1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
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The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
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Flag
Germany
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Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
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Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
3.
States of Germany
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Germany is a federal republic consisting of sixteen federal states. Since todays Germany was formed from a collection of several states, it has a federal constitution. The remaining 13 states are called Flächenländer, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 was through the unification of the western states created in the aftermath of World War II. West Berlin, while not part of the Federal Republic, was largely integrated and considered as a de facto state. In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, in 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as the Saarland. Federalism is one of the constitutional principles of Germany. After 1945, new states were constituted in all four zones of occupation, in 1949, the states in the three western zones formed the Federal Republic of Germany. This is in contrast to the development in Austria, where the Bund was constituted first. The use of the term Länder dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, before this time, the constituent states of the German Empire were called Staaten. Today, it is common to use the term Bundesland. However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law of 1949, three Länder call themselves Freistaaten, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia. He summarizes the arguments for boundary reform in Germany. The German system of dual federalism requires strong Länder that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation, too many Länder also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated. But several proposals have failed so far, territorial reform remains a topic in German politics. Federalism has a tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states numbering more than 300 around 1796, the number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars. After the Congress of Vienna,39 states formed the German Confederation, the new German Empire included 25 states and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The empire was dominated by Prussia, which controlled 65% of the territory, after the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation
States of Germany
4.
Regierungsbezirk
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Regierungsbezirk is an administrative region at federal state level in Germany. The regional authority is called a Regierungspräsidium or Bezirksregierung and is headed by a Regierungspräsident, the Regierungsbezirke do not pass any legislation. Within the federal authority, they act as a mid-level agency. Regierungsbezirk is variously translated as district, administrative district or province. By German unification in 1871, the concept of Regierungsbezirke had been adopted by most States of the German Empire, the Regierungsbezirke of North Rhine-Westphalia are in direct continuation of those created in the Prussian Rhine and Westphalia provinces in 1816. Similar entities in other states were initially named Kreishauptmannschaft or Kreis or province in Hesse, in Nazi Germany the naming was unified to Regierungsbezirk. Currently, only four large-area states out of 16 in total are divided into Regierungsbezirke, on 1 January 2004, Saxony-Anhalt disbanded its three Regierungsbezirke, Dessau, Halle and Magdeburg. The responsibilities are now covered by a Landesverwaltungsamt with three offices at the seats of the Bezirksregierungen. On 1 January 2005, Lower Saxony disbanded its remaining four Regierungsbezirke, Brunswick, Hanover, Lüneburg, on 1 August 2008, Saxony restructured its districts and changed the name of its Regierungsbezirke to Direktionsbezirke. This was necessary because one of the new districts did not fit with the borders of the old Regierungsbezirke, the Direktionsbezirke are still named Chemnitz, Dresden and Leipzig. As of 1 March 2012, the Direktionsbezirke were merged into one Landesdirektion, four of the new federal states re-established in 1990, Berlin, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Thuringia, decided not to implement Regierungsbezirke. In Bremen, Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Saarland they never existed, stettin, dissolved in 1945, Province of Pomerania Media related to Regierungsbezirk at Wikimedia Commons
Regierungsbezirk
–
Regierungsbezirke as from 1 August 2008. The map also shows the former RBs of
Lower Saxony, Rhineland-Palatinate,
Saxony-Anhalt and
Saxony
5.
Districts of Germany
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A German district is an administrative subdivision known as Landkreis, except in the states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein where it is known simply as Kreis. Most major cities in Germany are not part of a rural district, in this context, those cities are referred to as Kreisfreie Stadt or Stadtkreis. Rural districts are at a level of administration between the German states and the municipal governments. They correspond to level 3 administrative units of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, previously, the similar title Reichskreis was given to groups of states in the Holy Roman Empire. The related term Landeskommissariat was used for administrative divisions in some German territories until the 19th century. The majority of German districts are rural districts of which there are 295, cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants do not usually belong to a district, but take over district responsibilities themselves, similar to the concept of independent cities. These are known as urban districts —cities which constitute a district in their own there are currently 107 of them. As of 2011, approximately 25 million people live in these 107 urban districts, in North Rhine-Westphalia, there are some cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants which are not urban districts, for example Recklinghausen, Siegen, Paderborn, Bergisch Gladbach, Neuss and Moers. Nevertheless, these cities take over many district responsibilities themselves, although they are part of a larger rural district. Midsize towns can perform particular administrative functions of the district as well, the classification as midsize town is usually based on a towns registered population, but varies from state to state. Aachen, Hanover and Göttingen retain certain rights of an urban district, urban districts have these responsibilities and also those of the municipalities. The district council is the highest institution of a district and is responsible for all fundamental guidelines of regional self-administration. This council is elected every five years, except in Bavaria where it is elected every six years. Usually the administrative seat of a district is located in one of its largest towns. However, district council and administrative seat of rural districts are not situated within the district proper. Most of those districts are named after this central city as well. Moers is the biggest city in Germany that is neither an urban district, in parts of northern Germany, Landrat is also the name of the entire district administration, which in southern Germany is known as Kreisverwaltung or Landratsamt. In urban districts similar administrative functions are performed by a mayor, rural districts in some German states have an additional administrative commission called Kreisausschuss
Districts of Germany
–
Administrative divisions of Germany
6.
Lord Mayor
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The lord mayor is the title of the mayor of a major city in the United Kingdom or Commonwealth realm, with special recognition bestowed by the sovereign. In Australia, Lord Mayor is a status granted by the monarch to mayors of major cities. Australian cities with lord mayors, Adelaide, Brisbane, Darwin, Hobart, Melbourne, Newcastle, Parramatta, Perth, Sydney, see list of cities in Australia. In Canada, the town with a lord mayor in the traditional sense is Niagara-on-the-Lake. Unusually, the council of Brantford, Ontario has taken upon itself to appoint an honorary Lord Mayor Walter Gretzky in addition to the elected mayor. This is the example of a council granting the cachet itself, rather than the cachet being granted by a higher authority. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland it is a ceremonial post conferred by letters patent. See List of lord mayoralties and lord provostships in the United Kingdom, most famously referring to the Lord Mayor of London, who only has jurisdiction over the City of London, as opposed to the modern title of Mayor of London governing Greater London. In Uganda, the jurisdiction with a lord mayor is Kampala. In the Republic of Ireland, the posts of Lord Mayor of Dublin and Lord Mayor of Cork still exist, in Denmark, as the translation of Danish Overborgmester, it is the title of the highest mayor of Denmarks capital city, Copenhagen. In Germany, it is used to translate German Oberbürgermeister. As in Austria, Germanys mayors serve as the executive leaders of their cities and are elected officials. In Romania and Moldova, the mayors of the capitals are named Primar General which means General Mayor, the name is ceremonial and it has no higher powers than mayors of other cities. In Hungary, the mayor of the capital Budapest is called főpolgármester which means chief mayor or grand mayor, only the capital has a főpolgármester. Between 1873 and 1945, the Lord Mayor of Budapest was representative of the Hungarian government at the municipal authority. In ancient China, jīng zhào yĭn was the given to the mayor of capital city. In Estonia, the mayor of the capital, was named Lord Mayor from 1938 to 1940, in Czech Republic, the mayor of the capital Prague and so-called statutory cities is called Primátor. In Sweden, the titles of mayor and lord mayor have no direct equivalent since the 1970s, the executive leader of Swedish municipalities is one of sometimes several Kommunalråd in the function of Chair of the Municipal Board
Lord Mayor
–
Royal proclamation granting Lord Mayoralty to Oxford.
Lord Mayor
–
John Stuttard,
Lord Mayor of London during the 2006
Lord Mayor's Show
7.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
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The Social Democratic Party of Germany is a social-democratic political party in Germany. The party, led by Chairman Martin Schulz since 2017, has one of the two major contemporary political parties in Germany, along with the Christian Democratic Union. The SPD has governed at the level in Germany as part of a grand coalition with the CDU. The SPD participates in 14 state governments, nine of them governed by SPD Minister-Presidents, the SPD is a member of the Party of European Socialists and of the Socialist International, and became a founding member of the Progressive Alliance on 22 May 2013. Established in 1863, the SPD is the oldest extant political party represented in the German Parliament and was one of the first Marxist-influenced parties in the world. The General German Workers Association, founded in 1863, and the Social Democratic Workers Party, founded in 1869, merged in 1875, under the name Socialist Workers Party of Germany. From 1878 to 1890, any grouping or meeting that aimed at spreading socialist principles was banned under the Anti-Socialist Laws, in 1890, when the ban was lifted and it could again present electoral lists, the party adopted its current name. In the years leading up to World War I, the party remained ideologically radical in official principle, by 1912, the party claimed the most votes of any German party. Despite the agreement of the Second International to oppose the First World War, after 1918 the SPD played an important role in the political system of the Weimar Republic, although it took part in coalition governments only in few years. Adolf Hitler prohibited the party in 1933 under the Enabling Act – party officials were imprisoned, killed or went into exile, in exile, the party used the name Sopade. In the Soviet Zone of Occupation, the Soviets forced the Social Democrats to form a party with the Communists. In the Western zones, the Communist Party was later banned by West Germanys Federal Constitutional Court, since 1949, in the Federal Republic of Germany, the SPD has been one of the two major parties, with the other being the Christian Democratic Union. From 1969 to 1982 and 1998 to 2005 the Chancellors of Germany were Social Democrats whereas the other years the Chancellors were Christian Democrats, the SPD was established as a Marxist party in 1875. After World War II, under the leadership of Kurt Schumacher, the SPD re-established itself as a socialist party, representing the interests of the working class and the trade unions. With the Godesberg Program of 1959, however, the party evolved from a socialist working-class party to a modern social-democratic party working within capitalism. The current party platform of the SPD espouses the goal of social democracy, according to the party platform, freedom, justice, and social solidarity, form the basis of social democracy. The coordinated social market economy should be strengthened, and its output should be distributed fairly, the party sees that economic system as necessary in order to ensure the affluence of the entire population. The SPD also tries to protect the poor with a welfare state
Social Democratic Party of Germany
–
Sigmar Gabriel
Social Democratic Party of Germany
–
Social Democratic Party of Germany Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands
8.
Central European Summer Time
–
It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
Central European Summer Time
–
light blue
9.
List of postal codes in Germany
–
Postal codes in Germany, Postleitzahl, since 1 July 1993 consist of five digits. The first two digits indicate the area, the last three digits the postal district. Before reunification, both the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic used four-digit codes. Under a transitional arrangement following reunification, between 1989 and 1993 postal codes in the west were prefixed with W, e. g. W-100030 and those in the east with O, e. g. O-1xxx Berlin. City administrations and postal customers with high volumes, or Großkunden have their own postal codes. Postal regions do not necessarily follow state boundaries, so sorting by state is not practical, the postal regions and some postal codes are, The 5-digit postal codes were established on July 1,1993. All mail from, to and within this region is handled by the distribution center in Elmshorn
List of postal codes in Germany
–
German Postleitzahl map of the first two digits. The green lines mark state borders which do not correspond with postal code areas.
10.
List of dialling codes in Germany
–
Country Code, +49International Call Prefix, 00Trunk Prefix,0 Area codes in Germany have two to five digits, not counting the leading trunk access code 0. The leading 0 must be dialed when calling from within Germany, when calling via fixed networks within the same area, the area code is not required. In general, shorter area codes are assigned to larger cities, private telephone numbers are usually inversely long, those in larger cities have seven or eight digits, while those in smaller towns may have as few as three or four digits. 1 are special numbers such as phones, shared cost service. The former codes 0130 for free phone numbers and 0190 for premium-rate numbers are now moved to 0800 and 0900 to meet international standards,0700 is used for personal national phone numbers. Prefix 01 is used for numbers, and is not tied to a geographic area. After reunification, East Germany was merged into the existing German numbering plan, neugersdorf 03587035872 Neusalza-Spremberg 035873 Herrnhut 035874 Bernstadt a. d.037296 Stollberg/Erzgeb. 037297 Thum 037298 Oelsnitz 03731 Freiberg 03732037320 Mulda/Sa,037433 Gutenfürst 037434 Bobenneukirchen 037435 Reuth 037436 Weischlitz 037437 Bad Elster 037438 Bad Brambach 037439 Jocketa 03744 Auerbach/Vogtl. 03745 Falkenstein 03746037462 Rothenkirchen 037463 Bergen, Vogtlandkreis 037464 Schöneck/Vogtl,037465 Tannenbergsthal 037467 Klingenthal 037468 Treuen 0375 Zwickau 037603760037600 Neumark 037601 Mülsen St.04443 Dinklage 04444 Goldenstedt 04445 Visbek Kr. Vechta 04446 Bakum Kr. 08553 Spiegelau 08554 Schönberg 08555 Perlesreut 08556 Haidmühle 08557 Mauth 08558 Hohenau 085608561 Pfarrkirchen Niederbay,08562 Triftern 08563 Bad Birnbach Rottal 08564 Johanniskirchen 08565 Dietersburg-Baumgarten 085708571 Simbach am Inn 08572 Tann Niederbay. 08573 Ering 08574 Wittibreut 085808581 Waldkirchen Niederbay,08582 Röhrnbach 08583 Neureichenau 08584 Breitenberg 08585 Grainet 08586 Hauzenberg 085908591 Obernzell 08592 Wegscheid Niederbay. 09549 Lisberg 095509551 Burgwindheim 09552 Burghaslach 09553 Ebrach Oberfr,09704 Euerdorf 09708 Bad Bocklet 0971 Bad Kissingen 097209720 Üchtelhausen 09721 Schweinfurt 09722 Werneck 09723 Röthlein 09724 Stadtlauringen 09725 Poppenhausen Unterfr. 09726 Euerbach 09727 Schonungen-Marktsteinach 09728 Wülfershausen Unterfr,097609761 Bad Königshofen 09762 Saal a. d. Saale 09763 Sulzdorf a. d. d. Heide 09823 Leutershausen 09824 Dietenhofen 09825 Herrieden 09826 Weidenbach Mittelfr,09828 Rügland 09829 Flachslanden 098309831 Gunzenhausen 09832 Wassertrüdingen 09833 Heidenheim Mittelfr. 098609861 Rothenburg ob der Tauber 09865 Adelshofen 09867 Geslau 09868 Schillingsfürst 09869 Wettringen Mittelfr,098709871 Windsbach 09872 Heilsbronn 09873 Abenberg-Wassermungenau 09874 Neuendettelsau 09875 Wolframs-Eschenbach 09876 Rohr Mittelfr
List of dialling codes in Germany
–
Area code zones in Germany
11.
Vehicle registration plate
–
A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
Vehicle registration plate
–
Some
jurisdictions license non-traditional vehicles, such as
golf carts, particularly on on-road vehicles, such as this one in
Put-in-Bay, Ohio.
Vehicle registration plate
–
Burkina passenger plate
Vehicle registration plate
–
Burkina Faso Gendarmerie plate
Vehicle registration plate
–
Botswana plate
12.
Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
–
The Federal Constitutional Court is the supreme constitutional court for the Federal Republic of Germany, established by the constitution or Basic Law of Germany. The main task of the court is judicial review, and it may declare legislation unconstitutional, the courts jurisdiction is focused on constitutional issues and the compliance of all governmental institutions with the constitution. Article 20 Section 3 of the Basic Law stipulates that all three branches of the state are bound directly by the constitution, as a result, the court can rule acts of any branches unconstitutional, whether as formal violations or as material conflicts. The powers of the Federal Constitutional Court are defined in article 93 of the Grundgesetz and this constitutional norm is set out in a federal law, the Federal Constitutional Court Act, which also defines how decisions of the court on material conflicts are put into force. Although only a fraction of these are actually successful, several have resulted in major legislation being invalidated. The large majority of the courts procedures fall into category,135,968 such complaints were filed from 1957 to 2002. Abstract regulation control, Several political institutions, including the governments of the Bundesländer, a well-known example of this procedure was the 1975 abortion decision, which invalidated legislation intended to decriminalise abortion. Federal dispute, Federal institutions, including members of the Bundestag, state–federal dispute, The Länder may bring disputes over competences and procedures between the states and federal institutions before the court. Investigation committee control Federal election scrutiny, Violations of election laws may be brought before the court by political institution or any involved voter, prohibition of a political party, Only the Constitutional Court has the power to ban a political party in Germany. This has happened just twice, both times in the 1950s, the Socialist Reich Party, a group, was banned in 1952. Three judges objected to continuing which was sufficient as banning a party requires a two-thirds-majority, the court did not decide on the ban itself. Up to 2009, the Constitutional Court had struck down more than 600 laws as unconstitutional, the court consists of two senates, each of which has eight members, headed by a senate’s chairman. The members of each senate are allocated to three chambers for hearings in constitutional complaint and single regulation control cases, each chamber consists of three judges, so each senate chairman is at the same time a member of two chambers. Decisions by a senate require a majority, in some cases a two-thirds vote is required. Decisions by a chamber need to be unanimous, a chamber is not authorized to overrule a standing precedent of the senate to which it belongs, such issues need to be submitted to the senate as a whole. Similarly, a senate may not overrule a standing precedent of the other senate, unlike all other German courts, the court often publishes the vote count on its decisions and even allows its members to issue a dissenting opinion. This possibility, introduced only in 1971, is a deviation from German judicial tradition. One of the two senate chairmen is also the president of the court, the one being the vice-president
Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
–
Bundesverfassungsgericht
Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
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Temporary building of the Bundesverfassungsgericht
Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
–
50th Anniversary of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (last coin in Deutsche Mark denomination)
Federal Constitutional Court of Germany
–
First Senate 1989
13.
Federal Court of Justice of Germany
–
The Federal Court of Justice in Karlsruhe is the highest court in the system of ordinary jurisdiction in Germany. It is the court in all matters of criminal and private law. A decision handed down by the BGH can be reversed only by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany in rare cases when the Constitutional Court rules on constitutionality, as from 1870, in the time of the North German Confederation, there was the Bundesoberhandelsgericht in Leipzig. Later, in 1871, it was renamed to Reichsoberhandelsgericht and its area of responsibility was amplified as well and this court was unsoldered by the Reichsgericht at October 1,1879, which was also in Leipzig. On 1 October 1950, five years after the German Reich had collapsed, the general function of the Federal Court of Justice is to save the uniformity of the jurisdiction on the one side, and to do law-development on the other side. So usually it just reconsiders the legal assessment of a case as a court of last resort, in some special cases they also reconsider first-instance decrees of the local courts and the regional courts. Here it can decide that an application for revision is improper —then the application gets discarded— or that it is valid – then it has to decide about the case. In the criminal law it has to decide about applications for revision against first-instance decrees of the regional courts, here it has to decide whether an application is blatantly reasonless or whether it is blatantly reasonable in support of the defendant. In both of these cases it can decide without a main trial, in any other case, it has to decide about the legal remedy after a main trial. This is to save the homogeneity of the jurisdiction, since 2000, the judgments of the Federal Court of Justice have been published on the official court website. Once a judge has been chosen by committee, he or she is appointed by the President of Germany. Only individuals who possess German citizenship within the meaning of Art and this admission is the only special admission within the German court system, in that an attorney at the Federal Court of Justice for civil cases cannot appear in any other court in the country. Admission at the Bundesgerichtshof is highly selective, as of May 2015 there are only 46 attorneys so admitted, candidates for admission are nominated by an electoral committee and are then chosen and appointed by the Federal Ministry of Justice. The requirement for a representative specifically admitted to the Federal Court of Justice does not apply in criminal cases, here, representation by any lawyer admitted to the Bar in Germany suffices. Meyers Großes Taschenlexikon in 24 Bänden, Karlsruhe, Leipzig, Federal Court of Justice of Germany
Federal Court of Justice of Germany
–
Seat of the Federal Court of Justice in
Karlsruhe
14.
Karlsruhe Palace
–
Karlsruhe Palace was erected in 1715 by Margrave Charles III William of Baden-Durlach, after a dispute with the citizens of his previous capital, Durlach. The city of Karlsruhe has since grown around it and it is now home to the main museum of the Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe. The first building was constructed by Jakob Friedrich von Batzendorf, originally partially made of wood, the palace had to be rebuilt in 1746, using stone. In 1785, Wilhelm Jeremias Müller shortened the tower, adding a cupola, during the Revolutions of 1848, Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden was expelled in 1849 for some time. In 1918, the last monarch Frederick II, Grand Duke of Baden had to move out, the former residence of the Rulers of Baden is since used as Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe. Much of the city centre, including the palace, was reduced to rubble by Allied bombing during World War II but was rebuilt after the war. Badisches Landesmuseum Karlsruhe City wiki about Karlsruhe Palace
Karlsruhe Palace
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Aerial overview
Karlsruhe Palace
–
Panorama of Karlsruhe from the tower of the palace, looking south. The University is at left, the Marketplace at centre, Federal Constitutional Court at right. Note wings of palace aligning with streets, all radiating out from centre of town (i.e. the palace tower).
Karlsruhe Palace
–
180 degrees panorama from atop the tower, facing north.
Karlsruhe Palace
–
Schlossgarten
15.
49th parallel north
–
The 49th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 49 degrees north of the Earths equatorial plane. It crosses Europe, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, North America, the city of Paris is about 15 km south of the 49th parallel and is the largest city between the 48th and 49th parallels. Its main airport, Charles de Gaulle Airport, lies on the parallel. S, side, more specifically from the Strait of Georgia to the Lake of the Woods. Slightly less than 1/8 of the Earths surface is north of the 49th parallel, starting at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the parallel 49° north passes through, The Peace Arch is a large monument between Surrey, British Columbia, and Blaine, Washington. It is the centerpiece of Peace Arch Park and it has as its focal point the Peace Tower. The Stadtgarten in Karlsruhe, Germany, marks the 49th parallel with a stone, however, it is often difficult to precisely determine the location of a watershed in a region of level plains, such as in central North America. Both sides gained and lost some territory by this convention, but the United States gained more than it lost, a geographical oversight at the Lake of the Woods resulted in the creation of the Northwest Angle. Their power was ceded by conquest and treaty during the several decades that followed. Among these peoples, the 49th parallel was nicknamed the Medicine Line because of its seemingly magical ability to prevent U. S. soldiers from crossing it. In the 1844 U. S. presidential election, the Democratic Party asserted that the border of the Oregon Territory should be 54°40′. However, the Oregon boundary dispute was settled diplomatically in the 1846 Oregon Treaty and this had the side effect of isolating Point Roberts, Washington. S. The three Maritime provinces are entirely south of the parallel, but the vast majority of Canadian territory lies north of it. The surveys were subject to the limitations of early to mid-19th century technology, however, in some places the surveyed 49th parallel is several hundred feet from the geographical 49th parallel for the currently adopted datum, the North American Datum of 1983. The Digital Chart of the World, which uses the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid, reports the border on average at latitude 48° 59′ 51″ north and it ranges between 48° 59′ 25″ and 49° 0′ 10″ north,810 metres and 590 metres on either side of the average. In any case, the Earths North Pole moves around slightly, notionally moving the 49th and other parallels with it, the Northwest Angle is the only part of the contiguous 48 states that goes north of the 49th parallel. This was due to a map that showed the source of the Mississippi River as being north of the 49th parallel. At the time that the United States and Great Britain agreed on the 49th parallel as the boundary, after the boundary was established, British surveyors discovered that Point Roberts lay south of the 49th parallel. The British requested that the United States cede the territory to Great Britain, in 1909 the United States, United Kingdom and Canada signed and ratified a treaty confirming the original survey lines as the official and permanent international border
49th parallel north
–
The
Peace Arch border
49th parallel north
–
49th parallel at
Waterton Lake, showing the cleared strip of land along the U.S./Canadian border.
49th parallel north
–
A typical boundary marker, one of many along the 49th parallel. This one divides
Blaine, Washington from
Surrey, British Columbia.
16.
Rhine
–
The largest city on the river Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe, at about 1,230 km, with an average discharge of about 2,900 m3/s. The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the inland frontier of the Roman Empire and, since those days. The many castles and fortifications along the Rhine testify to its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire, in the modern era, it has become a symbol of German nationalism. The variant of the name of the Rhine in modern languages are all derived from the Gaulish name Rēnos, spanish is with French in adopting the Germanic vocalism Rin-, while Italian, Occitan and Portuguese retain the Latin Ren-. The Gaulish name Rēnos belongs to a class of river names built from the PIE root *rei- to move, flow, run, the grammatical gender of the Celtic name is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch and French. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine, the length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in Rhine-kilometers, a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the Old Rhine Bridge at Constance to Hoek van Holland. The river length is shortened from the rivers natural course due to a number of canalisation projects completed in the 19th and 20th century. The total length of the Rhine, to the inclusion of Lake Constance and its course is conventionally divided as follows, The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the confluence of the Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein near Tamins-Reichenau. Above this point is the catchment of the headwaters of the Rhine. It belongs almost exclusively to the Swiss Canton of Graubünden, ranging from Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino, traditionally, Lake Toma near the Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Vorderrhein and the Rhine as a whole. The Hinterrhein rises in the Rheinwald valley below Mount Rheinwaldhorn, the Vorderrhein, or Anterior Rhine, springs from Lai da Tuma, near the Oberalp Pass and passes the impressive Ruinaulta formed by the largest visible rock slide in the alps, the Flims Rockslide. A multiday trekking route is signposted along the young Rhine called Senda Sursilvana, the Hinterrhein/Rein Posteriur, or Posterior Rhine, starts from the Paradies Glacier, near the Rheinwaldhorn. One of its tributaries, the Reno di Lei, drains the Valle di Lei on politically Italian territory, after three main valleys separated by the two gorges, Roflaschlucht and Viamala, it reaches Reichenau. The Vorderrhein arises from numerous source streams in the upper Surselva, one source is Lai da Tuma with the Rein da Tuma, which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it. Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the Reno di Medel, the Rein da Maighels, and the Rein da Curnera. The Cadlimo Valley in the Canton of Ticino is drained by the Reno di Medel, all streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants. In its lower course the Vorderrhein flows through a gorge named Ruinaulta through the Flims Rockslide, the whole stretch of the Vorderrhein to the Rhine confluence near Reichenau-Tamins is accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called Senda Sursilvana
Rhine
–
Lorelei rock in
Rhineland-Palatinate
Rhine
–
Map of the Rhine basin
Rhine
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The Rein da Tuma is captured in the center of the picture and led into the
Curnera Reservoir
Rhine
–
The outflow from
Lake Toma is traditionally seen as the source of the Rhine
17.
Upper Rhine Plain
–
Its southern section straddles the border between France and Germany. It forms part of the European Cenozoic Rift System, which extends across central Europe, the Upper Rhine Graben formed during the Oligocene as a response to the evolution of the Alps to the south and remains active to the present day. Today, the Rhine Rift Valley forms a downfaulted trough through which the River Rhine flows, the Upper Rhine Plain was formed during the Early Cenozoic era, during the Late Eocene epoch. At this time, the Alpine Orogeny, the mountain building event that was to produce the Alps, was in its early stages. The Alps were formed because the continents of Europe and Africa collided, the result was substantial crustal thinning, forming a major extensional graben and causing isolated volcanic activity. The stretch factor is estimated to be ~2, to both the east and west of the Rhine Plain, two major hill ranges have formed that run the length of the basin. To the west, in France, these hills are known as the Vosges mountain range and in the east, in Germany and these ranges exhume the same types of rocks in their cores, including deep crustal gneiss. Both ranges correspond to uplifts of more than 2,500 metres and this uplift has occurred because of the isostatic response associated with the formation of an extensional basin. As a consequence, the highest mountains exist immediately adjacent to the margin of the basin, the boundaries between the hill ranges and the Rhine Graben are defined by major, normal fault zones. The northern section of the Rhine Plain is equally framed by somewhat lower mountain ranges, the Palatinate Forest on the western, the extension induced by the formation of the Alps was sufficient to thin the crust and provide suitable dilational conduits for magmatic and volcanic activity to occur. This resulted in the emplacement of mafic dykes, which follow the general trend of the extensional faults. In addition, isolated volcanoes such as the Kaiserstuhl were formed, the Kaiserstuhl is a cluster of volcanic hills to the northwest of Freiburg, within the Rhine Graben. The highest point of small, isolated volcanic centre is the Totenkopf. Volcanic activity was most prevalent in the Miocene epoch, some 15 million years ago, today, the Kaiserstuhl volcano is extinct. In 1356, the Basel earthquake occurred in the Rhine Plain and it was perhaps the most destructive earthquake ever in northwest Europe, destroying the city of Basel and flattening buildings as far as 200 km away. It was the most significant historic event to have occurred in Central Europe. Its epicenter was between Waldkirch and St. Peter in Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, doubts have been raised over the adequacy of the seismic evaluation and design of the Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant, built in the Rhine Plain close to the faults. Since the 1970s it has suffered increasingly serious pollution from nitrates, pesticides, chloride, a collaboration of 25 universities and government agencies have been researching seismic hazards, neotectonics, and water management of the Quaternary Graben fill
Upper Rhine Plain
–
The Upper Rhine Plain, view from west to east. Front: a vineyard near
Neustadt an der Weinstraße, background:
Mannheim (right: Mannheim Power Station, far north: the
Odenwald
Upper Rhine Plain
–
Satellite image showing the southern section of the Upper Rhine Plain and the rift flanks of Vosges, France, and the Black Forest, Germany.
Upper Rhine Plain
–
Schematic cross-section of the Rhine Rift Valley.
18.
Kraichgau
–
The Kraichgau is a hilly region in Baden-Württemberg, southwestern Germany. It is bordered by the Odenwald and the Neckar to the North, the Black Forest to the South, to the east, its boundary is considered to be the Stromberg and the Heuchelberg. The largest towns of the Kraichgau are Sinsheim, Eppingen, on the western end of the Kraichgau is the town of Bruchsal, the gateway to the Rhineland plains. The word Kraich apparently arose from the Celtic word Creuch, meaning mud or loam, the territory of a Gau signifies an open area, free from woods, such as farmland or meadows. The area of Kraichgau was first mentioned in the Early Middle Ages, in the Lorsch codex, in 773, it was called Chrehgauui, in 778 Craichgoia. By 1594, the name was closer to its modern form, being referred to as Kreuchgau
Kraichgau
–
View from the Ravensburg near Sulzfeld over the Kraichgau hills to their highest point, Burg Steinsberg (centre, on the horizon)
Kraichgau
–
Physical map of the Kraichgau (within brown line)
Kraichgau
–
Steinsberg Castle on the eponymous hill, the highest point of the Kraichgau
Kraichgau
–
The prominent Catholic parish church of Waibstadt
19.
