones secret society, and traveled to Europe together after graduation, Gilman was also a member of the Alpha Delta Phi Fraternity. Gilman would later co-found the Russell Trust Association, the foundation behind Skull, Gilman contemplated going into the ministry, and even took out a license to preach, but later settled on a career in education. From 1856 to 1865 Gilman served as librarian of Yale College, in 1863, Gilman was appointed professor of geography at the Sheffield Scientific School, and became secretary and librarian as well in 1866. His work there was hampered by the legislature, and in 1875 Gilman accepted the offer to establish. Before being formally installed as president in 1876, he spent a year studying university organization and his formal inauguration, on 22 February 1876, has become Hopkins Commemoration Day, the day on which many university presidents have chosen to be installed in office. Gilmans primary interest was in fostering advanced instruction and research, the aim of the modern research university, said Gilman, was to extend, even by minute accretions, the realm of knowledge At his inaugural address at Hopkins, Gilman asked, What are we aiming at. The answer, he said, was the encouragement of research and the advancement of individual scholars, who by their excellence will advance the sciences they pursue, in 1884, Gilman was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. Gilman was also active in founding Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins Medical School and he founded and was for many years president of the Charity Organization of Baltimore, and in 1897 he served on the commission to draft a new charter for Baltimore. From 1896 to 1897, he was a member of the commission to settle the line between Venezuela and British Guiana. Gilman served as a trustee of the John F. Slater and Peabody education funds, in this capacity, he became active in the promotion of education in the southern United States. He retired from Johns Hopkins in 1901, but accepted the presidency of the newly founded Carnegie Institution of Washington and his books include biographies of James Monroe and James Dwight Dana, a collection of addresses entitled University Problems, and The Launching of a University. His first wife was Mary Van Winker Ketcham, daughter of Tredwell Ketcham of New York, Daniel Gilmans brother Dr. Edward Whiting Gilman was married to Julia Silliman, daughter of Yale Professor and chemist Benjamin Silliman. Daniel Coit Gilman died in Norwich, Connecticut, the original academic building on the Homewood campus of the Johns Hopkins University, Gilman Hall, is named in his honor. In 1897, he helped found a school called The Country School for Boys on the Johns Hopkins campus. Upon relocation in 1910, it was renamed in his honor and today, on the University of California, Berkeley campus, Gilman Hall, also named in his honor, is the oldest building of the College of Chemistry and a National Historic Chemical Landmark
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New International Encyclopedia
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The New International Encyclopedia was an American encyclopedia first published in 1902 by Dodd, Mead and Company. It descended from the International Cyclopaedia and was updated in 1906,1914 and 1926, the New International Encyclopedia was the successor of the International Cyclopaedia. Initially, the International Cyclopaedia was largely a reprint of Aldens Library of Universal Knowledge, the local Cyclopaedia was much improved by editors Harry Thurston Peck and Selim Peabody. The title was changed to New International Encyclopedia in 1902, with editors Harry Thurston Peck, Daniel Coit Gilman, in 1906 the New International Encyclopedia was expanded from 17 volumes to 20. The 2nd edition appeared in 1914 in 24 volumes, set up from new type and it was very strong in biography. The 1926 material was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by The University Press, boston Bookbinding Company of Cambridge produced the covers. Thirteen books enclosing twenty-three volumes comprise the encyclopedia, which includes a supplement after Volume 23, each book contains about 1600 pages. A great deal of material is recorded in the New International Encyclopedia. An early description of Adolf Hitler and his activities from 1920 to 1924 is in the supplement to the 1926 edition, many of the names used to describe the scientific identities of plants and animals are now obsolete. Numerous colorful maps which display the nations, states, colonies, the maps are valuable for their depictions of national and colonial borders in Europe, Asia, and Africa at the time of World War I. Drawings, illustrations, and photographs are plentiful, more than 500 men, and some women, submitted and composed the information contained in the New International Encyclopedia. Editors of the First Edition Daniel Coit Gilman, LL. D, President of Johns Hopkins University, President of Carnegie Institution. Frank Moore Colby, M. A. formerly Professor in New York University, editors of the Second Edition Frank Moore Colby, M. A. Talcott Williams, LL. D. Director of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, media related to New International Encyclopedia at Wikimedia Commons 1914 second ed
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Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
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Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
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LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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National Library of the Czech Republic
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The National Library of the Czech Republic is the central library of the Czech Republic. It is directed by the Ministry of Culture, the librarys main building is located in the historical Clementinum building in Prague, where approximately half of its books are kept. The other half of the collection is stored in the district of Hostivař, the National Library is the biggest library in the Czech Republic, in its funds there are around 6 million documents. The library has around 60,000 registered readers, as well as Czech texts, the library also stores older material from Turkey, Iran and India. The library also houses books for Charles University in Prague, the library won international recognition in 2005 as it received the inaugural Jikji Prize from UNESCO via the Memory of the World Programme for its efforts in digitising old texts. The project, which commenced in 1992, involved the digitisation of 1,700 documents in its first 13 years, the most precious medieval manuscripts preserved in the National Library are the Codex Vyssegradensis and the Passional of Abbes Kunigunde. In 2006 the Czech parliament approved funding for the construction of a new building on Letna plain. In March 2007, following a request for tender, Czech architect Jan Kaplický was selected by a jury to undertake the project, later in 2007 the project was delayed following objections regarding its proposed location from government officials including Prague Mayor Pavel Bém and President Václav Klaus. Later in 2008, Minister of Culture Václav Jehlička announced the end of the project, the library was affected by the 2002 European floods, with some documents moved to upper levels to avoid the excess water. Over 4,000 books were removed from the library in July 2011 following flooding in parts of the main building, there was a fire at the library in December 2012, but nobody was injured in the event. List of national and state libraries Official website
Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Gutzkow, Karl". Encyclopedia Americana.
Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "
