1.
Hohenstein-Ernstthal
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Hohenstein-Ernstthal is a town in the Zwickau rural district, Free State of Saxony, Germany. The towns of Hohenstein and Ernstthal were united in 1898, the town grew in the 15th century after silver mines were established nearby. Ernstthal was named in honor of August Ernst von Schoenburg, physicist Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert and inventor Christoph Gottlieb Schröter were born in Hohenstein. The writer Karl May was born in Ernstthal, the house of his birth is a museum. Furthermore, Hohenstein-Ernstthal is especially famous for the Sachsenring racing circuit, as of 2013 Lars Kluge is the mayor of Hohenstein-Ernstthal. In the 15th century, the town of Hohenstein was established after silver was found, the name is said to be derived from the phrase ″uff dem hohen Stein″, that the first settlers used when they saw the Pfaffenberg mountain. In 1680 some people from Hohenstein moved to the forest near the town to escape the dangers of the plague and that settlement was later named Ernstthal after August Ernst von Schönburg. Both town united in 1898, thus becoming Hohenstein-Ernstthal, during 19th and 20th century silver mining became less efficient, so the textile industry became more important. In 1999, Wüstenbrand became a part of Hohenstein-Ernstthal, hohenstein-Ernsthal is located about 15 kilometres west of Chemnitz. The Ore Mountains rise south of the city, the highest point of Hohenstein-Ernstthal is the Pfaffenberg north of the town with an elevation of 479 metres. 1994-2012 Erich Homilius since 2012 Lars Kluge, he was elected in September 2012 with 91,9 % of the votes, Hohenstein-Ernstthal is adjacent to the Bundesautobahn 4. There are 2 railway stations, the Hohenstein-Ernstthal station and Wüstenbrand station, both on the Dresden–Werdau railway
Hohenstein-Ernstthal
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Hohenstein-Ernstthal
2.
Kingdom of Saxony
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The Kingdom of Saxony, lasting between 1806 and 1918, was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic Germany. From 1871 it was part of the German Empire and it became a Free state in the era of Weimar Republic in 1918 after the end of World War I and the abdication of King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony. Its capital was the city of Dresden, and its successor state is the Free State of Saxony. Before 1806 Saxony was part of the Holy Roman Empire, an entity which had once aspired to be a single state. The rulers of Electorate of Saxony of the House of Wettin had held the title of elector for several centuries, the last elector of Saxony became King Frederick Augustus I. The Kingdom also joined the German Confederation, the new organization of the German states to replace the Holy Roman Empire. This effectiveness probably allowed Saxony to escape the fate of other north German states allied with Austria — notably the Kingdom of Hanover — which were annexed by Prussia after the war, the Austrians insisted as a point of honour that Saxony must be spared, and the Prussians acquiesced. Saxony nevertheless joined the Prussian-led North German Confederation the next year, with Prussias victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871, the members of the Confederation were organised by Otto von Bismarck into the German Empire, with Wilhelm I as its Emperor. Wilhelm Is grandson Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated in 1918 as a result of Germanys defeat in World War I, King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony followed him into abdication and the erstwhile Kingdom of Saxony became the Free State of Saxony within the newly formed Weimar Republic. The 1831 Constitution of Saxony established the state as a parliamentary monarchy, the king was named as head of the nation. He was required to follow the provisions of the constitution, and could not become the ruler of any other state without the consent of the Diet, or parliament. The crown was hereditary in the line of the royal family through agnatic primogeniture. Added provisions concerned the formation of a if the king was too young or otherwise unable to rule. Any acts or decrees signed or issued by the king had to be countersigned by at least one of his ministers, without the ministerial countersignature, no act of the king was to be considered valid. The king was given the right to declare any accused person innocent, or alternately to mitigate or suspend their punishment or pardon them and he was also given supreme power over religious matters in Saxony. The king was given power to promulgate laws, and to carry them into effect. He could not, however, change the constitution itself or the laws in this manner. He was permitted to veto laws passed by the Diet, or to them back with proposed amendments for reconsideration
Kingdom of Saxony
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The Kingdom of Saxony in 1895
Kingdom of Saxony
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Flag
3.
German Confederation
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Most historians have judged the Confederation to have been weak and ineffective, as well as an obstacle to the creation of a German nation-state. It collapsed due to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria, warfare, the 1848 revolution, and the inability of the members to compromise. In 1848, revolutions by liberals and nationalists were an attempt to establish a unified German state. Talks between the German states failed in 1848, and the Confederation briefly dissolved, but was re-established shortly after and it decidedly fell apart only after the Prussian victory in the Seven Weeks War of 1866. This led to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership in 1867, a number of South German states remained independent until they joined the North German Confederation, which was renamed the German Empire. The War of the Third Coalition lasted from about 1803 to 1806, following defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz by the French under Napoleon in December 1805, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II abdicated, and the Empire was dissolved on 6 August 1806. The resulting Treaty of Pressburg established the Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806, after the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt of October 1806 in the War of the Fourth Coalition, various other German states, including Saxony and Westphalia, also joined the Confederation. Only Austria, Prussia, Danish Holstein, Swedish Pomerania and the French-occupied Principality of Erfurt stayed outside the Confederation of the Rhine and these nations would later join in the War of the Sixth Coalition from 1812 to 1814. The German Confederation was created by the 9th Act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris, ending the War of the Sixth Coalition. The Confederation was formally created by a treaty, the Final Act of the Ministerial Conference to Complete and Consolidate the Organization of the German Confederation. This treaty was not concluded and signed by the parties until 15 May 1820, States joined the German Confederation by becoming parties to the second treaty. The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia and its allies on the other. In the Prague peace treaty, on 23 August 1866, Austria had to accept that the Confederation was considered to be dissolved, the following day, the remaining member states confirmed the dissolution. The treaty allowed Prussia to create a new Bundesverhältnis in the North of Germany, the South German states were proposed to create a South German Confederation but this did not come into existence. Prussia and its allies created the North German Confederation in 1867, because of French intervention it had to exclude, besides Austria, the South German states Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. During November 1870 the four states joined the North German Confederation by treaty. The North German Confederation Reichstag and Bundesrat accepted to rename the North German Confederation as the German Empire, the new constitution of the state, the Constitution of the German Confederation, introduced the new name and title on 1 January 1871. The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the largest, Austria and Prussia each had one vote in the Federal Assembly
German Confederation
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The monarchs of the member states of the German Confederation meet at Frankfurt in 1863.
German Confederation
German Confederation
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Austrian chancellor
Klemens Wenzel von Metternich dominated the German Confederation from 1815 until 1848
German Confederation
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The University of Berlin in 1850
4.
Radebeul
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Radebeul is a town in the Elbe valley in the district of Meißen in Saxony, Germany, a suburb of Dresden. It is well known for its viticulture, a dedicated to writer Karl May and a narrow gauge railway connecting Radebeul with the castle of Moritzburg. The Meißen area, where Radebeul is located, is one of the northeasternmost areas where wine is grown today and it is sometimes called Saxon Nice for its pleasant landscape and mild climate. A village Radebeul was first mentioned in 1349, in 1905 it absorbed the neighboring village of Serkowitz. On April 1,1924 Radebeul became a town, meanwhile, the neighboring village of Kötzschenbroda had taken over Lindenau in 1920 and Naundorf, Zitzschewig und Niederlößnitz by 1924, when it was made a town as well. In 1934 Wahnsdorf and Oberlößnitz joined Radebeul, and on January 1,1935 the towns of Kötzschenbroda, in 1947 Radebeul was made part of the district of Dresden. In 1995 it received the status of a town inside the rural district. The town can be reached by Dresdner Verkehrsbetriebe tram route 4 or by Dresden S-Bahn line S1, deutsche Bahns Regional-Express 50 service also stops at Radebeul Ost. It is also the terminus of the historic Radebeul–Radeburg narrow-gauge steam railway, despite the fact that Native American remains are sacred items, the Karl May Museum keeps and displays several actual Native American scalps. One of the scalps was obtained in the U. S. in 1904 by Karl Mays friend, Patty Frank, Swift Hawk had cut the scalp from a member of the Ojibwe Tribe. Cecil Pavlat, an official with the Sault Ste, members of the Chippewa Tribe say they are considering staging a protest at the annual Karl May Festival in Radebeul in May 2014. The volunteer fire department of Radebeul looks back on a tradition, being founded in 1897. Today the volunteer department of Radebeul consists of four separate quarter departments, Radebeul-Ost, Kötzschenbroda, Lindenau. Each of the departments has his own junior firefighter section, the quarter department of Radebeul-Kötzschenbroda was founded 2008 in the course of the construction of a rescue central station in Radebeul West. In the process the volunteer fire departments of Radebeul-West and Naundorf where consolidated, the rescue central station also houses the Technisches Hilfswerk Radebeul In 2011 the departments counted 136 members in total,99 on active duty and 37 members in the elderly and honor department. The junior firefighter section had overall a number of 64 young members, in 2012 the department got his long desired flag of honor. The assets cost totaled a sum of around 12000 Euro, which were gathered through donations, every donator had the possibility to signature one of the flag nails with his name. The donation period lasted from March to the end of July 2012, the flag consecration took place at the 08.11.2012
Radebeul
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Spitzhaus above the vineyards of Radebeul
Radebeul
Radebeul
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Antique wine press at the Hoflössnitz Castle in Radebeul
Radebeul
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Vineyards of Radebeul
5.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. After at first attempting to control, causing massive uprisings. This left a republic to manage a devastated and unsatisfied populace, the German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris. German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism and he envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. The war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, the new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same
German Empire
German Empire
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Flag
German Empire
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Otto von Bismarck
German Empire
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A postage stamp from the
Carolines
6.
Western fiction
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Western fiction is a genre of literature set in the American Old West frontier and typically set from the late eighteenth to the late nineteenth century. Well-known writers of Western fiction include Zane Grey from the early 20th century, the genre peaked around the early 1960s, largely due to the popularity of televised Westerns such as Bonanza. Readership began to drop off in the mid- to late 1970s and has reached a new low in the 2000s, most bookstores, outside of a few west American states, only carry a small number of Western fiction books. The predecessor of the western in American literature emerged early with tales of the frontier, the most famous of the early 19th century frontier novels were James Fenimore Coopers five novels comprising the Leatherstocking Tales. Coopers novels were set in what was at the time the American frontier. As did his novel The Prairie, most later westerns would typically take place west of the Mississippi River, the Western as a specialized genre got its start in the penny dreadfuls and later the dime novels. Published in June 1860, Malaeska, the Indian Wife of the White Hunter is considered the first dime novel. These cheaply made books were successful and capitalized on the many stories that were being told about the mountain men, outlaws, settlers. Many of these novels were fictionalized stories based on people, such as Billy the Kid, Buffalo Bill, Wyatt Earp, Wild Bill Hickok. By 1900, the new medium of pulp magazines helped to relate these adventures to easterners, popularity grew with the publication of Owen Wisters novel The Virginian and especially Zane Greys Riders of the Purple Sage. The first Hopalong Cassidy stories by Clarence Mulford appeared in 1904, when pulp magazines exploded in popularity in the 1920s, Western fiction greatly benefited. Pulp magazines that specialised in Westerns include Cowboy Stories, Ranch Romances, Star Western, West, the simultaneous popularity of Western movies in the 1920s also helped the genre. In the 1940s several seminal Westerns were published, including The Ox-Bow Incident by Walter van Tilburg Clark, The Big Sky and The Way West by A. B. Guthrie, Jr. and Shane by Jack Schaefer. Many other Western authors gained readership in the 1950s, such as Ray Hogan, Louis LAmour, the genre peaked around the early 1960s, largely due to the tremendous number of Westerns on television. The burnout of the American public on television Westerns in the late 1960s seemed to have an effect on the literature as well, and interest in Western literature began to wane. Western novels, films and pulps gave birth to Western comics, which were popular, particularly from the late 1940s until circa 1967. Other notable long-running Marvel Western comics included Rawhide Kid Two-Gun Kid, DC Comics published the long-running series All-Star Western and Western Comics, and Charlton Comics published Billy the Kid and Cheyenne Kid. Magazine Enterprises Straight Arrow ran from 1950–1956, and Prize Comics Prize Comics Western ran from 1948–1956, fawcett Comics published a number of Western titles, including Hopalong Cassidy from 1948–1953
Western fiction
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"As Wild felled one of the redskins by a blow from the butt of his revolver, and sprang for the one with the tomahawk, the chief's daughter suddenly appeared. Raising her hands, she exclaimed, 'Go back, Young Wild West. I will save her!'" (1908)
7.
American frontier
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Frontier refers to a contrasting region at the edge of a European-American line of settlement. American historians cover multiple frontiers but the folklore is focused primarily on the 19th century west of the Mississippi River. As defined by Hine and Faragher, frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states. They explain, It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, thus, Turners Frontier Thesis proclaimed the westward frontier as the defining process of American history. As the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took firm hold in the imagination of Americans, America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image. David Murdoch has said, No other nation has taken a time and place from its past, the frontier line was the outer line of European-American settlement. It moved steadily westward from the 1630s to the 1880s, Turner favored the Census Bureau definition of the frontier line as a settlement density of two people per square mile. The West was the settled area near that boundary. Thus, parts of the Midwest and American South, though no longer considered western, have a frontier heritage along with the western states. In the 21st century, however, the term American West is most often used for the area west of the Mississippi River, in the colonial era, before 1776, the west was of high priority for settlers and politicians. The American frontier began when Jamestown, Virginia was settled by the English in 1607, English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and mid-west region they settled down. French settlement was limited to a few small villages such as Kaskaskia. They created a rural settlement in upstate New York. Areas in the north that were in the stage by 1700 generally had poor transportation facilities. The wealthy speculator, if one was involved, usually remained at home, the class of landless poor was small. Few artisans settled on the frontier except for those who practiced a trade to supplement their primary occupation of farming, there might be a storekeeper, a minister, and perhaps a doctor, and there were a number of landless laborers. However frontier areas of 1700 that had good river connections were transformed into plantation agriculture
American frontier
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The
cowboy, the quintessential symbol of the American frontier, circa 1887
American frontier
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Daniel Boone escorting settlers through the
Cumberland Gap
American frontier
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Indian leader
Tecumseh killed in battle in 1813 by
Richard M. Johnson, who later became Vice president
American frontier
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Jefferson saw himself as a man of the frontier and a scientist; he was keenly interested in expanding and exploring the West
8.
Winnetou
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It portrays a belief in an innate goodness of mankind, albeit constantly threatened by ill-intentioned enemies. Nondogmatic Christian feelings and values play an important role, and Mays heroes are described as German Americans. Winnetou became the chief of the tribe of the Mescalero Apaches after his father Intschu-tschuna and he rode a horse called Iltschi and had a famous rifle called Silberbüchse. Old Shatterhand became the brother of Winnetou and rode the brother of Iltschi. Karl Mays Winnetou novels symbolize, to some extent, a desire for a simpler life in close contact with nature. In fact, the popularity of the series is due in part to the ability of the stories to tantalize fantasies many Europeans had and have for this more untamed environment. The sequel has become the origin of festivals, and the first regular Karl-May-Spiele were staged 1938 till 1941 in Rathen, east Germany restarted those open-air theater plays in 1984. Now, they are never difficult to find in either Germany or Austria, Mays heroes drew on archetypes of Germanic culture and had little to do with actual Native American cultures. As he is dying, the Apache Winnetou asks some settlers to sing an Ave Maria for him, in the 1960s, French nobleman and actor Pierre Brice played Winnetou in several movies coproduced by German–Yugoslav producers. At first, Brice was not very excited about the role beside Lex Barker, Brice not only became a star in Germany, but a significant contributor to German–French reconciliation, as well. The films were so successful in Germany, their budgets could be increased almost every time, principal shooting usually took place in Paklenica karst river canyon national park, Croatia. The early films preceded the spaghetti western, Der Schatz im Silbersee — Treasure of Silver Lake Winnetou 1. Teil — Apache Gold Old Shatterhand — Apaches Last Battle Winnetou –2, teil — Last of the Renegades Unter Geiern — Frontier Hellcat Der Ölprinz — Rampage at Apache Wells Winnetou –3. Teil — Winnetou, The Desperado Trail Old Surehand 1, Winnetou I–III, Der Schatz im Silbersee, Old Shatterhand, and Winnetou und Shatterhand im Tal der Toten are also available on DVD, but all in German only. In 2004–2005, the movies were also to reappear on DVD. In April 2009, DVDs of the cleared remastered movies were issued in the Czech Republic, all movies are dubbed into Czech and German, with subtitles in Czech and Slovak. Also in these series, Winnetou was played by Brice. Mein Freund Winnetou — My friend Winnetou — Winnetou le Mescalero,7 episodes at 52 min, winnetous Rückkehr,2 parts,171 min. in total Serbian artist Aleksandar Hecl did a comic book adaptation of the novels
Winnetou
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Cover of 1893 edition
Winnetou
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Winnetou's Death aka Winnetou's Ascension, cover of Winnetou III by
Sascha Schneider (1904)
9.
Old Shatterhand
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Old Shatterhand is a fictional character in Western novels by German writer Karl May. He is the German friend and blood brother of Winnetou, the chief of the Mescalero tribe of the Apache. He is the character in the Eurowestern by the same name from 1964. Most of the stories are written from a first person perspective, may also wrote stories about the same character traveling the Orient, where he is known as Kara Ben Nemsi. May attached the prefix Old to the names of several of his characters, considering it to be typically American and a sign of the characters great experience. In the stories, Old Shatterhand is given the name by his friend Sam Hawkens, Old Shatterhand owns two famous rifles, the Bärentöter and the Henrystutzen, both made by a fictional gunsmith called Henry in St. Louis. The Henrystutzen was able to fire 25 shots without reloading, probably a reference to the Henry rifle. Old Shatterhand rode a horse called Hatatitla, which he got from Winnetou, the tales may have been an influence on the creation of the Lone Ranger media franchise. In the story Im Reiche des silbernen Löwen IV Kara Ben Nemsi says he was Old Shatterhand, the character of Old Shatterhand was played in the German Karl May movies of the 1960s by American actor Lex Barker. Dr. Harald Reinl Old Shatterhand, dir, dr. Harald Reinl Winnetou –3. Dr. Harald Reinl Winnetou und das Halbblut Apanatschi, dir, Harald Philipp Winnetou und Shatterhand im Tal der Toten, dir. Dr. Harald Reinl In contrast to the stories in the movies Unter Geiern, Old Surehand is another character created by Karl May. Karl May dedicated three volumes to him, who is like Old Shatterhand a renowned Western hero and best friends with the Native Americans, unlike Old Shatterhand, Old Surehand is a half-blood Native himself, though raised in a white family. Amazon. com Nemsi Books In the 1990s British writer B. J. Holmes produced two sequels featuring the character, A Legend Called Shatterhand, and Shatterhand and the People
Old Shatterhand
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Bärentöter (center) and the Henrystutzen (right), in the Karl May Museum.
10.
Orient
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The Orient is the East, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Eastern world, in relation to Europe. In English, it is largely a metonym for, and coterminous with, the term Orient derives from the Latin word oriens meaning east. Also, many ancient temples, including temples and the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, were built with their main entrances facing the East. This tradition was carried on in Christian churches, to situate them in such a manner was to orient them in the proper direction. When something was facing the direction, it was said to be in the proper orientation. Another explanation of the stems from Rome during the Roman Empire, specifically the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Roman Orient. Although the original East-West line was the Italian Peninsulas East Coast, the opposite term Occident derives from the Latin word occidens, meaning west. This term meant the west but has fallen into disuse in English, over time, the common understanding of the Orient has continually shifted eastwards, as European people traveled farther into Asia. It finally reached the Pacific Ocean, in what Westerners came to call the Far East and these shifts in time and identification sometimes confuse the scope of Oriental Studies. Yet there remain contexts where the Orient and Oriental have kept their older meanings, travelers may again take the Orient Express train from Paris to its terminus in the European part of Istanbul, a route established in the early 20th century. In European historiography, the meaning of the Orient changed in several times. Originally, the referred to Egypt, the Levant. During the 1800s, India, and to a lesser extent China, by the mid-20th century, Western scholars generally considered the Orient as just East Asia, Southeast Asia, and eastern Central Asia. As recently as the early 20th century, the term Orient often continued to be used in ways that included North Africa, today, the term primarily evokes images of China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and peninsular Southeast Asia. Throughout the history of the sense of the term, the Orient was never equivalent to Asia as a whole. The Orient being largely a term, large parts of Asia—Siberia most notably—were excluded from the scholarly notion of the Orient. Equally valid terms for the Orient still exist in the English language in such collocations as Oriental studies, the adjectival term Oriental has been used by the West to mean cultures, peoples, countries, Asian rugs, and goods from the Orient. It is a designation for anything belonging to the Orient or East
Orient
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Harem Pool by the
Orientalist painter
Jean-Léon Gérôme c. 1876; naked females in harem or bathing settings are a staple of much Orientalist painting
11.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
Middle East
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The
Temple Mount in
Jerusalem
Middle East
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Map of the Middle East (green).
Middle East
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The
Kaaba, located in
Mecca,
Saudi Arabia
Middle East
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Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East. Here, Muslim men are
prostrating during prayer in a mosque.
12.
Kara Ben Nemsi
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Kara Ben Nemsi is a fictional character in the works of Karl May, best-selling 19th century German writer. An alter ego of the author, everything is written from the first person perspective and he travels throughout the Ottoman empire, alongside his friend and servant Hadschi Halef Omar. His character, being identical to that of Old Shatterhand, owns two famous rifles, the Bärentöter and the Henrystutzen, without ever leaving the saddle of his fabulous black horse Rih, Kara Ben Nemsi single-handedly fights off droves of thieves and crooks left and right. On nightlong rides through bleak and barren lands, he never wavered in sharing his long-winded religious musings with unenlightened natives, within the book series Karl May’s Gesammelte Werke there is a sequel of Am Jenseits, „In Mekka“ by Franz Kandolf. Amazon. com Nemsi Books Marah Durimeh RIH Essay about Kara Ben Nemsi
Kara Ben Nemsi
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Kara Ben Nemsi on Rih
13.
Latin America
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Latin America is a group of countries and dependencies in the Americas where Romance languages are predominant. It is therefore broader than the terms Ibero-America or Hispanic America—though it usually excludes French Canada and it has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km2, almost 13% of the Earths land surface area. As of 2015, its population was estimated at more than 626 million and in 2014, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of 5,573,397 million USD and a GDP PPP of 7,531,585 million USD. The term Latin America was first used in 1861 in La revue des races Latines, a further investigation of the concept of Latin America is by Michel Gobat in the American Historical Review. The term was first used in Paris in an 1856 conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao and this term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement. Latin America is, therefore, defined as all parts of the Americas that were once part of the Spanish. By this definition, Latin America is coterminous with Ibero-America and this definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects. As such, some sources avoid this oversimplification by using the phrase Latin America, the distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance-language and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and it may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Hispanic America, Portuguese America and French America. *, Not a sovereign state The concept of Latin America has been criticized by a number of intellectuals, the earliest known settlement was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in Southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the continents, by the first millennium CE, South Americas vast rainforests, mountains, plains and coasts were the home of tens of millions of people. Some groups formed more permanent settlements such as the Chibcha and the Tairona groups and these groups are in the circum Caribbean region. The Chibchas of Colombia, the Quechuas and Aymaras of Bolivia, the region was home to many indigenous peoples and advanced civilizations, including the Aztecs, Toltecs, Maya, and Inca. The Aztec empire was ultimately the most powerful civilization known throughout the Americas, with the arrival of the Europeans following Christopher Columbus voyages, the indigenous elites, such as the Incas and Aztecs, lost power to the heavy European invasion. Hernándo Cortés seized the Aztec elites power with the help of local groups who had favored the Aztec elite, epidemics of diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox and measles, wiped out a large portion of the indigenous population. Historians cannot determine the number of natives who died due to European diseases, due to the lack of written records, specific numbers are hard to verify. Many of the survivors were forced to work in European plantations, intermixing between the indigenous peoples and the European colonists was very common, and, by the end of the colonial period, people of mixed ancestry formed majorities in several colonies
Latin America
–
Presencia de América Latina (Presence of Latin America, 1964–65) is a 300 square meters (3,200 sq ft) mural at the hall of the Arts House of the University of Concepción, Chile. It is also known as Latin America's Integration.
Latin America
–
Latin America
Latin America
–
The Parc de l'Amérique-Latine in
Quebec City, the capital of the French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec, celebrates the cultural ties between Quebec and the other people who speak a Romance language in the Americas.
Latin America
–
A view of
Machu Picchu, a pre-Columbian
Inca site in
Peru. One of the
New Seven Wonders of the World.
14.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
15.
Audio drama
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Radio drama is a dramatized, purely acoustic performance, broadcast on radio. Radio drama achieved widespread popularity within a decade of its development in the 1920s. By the 1940s, it was an international popular entertainment. With the advent of television in the 1950s, however, radio drama lost some of its popularity, however, recordings of OTR survive today in the audio archives of collectors and museums, as well as several online sites such as Internet Archive. As of 2011, radio drama has a presence on terrestrial radio in the United States. Much of American radio drama is restricted to rebroadcasts or podcasts of programs from previous decades, however, other nations still have thriving traditions of radio drama. In the United Kingdom, for example, the BBC produces and broadcasts hundreds of new plays each year on Radio 3, Radio 4. Like the USA, Australia ABC has abandoned broadcasting drama but New Zealand RNZ continues to promote, podcasting has also offered the means of creating new radio dramas, in addition to the distribution of vintage programs. Thanks to advances in recording and Internet distribution, radio drama was experiencing a revival in 2010. The terms audio drama or audio theatre are used synonymously with radio drama, however. Audio drama can also be found on CDs, cassette tapes, Radio drama traces its roots back to the 1880s, In 1881 French engineer Clement Ader had filed a patent for ‘improvements of Telephone Equipment in Theatres’. English-language radio drama seems to have started in the United States, a Rural Line on Education, a brief sketch specifically written for radio, aired on Pittsburghs KDKA in 1921, according to historian Bill Jaker. Newspaper accounts of the era report on a number of other experiments by Americas commercial radio stations. In February 1922, entire Broadway musical comedies with the original aired from WJZs Newark studios. Actors Grace George and Herbert Hayes performed a play from a San Francisco station in the summer of 1922. Aware of this series, the director of Cincinnatis WLW began regularly broadcasting one-acts in November, the success of these projects led to imitators at other stations. By the spring of 1923, original pieces written specially for radio were airing on stations in Cincinnati, Philadelphia. That same year, WLW and WGY sponsored scripting contests, inviting listeners to create original plays to be performed by those stations dramatic troupes
Audio drama
–
Recording a radio play in the Netherlands (1949),
Spaarnestad Photo
16.
Comic
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Comics is a medium used to express ideas by images, often combined with text or other visual information. Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images, often textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other information. Size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing, cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common image-making means in comics, fumetti is a form which uses photographic images. Common forms of comics include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, since the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comic albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly common, and online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century. The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures, scholars have posited a pre-history as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings. By the mid-20th century, comics flourished particularly in the United States, western Europe, histories of Japanese comics and cartooning propose origins as early as the 12th century. Comics has had a reputation for much of its history. The English term comics is used as a noun when it refers to the medium. Though the term derives from the work that predominated in early American newspaper comic strips. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics. The increasing cross-pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further made definition difficult, examples of early comics The European, American, and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths. Japan had a prehistory of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era. The ukiyo-e artist Hokusai popularized the Japanese term for comics and cartooning, manga, in the post-war era modern Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work. Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th-century Britain, the earliest of which was the short-lived The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825, the most popular was Punch, which popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures. American comics developed out of magazines as Puck, Judge. The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcaults The Yellow Kid, early Sunday strips were full-page and often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality, movement, shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fishers Mutt and Jeff. In Britain, the Amalgamated Press established a style of a sequence of images with text beneath them, including Illustrated Chips
Comic
–
Manga Hokusai, early 19th century
Comic
–
Comics
Comic
–
Ally Sloper in Some of the Mysteries of Loan and Discount
Charles Henry Ross, 1867
Comic
–
The Yellow Kid R. F. Outcault, 1898
17.
Composition (music)
–
People who create new compositions are called composers in classical music. In popular music and traditional music, the creators of new songs are usually called songwriters, with songs, Composition is the act or practice of creating a song or other piece of music. In popular music and traditional music, songwriting may involve the creation of an outline of the song, called the lead sheet. In classical music, orchestration is typically done by the composer, in some cases, a pop or traditional songwriter may not use written notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play, sing and/or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written or printed scores play in classical music. Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, a piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, since the 20th century, with computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze, although in the 2000s, composition is considered to consist of the manipulation of each aspect of music, according to Jean-Benjamin de Laborde, Composition consists in two things only. The first is the ordering and disposing of several sounds. in such a manner that their succession pleases the ear and this is what the Ancients called melody. The second is the rendering audible of two or more simultaneous sounds in such a manner that their combination is pleasant and this is what we call harmony, and it alone merits the name of composition. In classical music, a piece of music exists in the form of a composition in musical notation or as a live acoustic event. Since the invention of recording, a classical piece or popular song may also exist as a recording. If music is composed before being performed, music can be performed from memory, by reading written musical notation, compositions comprise a huge variety of musical elements, which vary widely from between genres and cultures. Popular music genres after about 1960 make extensive use of electric and electronic instruments, such as electric guitar, electric and electronic instruments are used in contemporary classical music compositions and concerts, albeit to a lesser degree than in popular music. Music from the Baroque music era, for example, used only acoustic and mechanical such as strings, brass, woodwinds, timpani and keyboard instruments such as harpsichord. A 2000s-era pop band may use electric guitar played with electronic effects through a guitar amplifier, different musical styles permit singers or performers to use various amounts of musical improvisation during the performance of a composed song or piece. In free jazz, the performers may play without any sheet music, improvisation is the act of composing musical elements spontaneously during the performance, as opposed to having a composer write down the music beforehand. Improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque music era, instrumentalists and singers were expected to be able to improvise ornaments, during the classical period, solo instrumentalists were expected to be able to improvise virtuostic cadenzas during a concerto. During the Romantic music era, composers began writing out ornaments and cadenzas, in contemporary classical music, some composers began writing pieces which indicate that the performer should improvise during certain sections
Composition (music)
–
People composing music
Composition (music)
–
Scherzo in A flat (
Borodin) Play (
help ·
info)
18.
Nine-pin bowling
–
Nine-pin bowling is a bowling game played primarily in Europe. European championships are held each year, over 90,000 members are on teams in Germany, often playing in officially registered Bundeskegelbahnen to be found in almost every sizable town. In Europe overall, there are some 130,000 players, Nine-pin bowling lanes are often found in Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Estonia, Switzerland, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Hungary, Brazil and Liechtenstein. On the other hand, a version is played in the US state of Texas. This game is played by rolling a ball down an alley towards nine pins, the lanes are 19.5 m long and have no oil on them. The nine pins are placed in a shape on the alley. In modern lane systems the pins are reset by a machine which lifts up the pins, each connected by a string on top. Compared with the ten-pin free-fall pin-setter, the string pin-setter has fewer moving parts, consumes less power, the game is played in 120 throws of four lanes. On each lane there are 30 throws, the first fifteen throws reset the pins after each throw. Some lane systems are not advanced enough to support the latter stage, after each lane of 30 throws is completed, players shift to the next lane to the right until the tournament is over. The standard ball is 16 cm in diameter and weighs approximately 2.85 kg, the U14 plays with 14 cm /1.9 kg. The pins usually have a weight of approximately 1.73 kg, in the Netherlands, the balls are heavier,7 to 10 kg, and bigger, between 21 and 24 cm, and have a hole for the thumb. Pin points are added up for each throw, professional players knock down 700 pins and more. League play is arranged in many WNBA member countries, teams are composed of six competing players, of whom each one plays 120 throws, except if he is substituted. Two substitutes are allowed per game, as the play goes, each team sets up the lineup before the game. Players compete against each other for team points, a player who has more points on a lane gets one set point. If the players have knocked down the number of pins. The player with more set points gets a team point, If they have 2 set points each, the player with the higher total number of pins gets the team point
Nine-pin bowling
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Ninepin bowling pins and ball
Nine-pin bowling
–
Historic depiction of Nine-pin bowling by
Friedrich Eduard Meyerheim (1834)
19.
Waldenburg, Saxony
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Waldenburg is a town in the district Zwickau in Saxony, Germany. The castle was owned by the House of Schönburg from 1378 until 1945, neighborhood municipalities are Callenberg, the city of Glauchau and Limbach-Oberfrohna, Oberwiera and Remse as well as Göpfersdorf, Jückelberg and Ziegelheim. Other famous attraction are, Naturalienkabinett Heimatmuseum The castle of Schönburg-Naumburg The European Grammar School is a language school. The building was built in 1844 as a Lehrerseminar, karl May was one of the famous students. Official Website of Waldenburg European Grammar School
Waldenburg, Saxony
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Waldenburg Castle
20.
Plauen
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Plauen is a town in the Free State of Saxony, east-central Germany. It is the town of the district Vogtlandkreis. The town is situated near the border of Bavaria and the Czech Republic, Plauen was founded by Polabian Slavs in the 12th century as Plawe and was passed to the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1327. The town was captured by the Archbishop of Magdeburg, Lippold von Bredow, in 1466, it was passed to Albertine Saxony and later in 1569 to the Electorate of Saxony. Plauen became incorporated into the Kingdom of Saxony in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars, in the late-19th century, Plauen became a centre of textile manufacturing, specializing in Chemical lace, called Plauen lace. Around 1910, Plauen, as a boomtown of the region. In the 1930s, Plauen hosted the first chapter of the Nazi Party outside of Bavaria, plauens population, however, has shrunk dramatically since the Second World War. It was occupied by American troops on 16 April 1945 but was left to Red Army on 1 July 1945, from 1945 onwards, Plauen fell into the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, which later became the German Democratic Republic. Plauen hosted a large Red Army occupation garrison and, in the last years of the GDR, the exposé Fast Food Nation gives special mention to Plauen as the first town of the GDR to have a McDonalds restaurant following the collapse of the Berlin Wall. In the district reform of 1 July 2008, Plauen lost its district status and was merged into the district Vogtlandkreis. Plauen Oberer station lies on the Leipzig–Hof line, the section of this line through Plauen is part of the Saxon-Franconian trunk line running between Nürnberg, Hof, Plauen, Zwickau, Chemnitz and Dresden. The town had another station, Plauen Unterer station, on the Elster Valley Railway, there is a plan to rename the Oberer station into Plauen Hauptbahnhof. Vogtlandbahn, a train company, operates services from Plauen to Hof, Werdau, Chemnitz, Zwickau, Falkenstein and Adorf within Germany. At these stations, there are other Vogtlandbahn services to München, Regensburg, Marktredwitz, Dresden and Leipzig within Germany and Karlovy Vary, a Vogtlandbahn Express Bus service runs between Plauen and Berlin Schönefeld Airport and Zoological Garden. The Plauen Straßenbahn is a tramway that has 6 lines connecting the centre of town, Plauen-Tunnel stop, to the surrounding areas, embroidery Machine Museum Museum Plauener Spitze Galerie e. O. O
Plauen
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Plauen and the city hall tower in the morning fog
Plauen
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Plauen downtown
Plauen
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Plauen, old townhall
Plauen
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The Church of St. Markus
21.
Chemnitz
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Chemnitz, known from 1953 to 1990 as Karl-Marx-Stadt, is the third-largest city in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. Chemnitz is an independent city which is not part of any county, located in the northern foothills of the Ore Mountains, it is part of the Central German Metropolitan Region. The citys economy is based on the sector and manufacturing industry. Chemnitz University of Technology has around 10,000 students, Chemnitz is named after the river Chemnitz, a small tributary of the Zwickau Mulde. The word Chemnitz is from the Sorbian language, and means stony, the word is composed of the Slavic word kamen meaning stone and the feminine suffix -ica. It is known in Czech as Saská Kamenice and in Polish as Kamienica Saska, there are many other towns named Kamenica or Kamenice in areas with past or present Slavic settlement. An early Slavic tribes settlement was located at Kamienica, and the first documented use of the name Chemnitz was the 1143 site of a Benedictine monastery around which a settlement grew, circa 1170 Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor granted it the rights of an imperial city. In 1307, the town became subordinate to the Margraviate of Meissen, in medieval times, Chemnitz became a centre of textile production and trade. More than one third of the worked in textile production. By the early 19th century Chemnitz had become an industrial centre, in 1913, Chemnitz had a population of 320,000 and, like Leipzig and Dresden, was larger at that time than today. After losing inhabitants due to the first World War Chemnitz grew rapidly again, before the world economic crises, it was supposed that the city would keep on growing and would become a Millionenstadt by incorporating also fast growing smaller towns and municipalities around it. During World War II, Chemnitz contained factories that produced military hardware, 2/3–5 March, USAAF bombers attacked the marshalling yards. 5 March,760 RAF bombers attacked, the headquarters of the auto manufacturer Auto Union were also based in Chemnitz since 1932 and its buildings were also badly damaged. At the end of the war, the companys executives fled and relocated the company in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, the World War II bombings left most of the city in ruins, and post-war, the East German reconstruction included large low rise housing. Some tourist sites were reconstructed during the East German era and after German reunification and it was occupied by Soviet troops on 8 May 1945. After dissolution of the states in the GDR in 1952, Chemnitz became seat of a district, on 10 May 1953, the city was renamed by decision of the East German government to Karl-Marx-Stadt after Karl Marx. GDR Prime Minister Otto Grotewohl said, The people who live here, do not look back and they look with love and devotion to the founder of the socialist doctrine, the greatest son of the German people, to Karl Marx. I hereby fulfill about the governments decision, I carry out the solemn act of renaming the city and declare, From now on, this city bears the proud name and mandatory Karl-Marx-Stadt
Chemnitz
Chemnitz
Chemnitz
Chemnitz
22.
Osterstein Castle
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Osterstein Castle is the former castle of the town of Zwickau, Germany, in Saxony. Now it houses the nursing home, first mentioned in 1292 as Castrum Czwickaw, it was badly damaged in a fire in 1403, and demolished between 1404 and 1407 under William I, Margrave of Meissen. It was rebuilt during the reign of Christian I, Elector of Saxony in 1587-1590 as a magnificent Renaissance castle, in the 18th century Zwickau Prison was established in the castle, which with interruptions was used until after the Second World War. There were numerous prominent prisoners, including Karl May, August Bebel, Rosa Luxemburg, during the Second World War, it was used as a concentration camp. The former arsenal and the block were used to house the archives of the local coal mining industry. Parts of the premises were demolished, from the 1980s, the castle structure deteriorated rapidly. During the 1990s and into the years of the 21st century, proposals for its reuse and plans for reconstruction. The castle became increasingly a blot on the landscape of Zwickau town centre. After 2000 emergency measures were required to secure the buildings safety, on 3 November 2006 the foundation stone was laid for the reconstruction of the castle. On 9 September 2007 the topping-out ceremony took place, List of castles List of castles in Germany Senioren- und Seniorenpflegeheim Zwickau GmbH
Osterstein Castle
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Osterstein Castle
Osterstein Castle
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Schloss Osterstein 1839
Osterstein Castle
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Schloss Osterstein before reconstruction
Osterstein Castle
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Final stage of reconstruction
23.
Zwickau
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Zwickau (German pronunciation, Sorbian, Šwikawa, Czech Cvikov, is a town in Saxony, Germany, it is the capital of the district of Zwickau. Zwickau is situated in a valley at the foot of the Erzgebirge mountains and is within the Saxon triangle, the town has approximately 100,000 inhabitants, but has a regional catchment area of over 480,000 people. From 1834 until 1952 Zwickau was the seat of the government of the region of Saxony. Zwickau, known as the city of automobiles, is the centre of the Saxon automotive industry, well known beyond Germanys borders are car makers such as Horch, Audi, Auto Union, Trabant and Volkswagen. Since 2000 its history has been presented in the August-Horch Museum, the University of Applied Sciences Zwickau trains automotive engineers. The valley of the 166 kilometres long Zwickauer Mulde river stretches from the Vogtland to Colditz Castle at the other end, the Silver Road, Saxonys longest tourist route, connects Dresden with Zwickau. The ADAC City Guide 2005 wrote, The town of Zwickau has transformed itself over the years from a mining town into an elegant Art Nouveau town. Zwickau can be reached by car via the nearby Autobahns A4 and A72, the region around Zwickau was settled by Slavs as early as the 7th century. The name Zwickau is probably a Germanisation of the Sorbian toponym Šwikawa, which derives from Svarozič, in the 10th century, German settlers began arriving and the native Slavs were Christianized. A trading place known as terretorio Zcwickaw was mentioned in 1118, the settlement received a town charter in 1212 and hosted Franciscans and Cistercians during the 13th century. Zwickau was an imperial city from 1290–1323, but was subsequently granted to the Margraviate of Meissen. Although regional mining began in 1316, extensive mining increased with the discovery of silver in the Schneeberg in 1470, because of the silver ore deposits in the Erzgebirge, Zwickau developed in the 15th and 16th centuries and grew to be an important economic and cultural centre of Saxony. Its nine churches include the Gothic church of St. Mary, with a spire 285 ft. high, the church contains an altar with wood carvings, eight paintings by Michael Wohlgemuth and a pietà in carved and painted wood by Peter Breuer. The late Gothic church of St. Catharine has an altar piece ascribed to Lucas Cranach the elder, the town hall was begun in 1404 and rebuilt many times since. The municipal archives include documents dating back to the 13th century, in 1520 Martin Luther dedicated his treatise On the Freedom of the Christian Man to his friend Hermann Muehlpfort, the Lord Mayor of Zwickau. The Anabaptist movement of 1525 began at Zwickau under the inspiration of the Zwickau prophets, after Wittenberg, it became the first city in Europe to join the Lutheran Reformation. The late Gothic Gewandhaus, was built in 1522–24 and is now converted into a theatre, the city was seriously damaged during the Thirty Years War. The old city of Zwickau, perched on a hill, is surrounded by heights with extensive forests, in the Old Town the Cathedral and the Gewandhaus originate in the 16th century and when Schneeberg silver was traded
Zwickau
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Zwickau town hall and theatre
Zwickau
Zwickau
–
The main market of Zwickau
Zwickau
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Town hall, main façade from 1866-67 and earlier.
24.
Bohemia
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Bohemia is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech lands in the present-day Czech Republic. Bohemia was a duchy of Great Moravia, later an independent principality, a kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire, and subsequently a part of the Habsburg Monarchy, after World War I and the establishment of an independent Czechoslovak state, Bohemia became a part of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945, border regions with sizeable German-speaking minorities of all three Czech lands were joined to Nazi Germany as the Sudetenland, in 1990, the name was changed to the Czech Republic, which become a separate state in 1993 with the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Until 1948, Bohemia was a unit of Czechoslovakia as one of its lands. Bohemia was bordered in the south by Upper and Lower Austria, in the west by Bavaria and in the north by Saxony and Lusatia, in the northeast by Silesia, and in the east by Moravia. In the 2nd century BC, the Romans were competing for dominance in northern Italy, the Romans defeated the Boii at the Battle of Placentia and the Battle of Mutina. After this, many of the Boii retreated north across the Alps, much later Roman authors refer to the area they had once occupied as Boiohaemum. The earliest mention was by Tacitus Germania 28, and later mentions of the name are in Strabo. The name appears to include the tribal name Boi- plus the Germanic element *haimaz home and this Boiohaemum was apparently isolated to the area where King Marobods kingdom was centred, within the Hercynian forest. The Czech name Čechy is derived from the name of the Slavic ethnic group, the Czechs, Bohemia, like neighbouring Bavaria, is named after the Boii, who were a large Celtic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with the Helvetii into southern France, to the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast in Hungaria, were Sarmatian peoples. In the area of modern Bohemia the Marcomanni and other Suebic groups were led by their king Marobodus and he took advantage of the natural defenses provided by its mountains and forests. In late classical times and the early Middle Ages, two new Suebic groupings appeared to the west of Bohemia in southern Germany, the Alemanni, many Suebic tribes from the Bohemian region took part in such movements westwards, even settling as far away as Spain and Portugal. With them were also tribes who had pushed from the east, such as the Vandals, other groups pushed southwards towards Pannonia. These are precursors of todays Czechs, though the amount of Slavic immigration is a subject of debate. The Slavic influx was divided into two or three waves, the first wave came from the southeast and east, when the Germanic Lombards left Bohemia. Soon after, from the 630s to 660s, the territory was taken by Samos tribal confederation and his death marked the end of the old Slavonic confederation, the second attempt to establish such a Slavonic union after Carantania in Carinthia. Other sources divide the population of Bohemia at this time into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare, Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century, but only became dominant much later, in the 10th or 11th century
Bohemia
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Karlštejn Castle
Bohemia
–
Historical map with Bohemia proper outlined in pink,
Moravia in yellow, and
Austrian Silesia in orange.
Bohemia
–
The more extreme Hussites became known as
Taborites, after the city of
Tábor that became their center.
Bohemia
–
Bohemia as the heart of
Europa regina, 1570
25.
Waldheim, Saxony
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Waldheim is a town in Mittelsachsen district, in Saxony, Germany. It is situated in the valley of the Zschopau River,9 km southwest of Döbeln, Waldheim station is a stop on the Riesa–Chemnitz railway, served by Regionalbahn trains of Deutsche Bahn and the private Vogtlandbahn railway company. Waldheim in the Margraviate of Meissen was first mentioned in 1198, Waldheim Castle first appeared in a 1271 deed, the surrounding settlement received town privileges in 1286. The castle was turned into a Augustinian monastery in 1404, the population turned Protestant in 1537. In 1588 Waldheim Castle was again rebuilt as a lodge by Elector Christian I of Saxony. In 1716 Augustus II the Strong inaugurated a penitentiary, almshouse and orphanage in the castle, the later author Karl May served a sentence here from 1870 to 1874. Among the inmates were several resistance fighters like Eva Schulze-Knabe, who was convicted by the Peoples Court in 1942 and freed at the end of World War II
Waldheim, Saxony
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Town center
Waldheim, Saxony
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Zschopau River
Waldheim, Saxony
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Waldheim Prison
Waldheim, Saxony
–
Town hall
26.
Catholic Catechist
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The role of a Catholic catechist is to catechize the Faith of the Catholic Church by both word and example. To catechize means to teach, more specifically, to teach by word of mouth, prior to the Second Vatican Council, the chief catechists at the parish level were priests, religious brothers or nuns. Since the late 20th century, particularly in Europe and the Americas, in addition to activities in the parish, catechizing also takes place in Catholic schools through more formal classes as part of the curriculum. Catechists are often deployed to teach candidates who are preparing for the sacraments of Reconciliation, First Holy Communion, Confirmation, various age-appropriate religious education texts and materials are used for instruction in addition to the Catechism of the Catholic Church. In the priests absence, the parish catechist takes on the role of being the teacher of the faith in that parish. As such they are afforded a place of honor within their parish community. In this regard the West has less experience than younger centers of the Church in the selection, formation, oversight, the General Instruction of the Roman Missal allows for institution of catechists should a particular Bishops Conference feel that it is required. This document was intended only for catechists at work in the missionary territories of the Church. It also made a specific distinction between the catechists working in these areas and catechists at work in older Churches such as in the West. The Year of Faith began on 11 October 2012, the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Council and it was scheduled to end on 24 November 2013, the Solemnity of our Lord Jesus Christ, Universal King. This Note made the following recommendations in relation to catechsists,2 and it would be desirable that each Diocese in the world organize a study day on the Catechism of the Catholic Church, particularly for its priests, consecrated persons and catechists. General Directory for Catechesis Commentary on the General Directory for Catechesis The Marian Catechist Apostolate
Catholic Catechist
–
History
27.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
Dresden
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Clockwise: Dresden at night,
Dresden Frauenkirche,
Schloss Pillnitz,
Dresden Castle and
Zwinger.
Dresden
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The
Fürstenzug —the Saxon sovereigns depicted in
Meissen porcelain
Dresden
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Dresden in 1521
Dresden
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Image of Dresden during the 1890s, before extensive World War II destruction. Landmarks include
Dresden Frauenkirche,
Augustus Bridge, and
Katholische Hofkirche.
28.
Freelancer
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A freelancer or freelance worker is a term commonly used for a person who is self-employed and is not necessarily committed to a particular employer long-term. 20% of freelancers listed their primary skills as design, next on the list was translating, web development, and marketing. Elance, a web platform that connects freelancers with contractors, surveyed its members, depending on the industry, freelance work practices vary and have changed over time. In some industries such as consulting, freelancers may require clients to sign written contracts, while in journalism or writing, freelancers may work for free or do work on spec to build their reputations or a relationship with a publication. Some freelancers may provide written estimates of work and request deposits from clients, payment for freelance work also depends on industry, skills, and experience. Freelancers may charge by the day, hour, a piece rate, instead of a flat rate or fee, some freelancers have adopted a value-based pricing method based on the perceived value of the results to the client. By custom, payment arrangements may be upfront, percentage upfront, for more complex projects, a contract may set a payment schedule based on milestones or outcomes. One of the drawbacks of freelancing is that there is no guaranteed payment, in writing and other artistic fields, freelance and its derivative terms are often reserved for workers who create works on their own initiative and then seek a publisher. They typically retain the copyright to their works and sell the rights to publishers in time-limited contracts, traditionally, works would be submitted to publishers, where they would become part of the slushpile, and would either elicit an offer to buy or a rejection slip. People who create intellectual property under a work for hire situation are sometimes referred to as independent contractors or other similar terms. Creators give up their rights to their works in a made for hire situation. The protection of the property rights that give the creator of the work are considered to have been sold into a work for hire agreement. Of employees, however in a rather than employment relationship. The total number of freelancers in USA is inexact, as the most recent governmental report on independent contractors was published in 2005 by the U. S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics. At that time, there were approximately 10.3 million United States workers employed as independent contractors of all sorts, in 2011, Jeffrey Eisenach, an economist at George Mason University, estimated that number of freelancers had grown by one million. The total number of freelancers in UK is also inexact, however and it has been estimated that there are approximately 1.7 million freelancers in the UK, however. Freelancing is a form of work. The 2012 Freelance Industry Report estimates that more than 71% of freelancers are women between the ages of 30 and 50, surveys of other specific areas of freelancing have similar trends
Freelancer
–
Traditional Freelance Work System
29.
Colportage
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Colportage is the distribution of publications, books, and religious tracts by carriers called colporteurs. The term does not necessarily refer to religious book peddling, from French colportage, where the term is an alteration of comporter, to peddle, as a portmanteau or pun with the word col, with the resulting meaning to carry on ones neck. Porter is from Latin portare, to carry, Colportage became common in Europe with the distribution of contending religious tracts and books during the religious controversies of the Reformation. He colporters have visited 341,071 families, in Christ in the Camp, or, Religion in Lees Army, Dr. John William Jones refers to the chaplains carrying bibles and tracts during the American Civil War as colporteurs. In addition to preaching, distributing literature was a large part of the work of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. The American Bible Society and the American Tract Society were among the largest organizations involved in colportage in the United States, Moody founded the Bible Institute Colportage Association in 1894 to distribute tracts and books. Now known as Moody Publishers, they continue to publish religious materials with proceeds supporting the Moody Bible Institute, the Seventh-day Adventist Church calls their book distributors literature evangelists, but until about 1980, the term colporteur was used to describe SDA literature evangelists. Jehovahs Witnesses who were active in the ministry were called colporteurs until 1931. Today, those participating in the ministry are called pioneers. Moody founded the Bible Institute Colportage Association in 1894 to provide a source for inexpensive Christian literature, Moodys son-in-law, A. P. Fitt, managed BICA operations. Publishing was contracted to Moodys brother-in-law, Fleming Revell, and his publishing company. In 1895 the Colportage Library began the publication at regular intervals of books which met five specific criteria,1, well known authors or books of existing reputation,3. Strictly evangelical and nondenominational works,4, volume 1, Number 1, All of Grace, by C. H. Spurgeon, issued March 15,1895 and sold for 10 cents directly from a colporter. Library subscription price, $2.25 per annum, postpaid, single numbers 15 cents each, in 1906 the Institute reported, “he volume of business transacted was $76,855.33 as compared with $49,484.23 in 1905. The sale of Colportage Library books was 192,308 copies as compared with 192,490 copies in 1905, the vitality of this series is shown by the constant demand for even the earliest numbers, there being 196,509 reprints in all during 1906. 236,877 copies of the Emphasized Gospel of John were published during 1906, retail mail order business amounted to $10,839.50 as compared with $8,221.11 in 1905. 100 colporters at work at any one time, fifteen regular employees at Associations headquarters in Chicago. Twenty-two depots of supply for the Associations colporters in the United States, foreign language editions included German, Danish-Norwegian, Swedish, Spanish, Italian and Bohemian publications, with requests for translations in Polish, Dutch, French, and other languages
Colportage
–
Colporter during 19th century
30.
Pustet
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Pustet is a long-established German publishing firm. The original home of the Pustets was the Republic of Venice, to him and his wife Anna was born on 25 March 1798, a son, Friedrich Pustet. Having learned bookbinding under his father, Friedrich started a small book-store in Passau in 1819 and this business developed, and in 1826 he was able to transfer his publishing business to Ratisbon. Establishing business relations with prominent Catholic authors, he extended the range of his publications to all branches of literature, men like Dr. Witt, Dr. Haberl, Haller, later supported this department. The sons continued the expansion of the business, Friedrich chose for his department liturgical publications, Karl German works, and Klemens the paper factory. The success of Friedrich earned for him in 1870 the title Typographus S. R. Congregationis, branch firms were established in New York, Cincinnati, Ohio, and Rome. Friedrich died on 4 August 1902, Klemens had died before him, and Karls death followed on 17 January 1910. Karl, who was a Privy Counsellor of Commerce, expanded the German publications, amongst those were the Regensburger Marienkalender and the family magazine. The next generation of the Pustet firm were Friedrich Pustet, son of Friedrich, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pustet. The entry cites, Denk, Friedrich Pustet, Vater u. Sohn
Pustet
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Missale Romanum 18th edition, 1915