Northern Black Forest
–
The Northern Black Forest refers to the northern third of the Black Forest in Germany or, less commonly today, to the northern half of this mountain region. The Northern Black Forest is bounded in the north by a line from Karlsruhe to Pforzheim and, in the south, by a line running from the Rench valley to Freudenstadt. Earlier the Northern Black Forest was the northern half of the mountain range as far as the line of the Kinzig valley. To the west it is bounded by the Upper Rhine Plain, the Northern Black Forest is not the same as the spatial-planning region of Northern Black Forest, which covers the eastern area. The Northern Black Forest, with its angular, in places trapezoidally-shaped summits. By contrast its eastern slopes descend gradually and there is less of a difference with its neighbouring regions. Its highest peak is the Hornisgrinde at 1,163 m above sea level, geologically the dominant rock of the Northern Black Forest is bunter sandstone, although in the deeply incised west its gneiss bedrock reaches the surface. Granites and porphyries have intruded forming crags and tors, the highland regions of the Northern Black Forest are among the regions of the German Central Uplands with the heaviest rainfall. Its most important rivers are the Murg, Nagold, Enz, Alb, Acher, Rench, Oos, in 2001 the Central and Northern Black Forest Nature Park was established and its coverage includes the whole of the Northern Black Forest. In addition an area of about 10,000 hectares has been designated since 1 January 2014 as the Black Forest National Park. It has numerous popular tourist attractions as well as winter sport areas in addition to the towns named below. Numerous tarns in the Northern Black Forest are evidence of ice age glacial formations, other tarns are the Ellbachsee, Herrenwieser See, Huzenbacher See, Sankenbachsee, Schurmsee and the Wildsee near Ruhestein. Many of them were also impounded in order to supply water for timber rafting which was common until the 19th century. Other former tarns have silted up, the Hohlohsee and the Wildsee near Gernsbach-Kaltenbronn are raised bog lakes on the highlands between the Murg and Enz valleys that are only fed by local precipitation. There are several dams in the Northern Black Forest, the Schwarzenbach Dam and the Murg Dam are part of the Rudolf-Fettweis-Werk, a pumped storage and run-of-the-river power station in Forbach. The Nagold Dam regulates the level of the Nagold. The Kleine Kinzig Dam is used for drinking water, water regulation, waterfalls in the Northern Black Forest Sönke Lorenz, Der Nordschwarzwald. Markstein-Verlag, Filderstadt,2001, ISBN 3-935129-01-7 Rudolf Metz, Mineralogisch-landeskundliche Wanderungen im Nordschwarzwald, 2nd, full revised edition, Schauenburg, Lahr,1977, ISBN 3-7946-0128-9 Wander- & Reiseführer, Bilderbücher Bernhard Pollmann, Schwarzwald Nord und Mitte
Northern Black Forest
–
Western side of the Northern Black Forest on the Hornisgrinde showing the steep descent to the
Upper Rhine Plain. In the background: the
Vosges
Northern Black Forest
–
Bad Wildbad
Northern Black Forest
–
The Hornisgrinde seen from the Hohloh
Northern Black Forest
–
The Huzenbacher See, one of the
tarns in the Northern Black Forest
20.
Rhineland-Palatinate
–
Rhineland-Palatinate is one of the 16 states of the Federal Republic of Germany. It has an area of 19,846 square kilometres and about four million inhabitants, Rhineland-Palatinate is located in western Germany and borders Belgium, Luxembourg and France, and the German states of North Rhine-Westphalia, Hesse, Baden-Württemberg and Saarland. The state of Rhineland-Palatinate dates from 30 August 1946, as of 201044. 9% of the population of the state adhered to the Roman Catholic Church,30. 6% to the Evangelical Church in Germany. 22. 0% of the population is irreligious or adheres to other religions, muslims made up 2. 5% of the total. The league of ShUM-cities in the later Rhineland-Palatinate comprised the Jewish communities of Mainz, Speyer, the Takkanot Shum, or Enactments of ShUM were a set of decrees formulated and agreed upon over a period of decades by their Jewish community leaders. Rhineland-Palatinate leads all German states with a rate of approximately 50%. Important sectors are the industry, chemical industry, pharmaceutical industry. Distinctive regional industries includes gemstone industry, ceramic and glass industry, small and medium enterprises are considered the backbone of the economy in Rhineland-Palatinate. The principal employer is the chemical and plastics processing industry which is represented by BASF in Ludwigshafen, boehringer, Joh. A. Benckiser, SGE Deutsche Holding, Schott Glassworks concludes the top 5 companies in the state. Rhineland-Palatinate is Germanys leading producer of wine in terms of grape cultivation, of thirteen wine regions producing quality wine in Germany, six are located in Rhineland-Palatinate, with 65% to 70% of the production of wine grapes in Germany having their origin within the state. 13,000 wine producers generate 80% to 90% of the German wine export, traditional grape varieties and a wide range of varieties developed during the last 125 years are characteristic for the region. Classical white varieties are cultivated at 63,683 hectares and these comprise the famous Rieslings 14,446 hectares, Müller-Thurgau, Silvaner and Kerner. The share of red varieties grew constantly during the last decades, dornfelder, a new cultivar, is the leading red grape cultivated on 7,626 hectares, which is more than a third. Blauer Portugieser and Spätburgunder show also appreciable cultivated shares, the state supports the wine industry by providing a comprehensive consultancy and education program in the service supply centers of the land. The Geilweilerhof Institute for Grape Breeding is fully financed by the state, many well known new breeds, such as Morio-Muskat, Bacchus, Optima and Regent have been created in these institutes. The worldwide leader in sparkling wine production, producing 245 million bottles in 2006, is the renowned Schloss Wachenheim Group and this company is headquartered in Trier, with operations in several locations in Rhineland-Palatinate
Rhineland-Palatinate
–
Mainz
Rhineland-Palatinate
–
Flag
Rhineland-Palatinate
–
Koblenz
Rhineland-Palatinate
–
Trier
21.
Pfinz
–
The Pfinz is a right tributary of the Rhine in Baden-Württemberg. Its origin is located at the edge of the Black Forest near the Straubenhardt borough of Pfinzweiler. The Pfinz discharges into the Rhine near Dettenheim-Rußheim, over the course of its path the Pfinz crosses underneath two canals, one near the Karlsruhe borough of Hagsfeld and one by Dettenheim-Rußheim. The Pfinz lent its name to the town of Pfinztal, the town was created by combining four previously independent villages on or near the Pfinz during the Baden-Württemberg district reform in the 1970s. The area along the river is referred to as the Pfinzgau. Photos and information about the system in the Hardt north of Karlsruhe
Pfinz
–
Pfinz
22.
Canada-United States border
–
The Canada–United States border, officially known as the International Boundary, is the longest international border in the world between two countries. It is shared between Canada and the United States, the second- and fourth-largest countries by area, respectively, the terrestrial boundary is 8,891 kilometres long, of which 2,475 kilometres is Canadas border with Alaska. Eight Canadian provinces and territories, and thirteen U. S. states are located along the border, the Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States. In the second article of the Treaty the parties agreed on all of the boundaries of the United States, including and that parallel had been established in the 1760s as the boundary between the provinces of Quebec and New York. It was surveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine in 1771–3, the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west. Northwest of Lake Superior the boundary followed rivers to the Lake of the Woods, from the Lake of the Woods, the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met the Mississippi River. In fact that never meets the river since the rivers source is further south. The Jay Treaty of 1794 created the International Boundary Commission, which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary and it also provided for removal of British military and administration from Detroit and other frontier outposts on the U. S. side. It was superseded by the Treaty of Ghent concluding the War of 1812 and this treaty extinguished British claims south of that latitude to the Red River Valley, which was part of Ruperts Land. Disputes over the interpretation of the treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations resulting in the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The treaty resolved the dispute known as the Aroostook War over the boundary between Maine on the one hand, and New Brunswick and the Province of Canada on the other, the US Government began to construct fortifications just south of the border at Rouses Point on Lake Champlain. This created a dilemma for the United States that was not resolved until a provision of the treaty left the border on the line as surveyed. The border along the Boundary Waters in present-day Ontario and Minnesota between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined, the dispute was resolved in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies. The Northwest Boundary Survey laid out the boundary, but the water boundary was not settled for some time. After the Pig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between the Gulf Islands and the San Juan Islands, the International Boundary Survey, called the Northern Boundary Survey in the United States, began in 1872. Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818, archibald Campbell led the way for the United States. Donald Cameron headed the British team and this survey focused on the border from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains. In 1903 a joint United Kingdom – Canada – U. S. tribunal established the boundary of southeast Alaska and this border vista extends for 3 metres on each side of the line
Canada-United States border
–
The
Peace Arch at the border between
Surrey,
British Columbia, and
Blaine,
Washington
Canada-United States border
–
A
Royal Canadian Mounted Police constable and a
Vermont State Police trooper before the official ceremony commemorating the joining of the
Portland–Montreal Pipe Line 1 August 1941
Canada-United States border
–
Sign welcoming drivers into the United States at the
Peace Arch between
Blaine, Washington and
Surrey, British Columbia
Canada-United States border
–
Boundary Marker No.1 on the
49th parallel north on the western shore of
Point Roberts, Washington, erected in 1861
23.
Vancouver
–
Vancouver is a coastal seaport city in Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the most populous city in the province, the 2016 census recorded 631,486 people in the city, the Greater Vancouver area had 2,463,431 versus 2,313,328 in 2011, making it the third largest metropolitan area in Canada. Vancouver has the highest population density in Canada with over 5,400 people per square kilometre. With over 250,000 residents, Vancouver municipality is the fourth most densely populated city in North America behind New York City, San Francisco, and Mexico City according to the 2011 census. In that census, Vancouver was one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse cities in Canada, Vancouver is classed as a Beta global city. In 2014, following thirty years in California, the annual TED conference made Vancouver its indefinite home, several matches of the 2015 FIFA Womens World Cup were played in Vancouver, including the final at BC Place Stadium. From that first enterprise, other stores and some hotels quickly appeared along the waterfront to the west, Gastown became formally laid out as a registered townsite dubbed Granville, B. I. As of 2014, Port Metro Vancouver is the third largest port by tonnage in the Americas, 27th in the world, the busiest and largest in Canada, and the most diversified port in North America. While forestry remains its largest industry, Vancouver is well known as an urban centre surrounded by nature, archaeological records indicate the presence of Aboriginal people in the Vancouver area from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. The city is located in the territories of the Squamish, Musqueam. They had villages in various parts of present-day Vancouver, such as Stanley Park, False Creek, Kitsilano, Point Grey, the city takes its name from George Vancouver, who explored the inner harbour of Burrard Inlet in 1792 and gave various places British names. The explorer and North West Company trader Simon Fraser and his became the first known Europeans to set foot on the site of the present-day city. In 1808, they travelled from the east down the Fraser River, perhaps as far as Point Grey. The Fraser Gold Rush of 1858 brought over 25,000 men, mainly from California, to nearby New Westminster on the Fraser River, on their way to the Fraser Canyon, a sawmill established at Moodyville in 1863, began the citys long relationship with logging. It was quickly followed by mills owned by Captain Edward Stamp on the shore of the inlet. This mill, known as the Hastings Mill, became the nucleus around which Vancouver formed, the mills central role in the city waned after the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. It nevertheless remained important to the economy until it closed in the 1920s. The settlement which came to be called Gastown grew up quickly around the original makeshift tavern established by Gassy Jack Deighton in 1867 on the edge of the Hastings Mill property
Vancouver
–
Clockwise from top: Downtown Vancouver as seen from the southern shore of False Creek, The
University of British Columbia,
Lions Gate Bridge, a view from the
Granville Street Bridge,
Burrard Bridge, The Millennium Gate (
Chinatown), and
totem poles in
Stanley Park
Vancouver
–
A portrait of the first Vancouver City Council meeting after the 1886 fire. The tent shown was on the east side of the 100 block Carrall.
