1.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
2.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
3.
Pickering, Ontario
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Pickering is a city located in Southern Ontario, Canada, immediately east of Toronto in Durham Region. It was settled by primarily ethnic British colonists, starting in the 1770s, most of its growth has come since the end of World War II, and it has received immigrants from around the globe. This was Aboriginal territory for thousands of years, the Wyandot, who spoke an Iroquoian language, were the historic people living here in the 15th century. Archeological remains of a village have been found here, known as the Draper Site. Later, the Wyandot moved northwest to Georgian Bay, where they established their historic homeland, there they encountered French explorers in the early 17th century, followed by missionaries and fur traders. The Onondaga were among the Five Tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy, the British took over Canada following defeat of the French in the Seven Years War, known in the North American front as the French and Indian War. They likely completed survey of the township about 1776, British colonial settlers were steadily migrating into the area from areas of Canada. The town was named after Pickering, North Yorkshire, in the 1813 census, Pickering had 180 residents —40 more than neighbouring Scarborough. A large influx of Quaker immigrants from the eastern United States arrived in the early 1810s, the main thoroughfare at this time was the Kingston Road, which cut through the south of the township on its way from York east to Kingston. Pickering was represented in the Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837, one of the leaders, Peter Matthews, had formerly been one of the most prominent members of the community. In 1941, the portion of the township became the independent town of Ajax. Ontario County, Ontario became Durham Region in 1974, and some of the lines were modified. As a result, one of the centres of the original township, Pickering Village, became part of Ajax. Pickering has planned a downtown intensification program which includes new condominium developments around the Pickering GO station, Toronto, Markham, and Rouge Park border Pickering on the west, Ajax borders Pickering on the east, and Lake Ontario forms Pickerings southern boundary. Pickering has experienced growth in the post-war period in the second half of the twentieth century. Torontos continuing growth led to people moving into Pickering. Between 1996 and 2001, the municipality experienced a growth rate of 10.3 percent, population growth has slowed considerably in recent years, growing only slightly between the 2001 and 2011 census. The low population growth is due to the citys development restrictions on land in the northern portion of its area
4.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
5.
Economic sociology
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Economic sociology is the study of the social cause and effect of various economic phenomena. The field can be divided into a classical period and a contemporary one. The classical period was concerned particularly with modernity and its constituent aspects which are rationalisation, secularisation, urbanisation, social stratification, as sociology arose primarily as a reaction to capitalist modernity, economics played a role in much classic sociological inquiry. The specific term economic sociology was first coined by William Stanley Jevons in 1879, later to be used in the works of Émile Durkheim, Max Weber and Georg Simmel between 1890 and 1920. The relationship between capitalism and modernity is a salient issue, perhaps best demonstrated in Webers The Protestant Ethic, Economic sociology may be said to have begun with Tocquevilles Democracy in America and The Old Regime and the Revolution. Marxs historical materialism would attempt to demonstrate how economic forces influence the structure of society on a fundamental level, Émile Durkheims The Division of Labour in Society was published in 1922, whilst Max Webers Economy and Society was released in the same year. Contemporary economic sociology focuses particularly on the consequences of economic exchanges, the social meanings they involve. To this may be added Amitai Etzioni, who has developed the idea of socioeconomics, the focus on mathematical analysis and utility maximisation during the 20th century has led some to see economics as a discipline moving away from its roots in the social sciences. Many critiques of economics or economic policy begin from the accusation that abstract modelling is missing some key social phenomenon that needs to be addressed, Economic sociology is an attempt by sociologists to redefine in sociological terms questions traditionally addressed by economists. The concept of embeddedness serves sociologists who study technological developments, mark Granovetter and Patrick McGuire mapped the social networks which determined the economics of the electrical industry in the United States. Ronen Shamir analyzed how electrification in Mandatory Palestine facilitated the creation of an ethnic-based dual-economy, polanyis form of market skepticism, however, has been criticized for intensifying rather than limiting the economization of society. These works elaborated the concept of embeddedness, which states that relations between individuals or firms take place within existing social relations. Social network analysis has been the primary methodology for studying this phenomenon, granovetters theory of the strength of weak ties and Ronald Burts concept of structural holes are two best known theoretical contributions of this field. Modern Marxist thought has focused on the implications of capitalism. Economic sociology is sometimes synonymous with socioeconomics, at the turn of the 20th century, ethnic whites tended to migrate to urban enclaves on the East Coast and parts of the Midwest. Mexican immigrants settled along South-west border, Chinese immigrants, prior to the Chinese exclusion act, moved and settled along the Pacific states. The regulation of immigrants ebbed and flowed according to demands of the labor market. Examples include availability of work, railroad building, and steel production or lack of home countrys ability to provide adequate career opportunities
6.