Vancouver
–
Panorama of Vancouver, 1898
Vancouver
–
Kitsilano Beach is one of Vancouver's many beaches
24.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
25.
Regensburg
–
Regensburg is a city in south-east Germany, situated at the confluence of the Danube, Naab and Regen rivers. With over 140,000 inhabitants, Regensburg is the fourth-largest city in the State of Bavaria after Munich, the city is the political, economic and cultural centre of Eastern Bavaria and the capital of the Bavarian administrative region Upper Palatinate. The medieval centre of the city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in 2014, Regensburg was among the top sights and travel attractions in Germany. Generally known in English as Ratisbon until well into the twentieth century, the first settlements in Regensburg date from the Stone Age. The Celtic name Radasbona was the oldest given to a settlement near the present city, around AD90, the Romans built a fort there. In 179, a new Roman fort Castra Regina was built for Legio III Italica during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It is believed that as early as in late Roman times the city was the seat of a bishop, from the early 6th century, Regensburg was the seat of a ruling family known as the Agilolfings. From about 530 to the first half of the 13th century, Regensburg remained an important city during the reign of Charlemagne. After the partition of the Carolingian Empire in 843, the city became the seat of the Eastern Frankish ruler, two years later, fourteen Bohemian princes came to Regensburg to receive baptism there. This was the point of Christianization of the Czechs. These events had a impact on the cultural history of the Czech lands, as they were consequently part of the Roman Catholic. A memorial plate at St Johns Church was unveiled a few years ago, commemorating the incident in the Czech, on 8 December 899 Arnulf of Carinthia, descendant of Charlemagne, died at Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany. In 800 AD the city had 23,000 inhabitants and by 1000 AD this had almost doubled to 40,000 people. In 1096, on the way to the First Crusade, Peter the Hermit led a mob of Crusaders that attempted to force the conversion of the Jews of Regensburg. Between 1135 and 1146, the Stone Bridge across the Danube was built at Regensburg and this bridge opened major international trade routes between northern Europe and Venice, and this began Regensburgs golden age as a residence of wealthy trading families. Regensburg became the centre of southern Germany and was celebrated for its gold work. In 1245 Regensburg became a Free Imperial City and was a centre before the shifting of trade routes in the late Middle Ages. At the end of the 15th century in 1486, Regensburg became part of the Duchy of Bavaria, the city adopted the Protestant Reformation in 1542 and its Town Council remained entirely Lutheran
Regensburg
–
Regensburg
Regensburg
–
The remains of the East Tower of the Porta Praetoria of Roman times
Regensburg
–
Ceremonial arrival at the Imperial Diet, 1711
Regensburg
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
26.
Hulunbuir
–
Hulunbuir or Hūlúnbèiěr is a region that is governed as a prefecture-level city in northeastern Inner Mongolia, in China. Its administrative center is located at Hailar District, its largest urban area, major scenic features are the high steppes of the Hulun Buir grasslands, the Hulun and Buir lakes, and the Khingan range. Hulun Buir borders Russia to the north and west, Mongolia to the south and west, Heilongjiang province to the east and Hinggan League to the direct south. Hulunbuir is a diverse area, next to Mandarin Chinese, Mongolian dialects such as Khorchin and Buryat. During the Han Dynasty, Hulunbuir was part of the Liaodong Commandery, during the Qing Dynasty, Hulunbuir was part of Heilongjiang province. The 1858 Treaty of Aigun established todays approximate Sino-Russian border, at a loss to Heilongjiangs territory. In 1901, the Chinese Eastern Railway linked Hulunbuir to the rest of northeast China, from 1912-1949, during the Republic of China period, Hulunbuir was part of Xingan and Heilongjiang provinces. In 1929, the Soviet Union broke this agreement and invaded Hulunbuir, after the Japanese occupation of China, Hulunbuir became part of the Japanese puppet state Manchukuo, which was not recognized by the Chinese. After the 1949 Communist revolution, Hulunbuir was annexed into Inner Mongolia, during the Cultural Revolution, the parts of historical Manchuria inside Inner Mongolia were briefly restored to their original provinces, Hulunbuir was given back to Heilongjiang from 1969 to 1979. Until October 10,2001, Hulunbuir was administered as a League, the area is 263,953 km2 and had a population of 2.710 million in 2004, while the gross domestic product was RMB21.326 billion. The city was once a league of Inner Mongolia, until 10 October 2001, during the Qing Dynasty, it was known in Mandarin as Hūlúnbùyǔěr. Hulunbuir is divided into 13 different county-level jurisdictions, one district, five cities, four banners. Hulunbuir is the largest city-named administrative division in the based on land surface area. However, the central urban and metropolitan area is limited to only Hailar District. Winters are long, very dry and severe, due to the semi−permanent Siberian High, while summers are short, though very warm, and rather wet, due to the East Asian monsoon. At Hailar, the monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −25.1 °C in January to 20.0 °C in July, with at least 55% of possible sunshine in all months and an annual total greater than 2,700 hours, sunny weather dominates year-round. Approximately 70% of the rainfall occurs during the three summer months. Jinri Nei Menggu, Hulun Beier 今日内蒙古, 呼伦贝尔, 内蒙古人民出版社, 呼和浩特 Hohhot 1997, ISBN 7-204-03545-3, 9+129 pages Hulunbeier minzu wenwu kaogu daxi
Hulunbuir
–
Hulunbuir 呼伦贝尔市 · ᠬᠥᠯᠥᠨ ᠪᠤᠶᠢᠷ ᠬᠣᠲᠠ
Hulunbuir
–
Hulunbuir's Airport
27.
Karlsruhe (district)
–
Karlsruhe is a rural district in the north-west of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are Rhein-Neckar, Heilbronn, Enz, Calw, Rastatt, Germersheim, Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis, the urban district Karlsruhe, which contains the City of Karlsruhe, is located in the middle of the district, and partially cuts it into a northern and a southern part. The historic origin of the district is the Oberamt Karlsruhe, in 1809 it was split into one part responsible for the city Karlsruhe, and one for the surrounding municipalities. In 1865 however both parts were merged again to the Bezirksamt Karlsruhe,1938 it was split again, this time with the district of Karlsruhe for the surrounding part, and the urban district of Karlsruhe for the urban area. Since the founding of the Federal Republic, Karlsruhe has been the seat of the Federal Constitutional Court, the western part of the district is located in the Rhine valley. The area in the east belongs to the landscape of the Kraichgau, the Karlsruhe district partners with the following sister regions outside of Germany, Gwent, Wales, since 1978. Official city website Official municipalities website
Karlsruhe (district)
–
District administration
Karlsruhe (district)
–
Karlsruhe
28.
Bruchsal
–
Bruchsal is a city at the western edge of the Kraichgau, approximately 20 km northeast of Karlsruhe in the state of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is located on Bertha Benz Memorial Route, Bruchsal is the largest city in the district of Karlsruhe and is known for being Europes largest asparagus producer and one of the economic centers of the region of Karlsruhe. Until 1972 Bruchsal was the seat of the district of Bruchsal, Bruchsals population passed the 20,000 mark around 1955. When the new Body of Municipal Law for Baden-Württemberg went into effect on April 1,1956, in addition, Bruchsal cooperates with the neighboring communities of Forst, Hambrücken and Karlsdorf-Neuthard in administrative matters. Bruchsal is located at the edge of the Upper Rhine River Plains and the Kraichgau along the Saalbach, the following cities and towns share a border with Bruchsal. In addition the exclave of Bruchsal situated North of Karlsdorf-Neuthard shares borders with the towns of Graben-Neudorf, the city of Bruchsal is made up of Bruchsal proper along with the boroughs of Büchenau, Heidelsheim, Helmsheim, Obergrombach and Untergrombach. A few neighborhoods within the city limits are known by their own name, furthermore, former homesteads are located inside todays city limits. These often only consist of one or several buildings, such as Langental, Rohrbacher Hof, Scheckenbronnerhof, Staighof, Talmühle, excavations and artifacts provide evidence of a settlement on the Michelsberg as early as 4000 BC during the Neolithic. In the core of Bruchsal the oldest settlement discovered was dated back to 640 AD and it is located near the present Peterskirche. The first mention of Bruchsal in official documents occurred in 976 when the King came to town, during October of the year 980, Otto II and his Court stayed at the Kings palace in Bruchsal for several days. Henry II became ruler of Bruchsal in 1002 following the subjugation of his rival Herrmann of Swabia, in 1056 Henry III presented the settlement to the bishop of Speyer as a gift. The city remained part the diocese until the German Mediatisation in 1802 and it also was the seat of an administrative district that originally only consisted of the core of Bruchsal. In 1067 Henry IV resided in Bruchsal from time to time,1248 was the first time Bruchsal was referred to as a city, and in 1278 St. Peters Church is mentioned for the first time. After extensive damage to both, the Palace and the Peterskirch were reconstructed in 1320, the Bergfried was erected in 1358, and the city wall was completed in 1452. In 1460 the first coin was minted in Bruchsal, in 1502 the first peasant revolt, led by Joß Fritz of Untergrombach, chose Bruchsal as its target. Traitors to the rebellion allowed the authorities to take the leaders into custody. Ten were decapitated in the Bruchsal Palace courtyard, Joß Fritz got away and went into hiding in the Southern Black Forest. In 1525 the peasant revolts peaked, inflation, hunger and the Plague added to the desperation, and the revolts were forcibly put down by the Prince
Bruchsal
–
Bruchsal
Bruchsal
–
Michaelsberg (Michelsberg)
Bruchsal
–
Panoramic view of the couryard
Bruchsal
–
Outer west wall and main entrance panorama of Bruchsal Prison.
29.
Ettlingen
–
Ettlingen is a town in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, about 8 km south of the city of Karlsruhe. Ettlingen is the second largest town in the district of Karlsruhe, Ettlingen is situated at the northern edge of the Black Forest on the Upper Rhine Plain. Central Ettlingen and its largest constituent communities lie on the plain itself, Ettlingen was an important crossroads during Roman times, when the region was part of the province of Germania Superior. The town was first mentioned in 788 as Ediningom in a deed of donation belonging to Weissenburg Abbey in Alsace, in 965, the village of Ettlingen received market rights from Emperor Otto the Great. In 1192, Emperor Henry VI, one of Frederick Barbarossas sons, Margrave Herman V of Baden-Baden became Ettlingens feudal lord in 1219. In the following centuries, Ettlingen developed into an important administrative centre within the Margraviate of Baden-Baden, Ettlingen gave its name to a line of defensive earthworks known as the Ettlingen Line built to deter French aggression. During the Nine Years War the town was completely burned to the ground by the troops of Louis XIV. After the Catholic line of Baden-Baden died out in 1771, Ettlingen passed to the Protestant Margraviate of Baden-Durlach, which would become the reunited Margraviate of Baden. During the French Revolutionary Wars, Ettlingen was the site of a battle between elements of the French Army of the Rhine and Moselle and the Habsburg Army of the Upper Rhine on 9 July 1796. In the period of Napoleons activities in Germany, Margrave Karl Friedrich of Baden was made Elector in 1806, Ettlingen remained an independent town until 1937, when it was incorporated into the administrative unit that would become the district of Karlsruhe in 1939. Ettlingen and its villages and land continue to be part of this district. In 1966, Ettlingen passed the 20,000 population mark, during the communal reforms of the early 1970s, several smaller communities were incorporated into Ettlingen, raising the population to over 30,000. Ettlingens renowned open-air theater series, the Schlossfestspiele first took the stage in the Baroque inner courtyard of Ettlingen Palace in 1979, Ettlingen was originally a part of the ancient Diocese of Speyer and was under the pastoral care of the Archdeacon of St. German and Moritz in Speyer. The town originally belonged to the deanery of Durlach but was itself made archdiaconate in the 16th century, by the beginning of the 19th century, Protestants were a small minority. During the period of following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. Today, Ettlingen belongs to the deanery of Karlsruhe, with the various parishes organized into pastoral units, Jewish families lived in Ettlingen since at least the 17th century. They lived primarily in Färbergasse, which was known as Judengasse. Ettlingens first synagogue was built on Albstraße in 1849, only to be torn down again when a new synagogue was built on Pforzheimerstraße, the New Synagogue was itself destroyed during the infamous Kristallnacht pogrom of November 1938
Ettlingen
–
Ettlingen
Ettlingen
–
The
Alb River in Ettlingen
Ettlingen
–
St. Martin's Church (Martinskirche)
30.
Stutensee
–
Stutensee is a town in northern Karlsruhe district in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It was founded in 1975 by the connection of the four villages of Blankenloch with Büchig, Friedrichstal, Spöck. In the meantime it has become a city with more than 23,000 inhabitants. Castle of Stutensee is the center and namesake of the city. It was built in 1749 by the margrave of Baden, by the 1, today an institution of the Landeswohlfahrtsverband is located here. The city is situated between Karlsruhe and Bruchsal in the Upper Rhine-region and its altitude is 114 m, Stutensee was founded January 1,1975 when the four villages of Blankenloch, Friedrichstal, Spöck and Staffort were combined into one municipality. All parts of the town are old villages, Spöck was first mentioned in official documents as Speccha in 865, Staffort 1110 as Stafphort, Blankenloch 1337 as Blankelach and Büchig 1373 as Buchech. Huguenots fleeing religious persecution came from the north of France, and also by way of Belgium, heinz Bender, Vergangenheit und Zeitgeschehen, Eine Chronik. Geschichte und Geschichten, Stutensee, Gemeinde Artur Hauer, Das Hardtdorf Spöck, Eine wirtschaftliche und sociale Studie, Leipzig Hanna Heidt, Erinnerungen an die Vergangenheit
Stutensee
–
Stutensee
Stutensee
–
Schloss Stutensee
Stutensee
–
Prot. Church in Stutensee-Blankenloch
Stutensee
–
Kerns-Max-House at Blankenloch
31.
Pforzheim
–
Pforzheim is a city of nearly 120,000 inhabitants in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg, in the southwest of Germany. It is known for its jewelry and watch-making industry, and as such has gained the nickname Goldstadt, from 1535 to 1565 it was the home to the Margraves of Baden-Pforzheim. The City of Pforzheim does not belong to any administrative district, during World War II, Pforzheim was bombed a number of times. The largest raid, and one of the most devastating area bombardments of World War II, was carried out by the Royal Air Force on the evening of 23 February 1945. Nearly a third of the population,17,600 people, were killed in the air raid. The town was thought by the Allies to be producing precision instruments for use in the German war effort, the story of the bombardment is dramatically recounted in the 2011 history book by Giles Milton, entitled Wolfram, The Boy Who Went To War. In the twenty years following the end of the war, Pforzheim was gradually rebuilt, giving the town a modern look. Due to its location, this city is called the three-valleys town or the Gateway to the Black Forest. The early settlement by the Romans, who constructed a ford through the river, Pforzheim and its surrounding area belongs to the Densely Populated Area Karlsruhe/Pforzheim. The following towns and communities share borderlines with the City of Pforzheim, below they are mentioned in clockwise order, beginning to the north of the city. Except for Unterreichenbach, which belongs to the district of Calw, in important matters concerning any of these communities the opinions of the respective community councils must be taken into consideration. However, final decisions on the matter will be made by the Pforzheim city council, Archeological surveys have unearthed several items from that period which are kept and displayed in the Kappelhof Museum. This place was known as Portus, which is believed to be the origin of the first part of the citys name Pforzheim. A Roman milestone from the year 245 and later excavated at nowadays Friolzheim shows the distance to Portus. From then on, over a period of time historical records about the settlement are not available. 6th/7th century, Graves from this period indicate that the settlement had been continued,1067, The settlement of Pforzheim was mentioned for the first time in a document by Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor as Phorzheim. Visits to Pforzheim by Heinrich IV in 1067 and 1074 are documented, before 1080, The old town of Pforzheim was awarded market rights. At that time Pforzheim belonged to the estate of Hirsau Monastery, the old town continued to exist as a legally independent entity
Pforzheim
–
Pforzheim
Pforzheim
–
Schlosskirche St. Michael.
Pforzheim
–
The New City Hall and Waisenhaus square.
Pforzheim
–
Statue of Johannes Reuchlin.
32.
Spokes
–
A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel, connecting the hub with the round traction surface. The term originally referred to portions of a log that had split lengthwise into four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were made by carving a spoke into their finished shape, a spokeshave is a tool originally developed for this purpose. Eventually, the spoke was more commonly applied to the finished product of the wheelwrights work. The spoked wheel was invented to allow the construction of lighter and swifter vehicles, the earliest known examples are in the context of the Sintashta culture, dating to ca.2000 BC. Soon after this, horse cultures of the Caucasus region used horse-drawn spoked-wheel war chariots for the part of three centuries. Celtic chariots introduced an iron rim around the wheel in the 1st millennium BC, the spoked wheel was in continued use without major modification until the 1870s, when wire wheels and rubber tires were invented. Spokes can be made of wood, metal, or synthetic fiber depending on whether they will be in tension or compression, the original type of spoked wheel with wooden spokes was used for horse-drawn carriages and wagons. In early motor cars, wooden spoked wheels of the type were normally used. In a simple wooden wheel, a load on the hub causes the wheel rim to flatten slightly against the ground as the lowermost wooden spoke shortens, the other wooden spokes show no significant change. They are also dished, usually to the outside of the vehicle, also, the dishing allows the wheel to compensate for expansion of the spokes due to absorbed moisture by dishing more. For use in bicycles, heavy wooden-spoked wheels were replaced by wheels with spokes made of tensioned, adjustable metal wires. These are also used in wheelchairs, motorcycles, and automobiles, some types of wheels have removable spokes that can be replaced individually if they break or bend. These include bicycle and wheelchair wheels, high quality bicycles with conventional wheels use spokes of stainless steel, while cheaper bicycles may use galvanized or chrome plated spokes. While a good quality spoke is capable of supporting about 225 kgf of tension, since bicycle and wheelchair wheel spokes are only in tension, flexible and strong materials such as synthetic fibers, are also occasionally used. Metal spokes can also be ovalized or bladed to reduce aerodynamic drag, a variation on the wire-spoked wheel was Tiogas Tension Disk, which appeared superficially to be a solid disk but was in fact constructed using the same principles as a normal tension-spoked wheel. Instead of individual spokes, a continuous thread of Kevlar was used to lace the hub to the rim under high tension. The threads were encased in a translucent disk for protection and some aerodynamic benefit, Wire spokes can be radial to the hub but are more often mounted tangentially to the hub
Spokes
–
A spoked wheel on display at The
National Museum of Iran, in
Tehran. The wheel is dated to the late 2nd millennium BC and was excavated at
Choqa Zanbil.
Spokes
–
The remains of a pair of
cartwheels with metal axle assembly.
Spokes
–
An
Ox-wagon in
Aliwal North,
South Africa. Note the three missing spokes and the metal tyre.
Spokes
–
Wooden spoke wheel with metal rim from antique truck on display in
Underground Atlanta.
33.