Economic history
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Economic history is the study of economies or economic phenomena of the past. Analysis in economic history is using a combination of historical methods, statistical methods. The topic includes financial and business history and overlaps with areas of history such as demographic. The quantitative – in this case, econometric – study of history is also known as cliometrics. In Germany in the late 19th century, scholars in a number of universities, led by Gustav von Schmoller and it ignored quantitative and mathematical approaches. Historical approach dominated German and French scholarship for most of the 20th century, the approach was spread to Great Britain by William Ashley, 1860-1927, and dominated British economic history for much of the 20th century. In France, economic history was influenced by the Annales School from the early 20th century to the present. It exerts an influence through its Journal Annales. Treating economic history as an academic discipline has been a contentious issue for many years. Academics at the London School of Economics and the University of Cambridge had numerous disputes over the separation of economics, Cambridge economists believed that pure economics involved a component of economic history and that the two were inseparably entangled. Those at the LSE believed that economic history warranted its own courses, research agenda, in the initial period of the subjects development, the LSE position of separating economic history from economics won out. Many universities in the UK developed independent programmes in economic history rooted in the LSE model, indeed, the Economic History Society had its inauguration at LSE in 1926 and the University of Cambridge eventually established its own economic history programme. However, the past twenty years have witnessed the widespread closure of these programmes in the UK. Only the LSE retains a separate economic history department and stand-alone undergraduate and graduate programme in economic history, Cambridge, Glasgow, the LSE and Oxford together train the vast majority of economic historians coming through the British higher education system today. Meanwhile, in the US, the field of history has in recent decades been largely subsumed into other fields of economics and is seen as a form of applied economics. As a consequence, there are no specialist economic history graduate programs at any universities anywhere in the country, the former study revolves around events, or facts, the latter, around tendencies. The former is primarily economic history, the latter is primarily economic science, both sorts of studies are proper and important. US economic historian Charles P. Kindleberger explained this position in his 1990 book Historical Economics, the new economic history, also known as cliometrics, refers to the systematic use of economic theory and/or econometric techniques to the study of economic history
7.
Economic anthropology
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Economic anthropology is a field that attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It is practiced by anthropologists and has a relationship with the discipline of economics. For the most part, studies in economic anthropology focus on exchange, in contrast, the Marxian school known as political economy focuses on production. Post-World War II, economic anthropology was influenced by the work of economic historian Karl Polanyi. Polanyi drew on anthropological studies to argue that true market exchange was limited to a number of western. Applying formal economic theory to non-industrial societies was mistaken, he argued, in non-industrial societies, exchange was embedded in such non-market institutions as kinship, religion, and politics. The Formalist vs Substantivist debate was highly influential and defined an era, neo-substantivists examine the ways in which so-called pure market exchange in market societies fails to fit market ideology. Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists and they now study the operations of corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective. Malinowski carefully traced the network of exchanges of bracelets and necklaces across the Trobriand Islands and he stated that this exchange system was clearly linked to political authority. In the 1920s and later, Malinowskis study became the subject of debate with the French anthropologist, Marcel Mauss, malinowski emphasised the exchange of goods between individuals, and their non-altruistic motives for giving, they expected a return of equal or greater value. In other words, reciprocity is an part of gifting. Mauss, in contrast, has emphasized that the gifts were not between individuals, but between representatives of larger collectivities and these gifts were, he argued, a total prestation. Given the stakes, Mauss asked why anyone would give them away and his answer was an enigmatic concept, hau, the spirit of the gift. A good part of the confusion was due to a bad translation, Mauss appeared to be arguing that a return gift is given to keep the very relationship between givers alive, a failure to return a gift ends the relationship and the promise of any future gifts. Mauss concept of total prestations has been developed in the later 20th century by Annette Weiner, malinowski missed this and ignored womens exchanges in his study. Secondly, Weiner has developed Mauss argument about reciprocity and the spirit of the gift in terms of inalienable possessions, Weiner contrasts moveable goods, which can be exchanged, with immoveable goods, which serve to draw the gifts back. She argues that the specific goods given, such as Crown Jewels, are so identified with groups that, even when given. Not all societies, however, have these kinds of goods, French anthropologist Maurice Godelier pushed the analysis further in The Enigma of the Gift
8.