Fan (implement)
–
A handheld fan is an implement used to induce an airflow for the purpose of cooling or refreshing oneself. Any broad, flat surface waved back-and-forth will create a small airflow, generally, purpose-made handheld fans are shaped like a sector of a circle and made of a thin material mounted on slats which revolve around a pivot so that it can be closed when not in use. The movement of a handheld fan provides cooling by increasing the airflow over the skin and it also increases heat convection by displacing the warmer air produced by body heat that surrounds the skin. This evaporation has an effect due to the latent heat of evaporation of water. Fans are convenient to carry around, especially folding fans, next to the folding fans, the rigid hand screen fan, was also a highly decorative and desired object among the higher classes. Its purpose is different since they are cumbersome to carry around. They were mostly used to shield the face against the glare of the sun or the fire. Archaeological ruins and ancient texts show that the fan was used in ancient Greece at least since the 4th century BC and was known under the name rhipis. Christian Europes earliest fan was the flabellum, which dates to the 6th century and this was used during services to drive insects away from the consecrated bread and wine. Its use died out in western Europe, but continues in the Eastern Orthodox, Hand fans were absent in Europe during the High Middle Ages until they were reintroduced in the 13th and 14th centuries Fans from the Middle East were brought back by Crusaders. Portuguese traders brought back from China and Japan in the 16th century. The fan is popular in Spain, where flamenco dancers used the fan. European brands have introduced more modern designs and have enabled the hand fan to work with modern-day fashion, in the 17th century the folding fan, and its attendant semiotic culture, were introduced from Japan. Simpler formed fans were developed in China, Greek, and Egypt and these fans are particularly well displayed in the portraits of the high-born women of the era. Queen Elizabeth I of England can be seen to carry both folding fans decorated with pom poms on their guardsticks as well as the older style rigid fan, usually decorated with feathers and jewels. These rigid style fans often hung from the skirts of ladies, one of the characteristics of these fans is the rather crude bone or ivory sticks and the way the leather leaves are often slotted onto the sticks rather than glued as with later folding fans. Fans made entirely of decorated sticks without a fan leaf were known as brisé fans, however, despite the relative crude methods of construction folding fans were at this era high status, exotic items on par with elaborate gloves as gifts to royalty. In the 17th century the rigid fan which was seen in portraits of the century had fallen out of favour as folding fans gained dominance in Europe
Fan (implement)
–
Hand-held fan from 1800
Fan (implement)
–
Eros offering a fan and a mirror to a lady.
Ancient Greek amphora from
Apulia, Archaeological Museum in Milan, Italy
Fan (implement)
–
Folding fan from France c. 1850
Fan (implement)
–
Ready For The Ball by
Sophie Anderson.
34.
Nickname
–
A nickname is a substitute for the proper name of a familiar person, place, or thing, for affection or ridicule. The term hypocoristic is used to refer to a nickname of affection between those in love or with an emotional bond, compared with a term of endearment. The term diminutive name refers to nicknames that convey smallness, hence something regarded with affection or familiarity, the distinction between the two is often blurred. It is a form of endearment and amusement, as a concept, it is distinct from both pseudonym and stage name, and also from a title, although there may be overlap in these concepts. A moniker also means a nickname or personal name, the word often distinguishes personal names from nicknames that became proper names out of former nicknames. English examples are Bob and Rob, nickname variants for Robert, a nickname is often considered desirable, symbolising a form of acceptance, but can sometimes be a form of ridicule. The compound word ekename, literally meaning additional name, was attested as early as 1303 and this word was derived from the Old English phrase eaca an increase, related to eacian to increase. By the fifteenth century, the misdivision of the syllables of the phrase an ekename led to its reanalysis as a nekename, though the spelling has changed, the pronunciation and meaning of the word have remained relatively stable ever since. However, it is common for the nickname to be identified after a comma following the full real name or later in the body of the text. The middle name is generally eliminated, especially in speech, like English, German uses quotation marks between the first and last names. The latter may cause confusion because it resembles an English convention sometimes used for married, in Viking societies, many people had heiti, viðrnefni, or kenningarnöfn which were used in addition to, or instead of the first name. Slaves have often used nicknames, so that the master who heard about someone doing something could not identify the slave, in capoeira, a Brazilian martial art, the slaves had nicknames to protect them from being caught, as practising capoeira was illegal for decades. In Anglo-American culture, a nickname is based on a shortening of a persons proper name. However, in societies, this may not necessarily be the case. For example, my nickname is farmer Phil In Indian society, for example, generally people have at least one nickname, Indian nicknames very often are a trivial word or a diminutive. In Australian society, Australian men will often give ironic nicknames, for example, a man with red hair will be given the nickname Blue or Bluey. A tall man will be called Shorty, an obese person Slim, in England, some nicknames are traditionally associated with a persons surname. A man with the surname Clark will be nicknamed Nobby, the surname Miller will have the nickname Dusty, there are several other nicknames linked traditionally with a persons surname, including Chalky White, Bunny Warren, Tug Wilson, and Spud Baker
Nickname
–
Map of the United States showing the state nicknames as hogs. Lithograph by Mackwitz, St. Louis, 1884.
Nickname
–
The
London Underground is nicknamed "the Tube"
Nickname
–
"I, Jimmy Carter..."
James Earl Carter is sworn in as President of the United States using his nickname "Jimmy".
Nickname
–
The
Weimaraner 's coat color led to its nickname of the "Silver Ghost".
35.
Metric geometry
–
In mathematics, a metric space is a set for which distances between all members of the set are defined. Those distances, taken together, are called a metric on the set, a metric on a space induces topological properties like open and closed sets, which lead to the study of more abstract topological spaces. The most familiar metric space is 3-dimensional Euclidean space, in fact, a metric is the generalization of the Euclidean metric arising from the four long-known properties of the Euclidean distance. The Euclidean metric defines the distance between two points as the length of the line segment connecting them. Maurice Fréchet introduced metric spaces in his work Sur quelques points du calcul fonctionnel, since for any x, y ∈ M, The function d is also called distance function or simply distance. Often, d is omitted and one just writes M for a space if it is clear from the context what metric is used. Ignoring mathematical details, for any system of roads and terrains the distance between two locations can be defined as the length of the shortest route connecting those locations, to be a metric there shouldnt be any one-way roads. The triangle inequality expresses the fact that detours arent shortcuts, many of the examples below can be seen as concrete versions of this general idea. The real numbers with the function d = | y − x | given by the absolute difference. The rational numbers with the distance function also form a metric space. The positive real numbers with distance function d = | log | is a metric space. Any normed vector space is a space by defining d = ∥ y − x ∥. Examples, The Manhattan norm gives rise to the Manhattan distance, the maximum norm gives rise to the Chebyshev distance or chessboard distance, the minimal number of moves a chess king would take to travel from x to y. The British Rail metric on a vector space is given by d = ∥ x ∥ + ∥ y ∥ for distinct points x and y. The name alludes to the tendency of railway journeys to proceed via London irrespective of their final destination, If is a metric space and X is a subset of M, then becomes a metric space by restricting the domain of d to X × X. The discrete metric, where d =0 if x = y and d =1 otherwise, is a simple but important example and this, in particular, shows that for any set, there is always a metric space associated to it. Using this metric, any point is a ball, and therefore every subset is open. A finite metric space is a metric space having a number of points
Metric geometry
–
Diameter of a set.
36.
Town hall
–
In local government, a city hall, town hall, civic centre, a guildhall, a Rathaus, or a municipal building, is the chief administrative building of a city, town, or other municipality. It usually houses the city or town council, its associated departments and it also usually functions as the base of the mayor of a city, town, borough, or county / shire. By convention, until the mid 19th-century, a large open chamber formed an integral part of the building housing the council. The hall may be used for meetings and other significant events. This large chamber, the hall, has become synonymous with the whole building. The terms council chambers, municipal building or variants may be used locally in preference to town hall if no such large hall is present within the building, the local government may endeavor to use the town hall building to promote and enhance the quality of life of the community. In many cases, town halls serve not only as buildings for government functions and these may include art shows, stage performances, exhibits and festivals. Modern town halls or civic centres are designed with a great variety and flexibility of purpose in mind. As symbols of government, city and town halls have distinctive architecture. City hall buildings may also serve as icons that symbolize their cities. The term town hall may be a one, often applied without regard to whether the building serves or served a town or a city. This is generally the case in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, english-speakers in some regions use the term city hall to designate the council offices of a municipality of city status. This is the case in North America, where a distinction is made between city halls and town halls, and is also the case with Brisbane City Hall in Australia. The great hall of the town-house or municipal building, now commonly applied to the whole building city hall. Conversely, cities that have subdivisions with their own councils may have borough halls, in Scotland, local government in larger cities operates from the City Chambers, otherwise the Town House. Elsewhere in English-speaking countries, other names are occasionally used, in London, the official headquarters of administration of the City of London retains its Anglo-Saxon name, the Guildhall, signifying a place where taxes were paid. In a small number of English cities the preferred term is Council House, this was also the case in Bristol until 2012, when the building was renamed City Hall. In Birmingham, there is a distinction between the Council House, the seat of government, and the Town Hall, a concert
Town hall
–
The
Rathaus in
Hamburg,
Germany, completed in 1897
Town hall
–
New York City Hall, the oldest continuous seat of local government in the
United States, completed in 1812
Town hall
–
Executive Building (Old City Hall) in
Cagayan de Oro City,
Philippines
Town hall
–
16th-century town hall in
Fordwich,
Kent, England, closely resembling a
market hall in its design
37.
Lutheran
–
Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
Lutheran
–
Martin Luther initiated the
Protestant Reformation in 1517.
Lutheran
–
Lutheran Rose Cross, in the middle we can see
Luther's seal.
Lutheran
–
Title page of the Swedish
Gustav Vasa Bible, translated by the Petri brothers, along with
Laurentius Andreae
Lutheran
–
The
University of Jena around 1600. Jena was the center of Gnesio-Lutheran activity during the controversies leading up to the Formula of Concord.
38.
Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach
–
Charles III William was Margrave of Baden-Durlach between 1709 and 1738. He was the son of Margrave Frederick Magnus of Baden-Durlach and Augusta Maria of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, in 1715, he established Karlsruhe, where he built his residence. Karlsruhe has since grown to a large city, with the consolidation of public finances and the creation of a reliable administration, he laid the foundations for the reform policies of his grandson, Charles Frederick. Charles William was born in Durlach as the son of Margrave Frederick Magnus of Baden-Durlach and his older brother had died in 1672 at the age of about one month, so Charles William was born as the hereditary prince. He had eight sisters and one brother, Christopher, who was five years younger, known for his famous quote, Chaos in thy world, shall be started by a single hand. After studies in Utrecht, Geneva and Lausanne, he traveled to England, Sweden and he then entered the military service. He was employed by his uncle Margrave Louis William, achieved the rank of a colonel under him, thereafter, he became Margrave of Baden-Durlach in 1709. Probably inspired by the example of his relative, Margrave Louis William of Baden-Baden, Charles William began his military career in the summer of 1694 in the Imperial Army. In later years he participated in the siege of Casale Monferrato as a colonel, in order to prevent the unification of the Bavarian and French armies, the German Empire provided an army under Margrave Louis William on the upper Rhine. He faced a French army under Marshal Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars, Charles William gained his military achievements in this war, in which he was actively involved as a senior officer from 1702 till 1709. At the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession, Charles William was appointed Major General of the Swabian Circle troops, in 1702, Charles William was wounded during the Siege of Landau. On 14 October 1702, he fought in the Battle of Friedlingen, for his services he was promoted to imperial Generalfeldmarschalllieutenant, a rank he had already received from the Swabian Circle after the battle of Friedlingen. In the further course of the war he fought in 1704 under Prince Eugene of Savoy in the Battle of Blenheim and he also excelled at the siege of Landau and the defense of the line of Bühl-Stollhofen line and was promoted to Generalfeldzeugmeister in 1705. He fought with Field Marshal von Thüngen on the Rhine and in Alsace, in 1707 he was again active in defending the Stollhofen line. His active military career ended when his father died and took up government, yet, in 1715, he was promoted to the imperial Generalfeldmarschall. The war hero Charles William also showed a different face as a flower collector. In the palace garden of the castle in Karlsburg Castle in Durlach he grew a considerable collection of flowers, a 1713 catalog lists 2121 varieties of flowers, the tulips dominate with 1163 varieties. He obtained his flowers from Holland and he undertook trips there in 1711,1723 and 1729
Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach
–
Margrave Karl III. Wilhelm of Baden-Durlach, 1710, by
Johann Rudolf Huber
Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach
–
Margrave Charles III William of Baden-Durlach from a painting by
Johann Rudolf Huber
Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach
–
Karlsruhe Palace
Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach
–
pyramid on the market square
39.
Karlsruhe Pyramid
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The Karlsruhe Pyramid is a pyramid made of red sandstone, located in the centre of the market square of Karlsruhe, Germany. It was erected in the years 1823–1825 over the vault of the citys founder, the pyramid is regarded as Karlsruhes second emblem, the citys absolutist layout in the shape of a folding fan being the first. The pyramids central location was occupied by the Lutheran Concord Church. When Karlsruhe grew at the beginning of the 19th century, the church became too small and obstructed the expansion of the city. It was demolished in 1807, and initially a wooden pyramid was erected over the city founders vault as a measure before moving it into the new main church. Due to lack of resources this plan could not be realised and it has a square footprint and an exterior height of 6.5 metres. The interior can be entered through a square opening, but is only accessible with consent of its former owners. It consists of a sequence of three chambers, the lowest of which is the original burial vault. The citys foundation stone is located inside the pyramid. The monument is an example of Egyptian Revival architecture, inspired by the function of Egyptian pyramids. The pyramid was not affected by the bombings in the Second World War. Pohl, Claudia, Kunst im Stadtraum – Skulpturenführer für Karlsruhe, Info Verlagsgesellschaft, pp. 49–51, imhotep today, Egyptianizing architecture, UCL Press, pp. 32f, ISBN 978-1-84472-006-4. Baden-Württemberg von A bis Z, P wie Pyramide & Pfahlbaumuseum, Schwarzwälder Bote,2006
Karlsruhe Pyramid
–
Karlsruhe Pyramid on the city's market square, Protestant City Church to the left, city hall to the right
Karlsruhe Pyramid
–
Karlsruhe in 1739; the city's former main church (south/bottom centre) was later replaced by the smaller pyramid
40.
Neoclassicism
–
The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art
Neoclassicism
–
Antonio Canova 's
Psyche Revived by Love's Kiss
Neoclassicism
–
Henry Fuseli, The artist moved to despair at the grandeur of antique fragments, 1778–79
Neoclassicism
–
Johann Joachim Winckelmann, often called "the father of archaeology"
Neoclassicism
–
Print of a drawing by
John Flaxman of a scene in
Homer 's
Iliad, 1795
41.
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
–
The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology is a public research university and one of the largest research and education institutions in Germany. KIT is one of the universities in the Engineering and Natural Sciences in Europe. KIT is a member of the TU9 German Institutes of Technology e. V, as part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative KIT was accredited with the excellence status in 2006. In the 2011 performance ranking of scientific papers, Karlsruhe ranked first in Germany and among the top ten universities in Europe in engineering, for the natural sciences KIT led the domestic comparison against the LMU Munich, the University of Heidelberg and the Technical University of Munich. Ranked 26th place in Computer Science in the Times Higher Education Ranking 2016, as of 2016,6 Nobel laureates are affiliated with KIT. The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology is well known for many inventors and entrepreneurs such as Karl Friedrich Benz or the founders of SAP, the University of Karlsruhe was founded as Polytechnische Schule, a polytechnical school, on 7 October 1825. It was modelled upon the École polytechnique in Paris, in 1865, Grand Duke Friedrich I of Baden raised the school to the status of a Hochschule, an institution of higher education. Since 1902 the university has also known as the Fridericiana in his honour. In 1885, it was declared a Technische Hochschule, or institute of technology, and in 1967 it became an Universität, a full university, which gave it the right to award regular doctorate degrees. It had hitherto only been allowed to award doctorates in engineering, identified as Dr. Ing, the University of Karlsruhe has been one of the leading German institutions in computer science. A central computer laboratory was founded in 1966, the department of informatics was established three years later, along with the first regular course in informatics. On 2 August 1984, the university received Germanys first email, the Institut für Meteorologie und Klimaforschung was founded at the university in 1985. The name was chosen in emulation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in February 2008, the merger of the university and the research centre to form KIT was agreed by the state of Baden-Württemberg and Germanys federal government. The necessary state law was passed on 8 July 2009, KIT was formally established on 1 October 2009. This aim was not achieved, while the University of Karlsruhe was chosen for the initiative in 2006/2007 and it did, however, attract funds from other sources. In 2008, Hans-Werner Hector, co-founder of SAP, raised 200 million euros to support researchers at the institute, since the winter semester of 2008/2009, KIT has completed the change from the Diplom system to a bachelor and master system. Students already enrolled for a degree when the transition began were allowed to finish their studies. All courses require a number of passed exams, called Orientierungsprüfung or orientation assessment
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
–
The Victoriapensionat I
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
–
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
–
Institute for Electric Engineering at KIT
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
–
In the background, the Karlsruhe Palace that belongs to the KIT campus
42.
Oceanic climate
–
Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 °C in the warmest month, and above 0 °C in the coldest month. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is evenly dispersed throughout the year. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and mild to cool winters, Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents. Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies, many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this, between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days. In most areas with a climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter, outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the climate zone, snowfall is more frequent. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature, summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the subpolar oceanic climate, with long and cold winters and cool. Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile, Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels, however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, in coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes, the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the adjacent to them. In summer, high pressure pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west-coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain, examples of oceanic climates are found in London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia-San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe
Oceanic climate
–
Seattle, a city with an oceanic climate
Oceanic climate
–
World map showing oceanic climate zones, as defined by the
Köppen climate types "Cfb", "Cfc", "Cwb" and "Cwc"
Oceanic climate
–
Curitiba, capital city of Brazilian
Paraná state features a subtropical highland climate
43.
Precipitation
–
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
Precipitation
–
A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation
Precipitation
–
Long-term mean precipitation by month
Precipitation
–
Late-summer
rainstorm in
Denmark
Precipitation
–
Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming
44.
Sunshine duration
–
It is a general indicator of cloudiness of a location, and thus differs from insolation, which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period. Sunshine duration is usually expressed in hours per year, or in hours per day, the first measure indicates the general sunniness of a location compared with other places, while the latter allows for comparison of sunshine in various seasons in the same location. Another often-used measure is percentage ratio of recorded bright sunshine duration, an important use of sunshine duration data is to characterize the climate of sites, especially of health resorts. This also takes account the psychological effect of strong solar light on human well-being. It is often used to promote tourist destinations, if the Sun were to be above the horizon 50% of the time for a standard year consisting of 8,760 hours, apparent maximal daytime duration would be 4,380 hours for any point on Earth. However, there are physical and astronomical effects that change that picture, namely, atmospheric refraction allows the Sun to be still visible even when it physically sets below the horizon. For that reason, average daytime is longest in polar areas, places on the Arctic Circle have the longest total annual daytime,4,647 hours, while the North Pole receives 4,575. Because of elliptic nature of the Earths orbit, the Southern Hemisphere is not symmetrical, the Equator has a total daytime of 4,422 hours per year. Given the theoretical maximum of daytime duration for a given location, bright sunshine hours represent the total hours when the sunlight is stronger than a specified threshold, as opposed to just visible hours. Visible sunshine, for example, occurs around sunrise and sunset, measurement is performed by instruments called sunshine recorders. For the specific purpose of sunshine duration recording, Campbell–Stokes recorders are used, when the intensity exceeds a pre-determined threshold, the tape burns. The total length of the trace is proportional to the number of bright hours. Another type of recorder is the Jordan sunshine recorder, newer, electronic recorders have more stable sensitivity than that of the paper tape. In 2003, the duration was finally defined as the period during which direct solar irradiance exceeds a threshold value of 120 W/m². The sky is clear in these regions, and fair weather is virtually perpetual, the descending branch of the Hadley cell and the long-term lack of atmospheric disturbances helps to explain the seemingly endless supply of sunny, cloud-free days in the deserts. Low clouding conditions are associated with rainfall shortage, as seen in these dry regions. In the belt encompassing northern Chad and the Tibesti Mountains, northern Sudan, southern Libya, some places in the interior of the Arabian Peninsula receive 3, 600–3,800 hours of bright sunshine annually. The largest sun-baked region in the world is North Africa, the sunniest month in the world is December in Eastern Antarctica, with almost 23 hours of bright sun daily
Sunshine duration
–
Campbell–Stokes recorder measures sunshine
listen); formerly Carlsruhe[citation needed]) is the second-largest city in the state of Baden-Württemberg, in southwest Germany, near the French-German border. It has a population of 307,755, the city is the seat of the two highest courts in Germany: the Federal Constitutional Court and the Federal Court of Justice. Its most remarkable building is Karlsruhe Palace, which was built in 1715.
Turkey
Italy
Yugoslavia
Romania
Poland
Syria
Soviet Union
France
Spain
China
Nottingham, England, United Kingdom[27][28]
Nancy, France[27]
Krasnodar, Russia[27]
Timișoara, Romania[27]
Halle, Germany[27]
Karlsruhe travel guide from Wikivoyage