Historical school of economics
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The historical school of economics was an approach to academic economics and to public administration that emerged in the 19th century in Germany, and held sway there until well into the 20th century. The professors involved compiled massive economic histories of Germany and Europe, the school was opposed by theoretical economists. Prominent leaders included Gustav von Schmoller, and Max Weber in Germany, the school rejected the universal validity of economic theorems. They saw economics as resulting from careful empirical and historical analysis instead of from logic, the school also preferred reality, historical, political, and social, as well as economic, to mathematical modelling. Most members of the school were also Sozialpolitiker, i. e. concerned with social reform and they were more disparagingly referred to as Kathedersozialisten, rendered in English as socialists of the chair, due to their positions as professors. The historical school was involved in the Methodenstreit with the Austrian school, whose orientation was more theoretical, the historical school had a significant impact on Britain, 1860s–1930s. Thorold Rogers was the Tooke Professor of Statistics and Economic Science at Kings College London and he is best known for compiling the monumental A History of Agriculture and Prices in England from 1259 to 1793, which is still useful to scholars. William Ashley introduced British scholars to the school as developed in Germany. In the United States the school influenced the economists, such as Thorstein Veblen. More importantly, numerous aspiring economists undertook graduate studies at German universities, including John Bates Clark, Richard T. Ely, Jeremiah Jenks, Simon Patten, canadian scholars influenced by the school were led by Harold Innis at Toronto. The staple thesis dominated economic history in Canada 1930s–1960s, and is used by some. After 1930 the historical school declined or disappeared in most economics departments and it lingered in history departments and business schools. The major influence in the 1930s and 1940s was Joseph Schumpeter with his dynamic, change-oriented, alfred D. Chandler, Jr. had a major impact on approaching business issues through historical studies. This school heavily critiqued the deductive approach of the classical economists and this school revered the inductive process and called for the merging of historical fact with those of the present period. Included in this school are, William Whewell, Richard Jones, Walter Bagehot, Thorold Rogers, Arnold Toynbee, German Historism Institutional economics, a related school developed in the United States German Historical School of Law Productivity improving technologies Avtonomov, Vladimir, and Georgy Gloveli. The influence of the German Historical School on economic theory and economic thought in Russia, the German Historical School and European Economic Thought, 185+. The encyclopedia of social reform, including economy, political science, sociology. Backhaus, Jürgen G. ed. Gustav Schmoller and the Problems of Today, backhaus, Jürgen G. ed. Essays in Social Security and Taxation
9.
Robert Owen
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Robert Owen was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement. He worked in the industry in Manchester before setting up a large mill at New Lanark in Scotland. In 1824, Owen travelled to America to invest the bulk of his fortune in an experimental 1, 000-member colony on the banks of Indianas Wabash River, New Harmony was intended to be a Utopian society. Robert Owen was born in Newtown a small town in Montgomeryshire, Mid Wales. He was the sixth of seven children and his father, also named Robert Owen, had a small business as a saddler and ironmonger. Owens mother came from a farming family called Williams. There Owen received almost all his education, which ended at the age of ten. In 1787, after serving in a shop for some years. He moved to Manchester, and was employed at Satterfields Drapery in St Anns Square, with money borrowed from his brother he set up a workshop making spinning mules but exchanged the business for 6 spinning mules, which he operated in a rented space. His entrepreneurial spirit, management skill and progressive moral views were emerging by the early 1790s, in 1793, he was elected as a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, where the ideas of reformers and philosophers of the Enlightenment were discussed. During a visit to Scotland, Owen fell in love with Caroline Dale, Owen convinced his partners to buy New Lanark, and after his marriage to Caroline in September 1799, he made his home there. He was a manager and part-owner of the mills, encouraged by his success in the management of cotton mills in Manchester, he hoped to conduct New Lanark on higher principles than purely commercial ones. The mill of New Lanark had been started in 1785 by David Dale, the water power provided by the falls of the River Clyde made it a great attraction. About 2,000 people had associations with the mills,500 of whom were brought at the age of five or six from the poorhouses and charities of Edinburgh. The children were treated by Dale, but the general condition of the people was unsatisfactory. Many of the workers were in the lowest levels of the population, theft, drunkenness, and other vices were common, education and sanitation were neglected, the respectable country people refused to submit to the long hours and demoralising drudgery of the mills. Many employers operated the system, and paid workers in part or totally by tokens. These tokens had no value outside the mill owners truck shop, the owners could supply shoddy goods to the truck shop and charge top prices
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